Franz-Karl Ehrhard & Petra Maurer (Hrsg.

NEPALICA-TIBETICA FESTGABE FOR CHRISTOPH CPPERS

BAND 1

2013 IITBS International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies GmbH

Franz-Karl Ehrhard & Petra Maurer (Hrsg.) NEPALICA-TIBETICA FESTGABE FOR CHRISTOPH CPPERS BAND 1

BEITRGE ZUR ZENTRALASIENFORSCHUNG

begrndet von R. O. Meisezahl und Dieter Schuh herausgegeben von Peter Schwieger Band 28, 1

NEPALICA-TIBETICA FESTGABE FOR CHRISTOPH CPPERS

BAND 1

Herausgegeben von Franz-Karl Ehrhard & Petra Maurer

2013 IITBS International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies GmbH

Abbildung Umschlag Band 1: Rolf A. Kluenter ALI-Ranjana, 1998 Blackened, handmade Nepalese paper Pigment, binder 120x120 cm Verso dated and signed by the artist

ISBN 978-3-03809-119-6 Alle Rechte vorbehalten. Ohne ausdrckliche Genehmigung des Verlages ist es nicht gestattet, das Buch oder Teile daraus fotomechanisch oder auf andere Weise zu vervielfltigen. (IITBS) International Institute for Tibetan and Buddhist Studies GmbH, Andiast

Courtesy!of!Cristina!Scherrer-Schaub

PREFACE!
! A! persons! 65th! birthday! is! often! considered! as! the! occasion! to! reflect! on! his! or! her! life! and! achievements!and!to!express!ones!thanks.!This!opportunity!has!arisen!this!year!in!the!case!of!our! friend! and! travelling! companion! Christoph! Cppers,! who! has! dedicated! his! life! to! Tibetan! and! Nepalese!Studies!and!assisted!and!supported!many!academic!projects!and!careers!in!these!fields.! ! ! Christoph! was! born! into! a! family! of! lawyers! from! the! Rhineland.! His! academic! background! is! unusual! as! he! began! by! studying! art! from! 1970! to! 1975! at! the! Staatliche! Kunstakademie! Dsseldorf.!He!trained!under!artists!such!as!Joseph!Beuys!and!Gotthard!Graubner.!It!was!during! that! time! that! he! first! travelled! to! Asia! and,! on! reaching! Southern! India,! encountered! Tibetan! culture! and! its! exile! communities.! On! his! return! to! Germany! the! decision! was! made:! he! changed! to! Oriental! Studies! and! started! to! learn! Tibetan,! Sanskrit,! Pali! and! Chinese! at! the! University! of! Hamburg.! At! an! Institute! where! the! study! of! Tibet! and! its! Buddhist! traditions! had! attracted! a! small! band! of! fellow! students,! his! teachers! were,! to! name! a! few,! dGe-bshes! dGe-dun! blo-gros,! Lambert!Schmithausen!and!Albrecht!Wezler.! ! Fascinated! by! Asia! he! returned! frequently! to! Southern! India! and! Himachal! Pradesh.! A! scholarship! of! the! Studienstiftung! des! Deutschen! Volkes! enabled! him! to! continue! his! practice! on! the! spot:! at! Sera! Monastery! in! Bylakuppe! he! studied! Tibetan! language! and! philosophy.! With! the! death! in! 1979! of! his! teacher! dGe-bshes! dGe-dun! blo-gros,! who! had! been! a! formative! influence!on!his!students,!it!was!planned!to!fill!the!recently!established!chair!in!Tibetan!Studies!at! the! University! of! Hamburg! with! a! native! scholar.! It! was! Christoph! who! facilitated! the! stay! of! dGe-bshes! Tshul-khrims! phun-tshogs! at! the! Institute,! helped! in! practical! matters! and! acted! as! translator.!! ! ! Soon! afterwards,! in! 1983,! Christoph! finished! his! dissertation,! a! textual! study! of! the! ninth! chapter! of! the! Sam!dhir!jas"tra.! Immediately! after! taking! his! degree! he! was! offered! by! Albrecht! Wezler! the! position! of! Deputy! Director! of! the! Nepal-German! Manuscript! Project! (NGMPP)! and! Nepal!Research! Centre! (NRC)! in! Kathmandu.!On!his! first!arrival! he! fell! in! love!with! the!country,! and!his!feelings!towards!Nepal!have!remained!constant!for!the!last!thirty!years.!! ! During! his! time! at! the! NGMPP! and! NRC,! of! which! he! later! became! Director,! he! worked! in! close! cooperation! with! the! National! Archives! and! the! Department! of! Archaeology,! collecting! Tibetan! manuscripts! and! block! prints! in! the! Kathmandu! valley,! and! conducting! expeditions! to! photograph! manuscripts! in! regions! of! the! Nepalese! Himalayas! such! as! Helambu,! Southern! Mustang,! Jumla! and! Solu! Khumbu.! Besides! his! duties! as! Director,! he! supported! many! individual! scholars!in!their!research!and!assisted!larger!projects!sponsored!by!the!German!Research!Council! such! as! the! Nepal! Research! Programme! under! Bernhard! Klver.! These! activities! continued! even! after! his! term! had! finished! and! after! the! establishment! under! Willibald! Haffner! and! Dieter! Schuh! of!a!new!programme!of!the!German!Research!Council!called!Tibet!Himalaya.! ! ! In! 1989!Christoph!returned!together!with! his!wife!Savitri! and!their!son!Bikas!to!his!hometown! of! Dsseldorf! in! order! to! work! on! a! project! at! the! University! of! Bonn.! His! interests! had! changed! to! politics! and! history:! the! new! project! was! concerned! with! state! formation! in! 17th-century! Tibet! and! was! based! on! a! critical! edition! and! annotated! translation! of! the! Guidelines! for! Government! officials!written!by!the!regent!Sangs-rgyas!rgya-mtsho.!! ! During! this! time! he! also! worked! on! the! edition! and! translation! of! a! manuscript! containing! a! Tibetan-Newari! Lexicon! and! on! a! compilation! of! Tibetan! proverbs! and! sayings.! He! also! undertook! a! longer! field! trip! in! 1992! to! Dharmsala,! where! he! studied! and! collected! Tibetan! documents,! and! in! 1994! he! assisted! the! Austrian-Italian! research! team! in! Tabo! in! the! region! of! Spiti.! ! ! ! !

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Preface

In! 1995,! with! the! establishment! by! the! Reiyukai! of! the! Lumbini! International! Research! Institute! (LIRI)! at! Buddhas! birthplace,! Christoph! and! Savitri! returned! to! Nepal.! Their! home! in! Sano! Thimi! has! served! since! thenlike! the! LIRIas! a! centre! for! scholarly! exchange! and! personal! encounters! between! foreign! researchers! and! native! scholars.! As! Director,! Christoph! has! initiated! several! series! of! publications! with! a! growing! number! of! titles;! they! are! for! the! most! part! results! of! research! projects! in! the! fields! of! Buddhist,! Tibetan! and! Nepalese! Studies,! supported! by! the!LIRI!and!conducted!on!the!spot.!Successful!seminars!have!also!been!held!in!Lumbini,!the!first! of! these! in! the! year! 2000! on! the! subject! of! the! Relationship! between! Religion! and! State! (chos srid zung brel)!in!Traditional!Tibet.! ! !Although! the! administrative! duties! are! heavy,! Christoph! continues! to! travel! and! to! cooperate! with! researchers,! working,! for! example,! with! the! International! Tibetan! Archives! Preservation! Trust! (ITAPT)! and! the! Tibetan! Autonomous! Regional! Archives! (TARA)! in! Lhasa,! and! finds! the! time!to!continue!his!research!work.! ! ! It! is! therefore! a! great! pleasure! to! present! to! Christoph! this! Festgabe! with! contributions! from! friends! and! colleagues! covering! the! fields! of! his! interest! and! documenting! his! influence! and! inspiration.! We! would! like! to! thank! Dieter! Schuh! und! Nikolai! Solmsdorf,! who! were! of! great! help! in! producing! this! volume! and! bringing! the! individual! articles! into! a! coherent! format.! Special! thanks! go! to! all! the! authors! for! delivering! their! articles! in! time! and! making! this! collection! a! true! offering.! ! ! Munich,!September!2013!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Franz-Karl!Ehrhard!&!Petra!Maurer!

TABULA!GRATULATORIA! !
! !! JOHN!ARDUSSI! ! EBERHARD!BERG! ! ROLAND!BIELMEIER! ! HORST!BRINKHAUS! ! KATIA!BUFFETRILLE! ! GUDRUN!BHNEMANN! ! VOLKER!CAUMANNS! ! MICHELA!CLEMENTE! ! OLAF!CZAJA! ! HUBERT!DECLEER! ! HILDEGARD!DIEMBERGER! ! BRANDON!DOTSON! ! FRANZ-KARL!EHRHARD! ! HELMUT!EIMER! ! FELIX!ERB! ! FRANZ!XAVER!ERHARD! ! MARTIN!GAENSZLE! ! REINHARD!GREVE! ! NIELS!GUTSCHOW! ! MICHAEL!HAHN! ! PAUL!HARRISON! ! JENS-UWE!HARTMANN! ! ! ! JRG!HEIMBEL! ! AMY!HELLER! ! NATHAN!HILL! ! TONI!HUBER! ! ROLF!A.!KLUENTER! ! ANDREAS!KRETSCHMAR! ! DAVID!P.!JACKSON! ! MATHEW!KAPSTEIN! ! LEONARD!VAN!DER!KUIJP! ! CHRISTIAN!LUCZANITZ! ! KAMAL!PRAKASH!MALLA! ! DAN!MARTIN! ! KLAUS-DIETER!MATHES! ! PETRA!MAURER! ! ADELHEID!METTE! ! AXEL!MICHAELS! ! MICHAEL!PAHLKE! ! ULRICH!PAGEL! ! FRANCOISE!POMMARET! ! KARIN!PREISENDANZ! ! BURKHARD!QUESSEL! ! CHARLES!RAMBLE! ! ! ! ALEXANDER!VON! ROSPATT! ! CRISTINA!SCHERRERSCHAUB! ! LAMBERT!SCHMITHAUSEN! ! DIETER!SCHUH! ! MARTA!SERNESI! ! PETER!SCHWIEGER! ! DAVID!SEYFORT!RUEGG! ! WEIRONG!SHEN! ! PETER!SKILLING! ! PER!K.!SRENSEN! ! ERNST!STEINKELLNER! ! KIMIAKI!TANAKA! ! TASHI!Y.!TASHIGANGPA! ! MANFRED!TREU! ! HELGA!UEBACH! ! ROBERTO!VITALI! ! MICHAEL!WALTER! ! ALBRECHT!WEZLER! ! MICHAEL!WITZEL! ! ALEXANDER!WUNDER! ! KODO!YOTSUYA

! ! !

CONTENTS! !
Volume!One! ! ! Publication!List!of!Christoph!Cppers!! ! EBERHARD!BERG!! ! On! the! Current! Revitalization! of! the! rNying! ma! Tradition! among! the! Sherpas! of! Nepal! ! ROLAND!BIELMEIER!! ! Das!Land!Marutse!in!den!Biographien!des!Padmasambhava! ! KATIA!BUFFETRILLE!! ! The!rTsib!ri!Pilgrimage:!Merit!as!Collective!Duty?! ! VOLKER!CAUMANNS!! ! Pa"!chen!Sh#kya!mchog!ldans!Monastic!Seat!Thub!bstan!gSer!mdog!can!(Part!I):! The!History!of!its!Foundation! ! OLAF!CZAJA!! ! Tibetan!Medicinal!Plants!and!Their!Healing!Potentials! ! HILDEGARD!DIEMBERGER!&!MICHELA!CLEMENTE! ! Royal! Kinship,! Patronage! and! the! Introduction! of! Printing! in! Gung! thang:! From! Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!to!lHa!btsun!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal! ! FRANZ-KARL!EHRHARD!! ! The!Royal!Print!of!the!Ma#i bka' 'bum:!Its!Catalogue!and!Colophon! ! KARL-HEINZ!EVERDING! ! Introduction!to!a!Research!Project!on!Documents!Issued!During!the!Period!of!the! Great!Mongolian!Empire!to!Tibetan!Recipients! ! JRG!HEIMBEL! ! The! Jo! gdan! tshogs! sde! bzhi:! An! Investigation! into! the! History! of! the! Four! Monastic!Communities!in!$#kya%r&bhadras!Vinaya!Tradition! ! AMY!HELLER! ! A! Sculpture! of! Avalokite%vara! Donated! by! the! Ruler! of! Ya! tse! (Ya! rtse! mnga! bdag)! ! NATHAN!W.!HILL! ! The! Emergence! of! the! Pluralis majestatis! and! the! Relative! Chronology! of! Old! Tibetan!Texts! ! TONI!HUBER! ! The! Iconography! of! gShen Priests! in! the! Ethnographic! Context! of! the! Extended! Eastern!Himalayas,!and!Reflections!on!the!Development!of!Bon!Religion!! ! DAVID!P.!JACKSON!! ! Several!Episodes!in!the!Recent!History!of!Lumbini! xiii! ! ! 1! ! 27! ! 37! ! ! 65! ! 89! ! ! 119! ! 143! ! ! 173! ! ! 187! ! ! 243! ! ! 249! ! ! 263! ! 295!

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Contents ! ! 315! ! ! 325!

MATTHEW!T.!KAPSTEIN! ! A! Fragment! from! a! Previously! Unknown! Edition! of! the! Pram!#av!rttika! Commentary!of!Rgyal-tshab-rje!Dar-ma-rin-chen!(1364-1432)! ! LEONARD!W.J.!VAN!DER!KUIJP!! ! Gu! ge! Pa"! chen! Grags! pa! rgyal! mtshan! dpal! bzang! po! (1415-86)! on! the! Nyi ma'i rabs (*S"ryava$%a)!and!the!Tibetan!Royal!Families! !

PUBLICATION!LIST!OF!CHRISTOPH!CPPERS! ! !
Monographs! ! 1.!The IXth Chapter of the Sam!dhir!jas"tra: A Text-critical Study of Mah!y!na S"tras!(=!Alt-! und!Neu-Indische!Studien,!41).!Stuttgart:!Franz!Steiner,!1990.! ! 2.! (together! with! K.! Tamot! und! P.! Pierce)!A Tibetan-Newari Lexicon Cum Phrase Book!(=! Nepalica,!10).!Bonn:!VGH!Wissenschaftsverlag,!1996.! ! 3.! (together! with! P.K.! Srensen)!Collection of Tibetan Proverbs and Sayings: Gems of Tibetan Wisdom and Wit (=!Tibetan!and!Indo-Tibetan!Studies,!7).!Stuttgart:!Franz!Steiner,!1998.! ! 4.! Die Verordnungen fr das Abrechnungswesen tibetischer Amtsstellen der dGa ldan pho brang-Regierung. Faksimile-Edition und Transliteration der Hs. Cod. Tibet 24 der Bayerischen Staatsbibliothek! (=! Monumenta! Tibetica! Historica).Andrast:! International! Instiute!for!Tibetan!and!Buddhist!Studies!GmbH!(in!press!a).! ! 5.!Staatsdienst in Tibet: Die Richtlinien fr die Beamten der dGa ldan pho brang-Regierung nach dem Text Blang dor gsal bar ston pai drang thig dvangs shel gyi me long nyer gcig pa des Regenten Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho!(=! Monumenta! Tibetica! Historica).! Andiast:! International!Institute!for!Tibetan!and!Buddhist!Studies!GmbH!(in!press!b).! ! 6.! Materialien zur Erforschung des traditionellen tibetischen Rechts. Faksimile und Transliteration der HS. Bell 50.31.113 b: The Tibetan Codes of Law! (=! Monumenta! Tibetica!Historica).!Andiast:!International!Institute!for!Tibetan!and!Buddhist!Studies!GmbH! (in!press!c).! ! ! Articles! ! 1.! On! the! Manufacture! of! Ink.! Ancient Nepal. Journal of the Department of Archaeology,! 113,!1989,!pp.!1-7.! ! 2.! Some! Remarks! on! a! Tibetan-Newari! Lexicon! cum! Phrase-Book.! In! S.! Ihara! &! Z.! Yamaguchi! (eds.),! Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the 5th Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies. Narita 1989,!Vol. 1!(=!Monograph!Series!of!Narita!Institute! for!Buddhist!Studies,!Occasional!Papers,!1).!Narita:!Narita!Shinshoji,!1992,!pp.!413-419.! ! 3.! Zhabs-dkar! bla-ma! tshogs-drug! rang-grols! visits! to! Nepal! and! his! Contribution! to! the! Decoration! of! the! Bodhn#th! St'pa.! In!G.! Toffin! (ed.),!Nepal. Past and Present: Proceedings of the Franco-German Conference, Arc-et-Senans, June 1990.! Paris:! CNRS! /! Dehli:!Sterling,!1993,!pp.!151-158.! !! 4.!Short!Remarks!on!the!Caves!of!Tabo!in!Spiti.!Ancient Nepal. Journal of the Department of Archaeology,!138,!1995,!pp.!131-134.! ! 5.! A! Ban! on! Animal! Slaughter! at! Buddhist! Shrines! in! Nepal.! In! S.! Karmay! and! P.! Sagant! (eds.),!Les Habitants du toit du Monde. tudes recueillies en hommage Alexander W. Macdonald!(=! Recherches! sur! la! Haute-Asie,! 12).! Nanterre:! Socit! dEthnologie,! 1997,! pp.!677-687.! !

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Publication!List!of!Christoph!Cppers

6.! Some! Aspects! of! Tibetan! Administration! under! the! dGa-ldan! pho-brang! Government.! H.! Krasser,!M.T.!Much,!E.!Steinkellner!and!H.!Tauscher!(eds.),!Tibetan Studies I: Proceedings of the 7th Seminar of the International Asociatin for Tibetan Studies, Graz 1995, Vol. 1 (=! sterreichische! Akademie! der! Wissenschaften,! Phil.-Hist.! Klasse! Denkschriften! 256! /! Beitrge!zur!Kultur-!und!Geistesgeschichte!Asiens,!21).!Wien:!Verlag!der!sterreichischen! Akademie!der!Wissenschaften,!1997,!pp.!189-193.! ! 7.! The! Phags-pa! Script.! In! A.! Kretschmar! (ed.),! The Fifth Seal: Calligraphic Icons / Kalligraphikons. Paintings by Rolf A. Kluenther.!Kathmandu!1998,!pp.!49-50.! ! 8.! Eine! Merkliste! mit! den! Aufgaben! der! Distriktbeauftragten! (rdzong! dpon)! aus! dem! 17.! Jahrhundert.! In! H.! Eimer,! M.! Hahn,! M.! Schetelich! &! P.! Wyzlic! (eds.),!Studia Tibetica et Mongolica: Festschrift fr Manfred Taube!(=! Indica! et! Tibetica,! 34).! Swisttal-Odendorf:! Indica!et!Tibetica,!1999,!pp.!51-70.!! ! 9.! A! Letter! Written! by! the! Fifth! Dalai! Lama! to! the! King! of! Bhaktapur.! Journal of the Nepal Research Centre,!12,!2001,!pp.!39-42.! ! 10.! Some! Remarks! on! the! Tibetan! Language! used! in! Former! Government!Decrees.! In! Srong btsan spyii tshogs dus thengs dang po / bod kyi brda sprod skad yig gi skor.! Dehradun:! Songtsen!Library,!2003,!pp.!222-229.! ! 11.! Ein! Glossar! zur! Terminologie! der! tibetischen! Urkundensprache.! Zentralasiatische Studien,!33,!2004,!pp.!25-98.! ! 12.! Newar! Craftsmen! Employed! by! the! Early! dGa-ldan! pho-brang! Rulers.! In! C.! Jest,! T.R.! Kansakar! and! M.! Turin! (eds.),!Kesar Lall: a Homage on the Occasion of his Buraa Kanko.! Kathmandu:!Marina!Paper,!2004,!pp.!30-33.! ! 13.! Brag-dkar-ba! Chos-kyi! dbang-phyugs! reminder! notes! for! the! duties! of! a! dkon-gnyer.! In! S.!Hino!and!T.!Wada!(eds.),!Three Mountains and Seven Rivers: Prof. Musashi Tachikawas felicitation volume.!Delhi:!Motilal!Banarsidass,!2004,!pp.!601-606.! ! 14.! The! classification! of! people:! romanized! text! edition! and! English! translation! of! the!sKyes bu rnam byed bshad pa gzhon nui mgul rgyan!attributed! to! Sa-skya! Pa"(ita! Kun-dga! rgyal-mtshan.!Journal of the International College for Advanced Buddhist Studies,!7,!2004,! pp.!107-160.! ! 15.!(together!with!Dieter!Schuh,!Roland!Bielmeier!und!Burghart!Schmidt)!Forschungsbericht! ber! die! Exploration! der! Hhlen! des! Muktinath-Tales! (1986-1987).! Zentralasiatische Studien,!35,!2006,!pp.!107-172.! ! 16.!bsTan!dzin!Chos!rgyals!Bhutan!Legal!Code!of!1729!in!Comparison!with!sDe!srid!Sangs! rgyas!rgya!mtshos!Guidelines!for!Government!Officials.!In!J.A.!Ardussi!and!F.!Pommaret! (eds.),!Bhutan: Tradition and Changes (=! Brills! Tibetan! Studies! Library,! 10/5).! Leiden/Boston:!Brill,!2007,!45-52.! ! 17.! Registers! and! Account! Books! of! the! dGa-ldan! pho-brang! Government.! In! R.! Prats! (ed.),!The Pandita and the Siddha: Tibetan Studies in Honour of E. Gene Smith.! Dharamsala:!Amnye!Machen!Institute,!2007,!pp.!12-15.! ! 18.! Die! Reise-! und! Zeltlagerordnung! des! Fnften! Dalai! Lama.! In! B.! Kellner,! H.! Krasser,! H.! Lasic,! W.T.! Much! and! H.! Tauscher! (eds.),! Pram!#k&rti': Papers Dedicated to Ernst Steinkellner on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, Part!1!(=!Wiener!Studien!zur!Tibetologie!

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xv

und!Buddhismuskunde,!70.1).!Wien:!Arbeitskreis!fr!Tibetische!und!Buddhistische!Studien! der!Universitt!Wien,!2007,!pp.!37-51.! ! 19.! (together! with! Franz-Karl! Ehrhard)! Die! Kupferplatten! der! Knige! )dityamalla! und! Pu"yamalla! von! Ya-tshe.! In! P.! Maurer! und! P.! Schwieger! (eds.),!Tibetstudien: Festschrift fr Dieter Schuh zum 65. Geburtstag.!Bonn:!Biersche!Verlagsanstalt,!2007,!pp.!37-42.! ! 20.! Some! Remarks! on! the! Entries! and! Quotations! Taken! from! the!rtsis gzhi phyogs bsgrigs!(Rtsii)! in! S.C.! Das! Tibetan-English! Dictionary.! In! B.! Huber,! M.! Volkart! and! P.! Widmer! (eds.),!Chomolangma, Demawend and Kasbek: Festschrift fr Roland Bielmeier zu seinem 65. Geburtstag, Vol. 1: Chomolangma(=! Beitrge! zur! Zentralasienforschung,! 12.1).! Halle:!International!Institute!for!Tibetan!and!Buddhist!Studies!GmbH,!2008,!pp.!15-28.! ! 21.! Some! Remarks! on!Bka gyur!Production! in! 17th-Century! Tibet.! In! A.! Chayet,! C.! Scherrer-Schaub,! F.! Robin! &! J.-L.! Achard! (eds.),!Edition, ditions: lcrit au Tibet, volution et devenir (=! Collectanea! Himalayica,! 3).! Mnchen:! Indus! Verlag,! 2010,! pp.! 115128.! ! 22.! Ein! Erla*! des! Knigs! Gushri! Khan! aus! dem! Jahr! 1643.! Zentralasiatische Studien,! 40,! 2011,!pp.!165-177.! ! 23.! Gtsang! khrims! yig! chen! mo! ! A! Tibetan! legal! code! kept! in! the! National! Archives! of! Nepal.!Abhilekh,!30,!V.S.!2069!(2013),!pp.!87-106.! ! ! Edited!Volumes! ! 1.! (together! with! Franz-Karl! Ehrhard! and! Philip! Pierce)!Views of the Bodhnath Stupa (=! Bauddha!Books,!1).!Kathmandu:!Vajra!Publications,!1991.! ! 2.! (together! with! Franz-Karl! Ehrhard! and! Ulrike! Roesler)! Ulrike! &! Hans-Ulrich! Roesler:!Kadampa Sites of Phenpo: A Guide to some early Buddhist Monasteries in Central Tibet!(=!Bauddha!Books,!2).!Kathmandu:!Vajra!Publications,!2004.! ! 3.!The Relationship Between Religion and State (chos srid zung brel) in Traditional Tibe: Proceedings of a Seminar Held in Lumbini, Nepal, March 2000!(=! LIRI! Seminar! Proceedings!Series,!1).!Lumbini:!Lumbini!International!Research!Institute,!2004.! ! 4.! (together! with! Max! Deeg! and! Hubert! Durt)!The Birth of the Buddha: Proceedings of the Seminar Held in Lumbini, Nepal, October 2004!(=! LIRI! Seminar! Proceeding! Series,! 3).! Lumbini:!Lumbini!International!Research!Institute,!2010.! ! 5.! (together! with! Leonard! van! der! Kuijp,! Ulrich! Pagel.! With! a! Chinese! Introduction! by! Dobis! Tsering!Gyal)!Handbook of Tibetan Iconometry. A Guide to the Arts of the 17th Century!(=!! Tibetan!Studies!Library,!16:4).!Leiden!/!Boston,!2012.! ! ! Reviews! ! 1.! Tachikawa,! Musashi! &! Yasuhiko! Nagano:! A Catalogue of te United Staes Library of Congress Collection of Tibetan Literature on Microfiche. Part II! (=! Bibliographica! Buddhica,! Series! Maior,! 3! b).! Tokyo:! The! International! Institute! for! Buddhist! Studies,! 1988.! Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlndischen Gesellschaft,! 142,! 1992,! pp.! 208-210. !

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Publication!List!of!Christoph!Cppers

2.! Ehrhard,! Franz-Karl:! Flgelschlge des Garu(a. Literar- und ideengeschichtliche Bemerkungen zu einer Liedersammlung des rDzogs-chen!(=! Tibetan-! and! Indo-Tibetan! Studies,! 3).! Stuttgart:! Franz! Steiner,! 1990.!Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlndischen Gesellschaft,!145,!1995,!pp.!450-452.! ! 3.! Eimer,! Helmut:! Der Tantra-Katalog des Bu-ston im Vergleich mit der Abteilung Tantra des tibetischen Kanjur! (=! Indica! et! Tibetica,! 17).! Bonn:! Indica! et! Tibetica,! 1989.! Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlndischen Gesellschaft,!145,!1995,!pp.!201-202.! ! 4.! Harrison,! Paul:! The Sam!dhi of Direct Encounter with the Buddhas of the Present (=! Studia! Philologica! Buddhica,! Monograph! Series,! 9).! Tokyo:! The! International! Institute! for! Buddhist! Studies,! 1990.! Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlndischen Gesellschaft,! 145,! 1995,!pp.!199-201.! ! ! Lexicographical!Contributions! ! 1.! Religionen! des! Himalaya.! In! Bertelsmann Handbuch Religionen der Welt: Grundlagen, Entwicklung und Bedeutung in der Gegenwart.! Gtersloh! /! Mnchen:! Bertelsmann! Lexikon! Verlag!GmbH,!1992,!pp.!419-421.! ! 2.!http://www.tibet-encyclopaedia.de/kompensationsrecht.html! ! 3.!http://www.tibet-encyclopedia.de/gesetzbuecher.html! ! 4.!http://www.tibet-encyclopedia.de/regierungsverordnung.html!! ! !

CONTENTS! !
Volume!Two! ! ! CHRISTIAN!LUCZANITS! The!Buddha!Beyond:!Figuration!in!Gandharan!Cult!Imagery!! ! DAN!MARTIN! ! Pavements! Like! the! Sea! and! the! Name! of! the! Jokhang:! King! Solomon! and! the! Queen!of!Sheba!in!Lhasa?! ! KLAUS-DIETER!MATHES!! ! Clouds!of!Offerings!to!Lady!g.Yang!riA!Protector!Practice!by!the!First!Yol!mo! sprul!sku!Sh"kya!bzang!po!(15th/16th!Cent.)! ! PETRA!MAURER! ! Pferderennen!und!ihre!Bedeutung!in!Tibet! ! CHARLES!RAMBLE! ! Both! Fish! and! Fowl?! Preliminary! Reflections! on! Some! Representations! of! a! Tibetan!Mirror-World!! ! ALEXANDER!VON!ROSPATT!! ! Altering!the!Immutable:!Textual!Evidence!in!Support!of!an!Architectural!History! of!the!Svayambh#!Caitya!of!Kathmandu!! ! CRISTINA!SCHERRER-SCHAUB!! ! A! Frontier! Tale:! Fragmented! Historical! Notes! on! Spiti! Monasteries! Documents! Kept!in!the!Museum!of!Lahore.!Part!I.! ! DIETER!SCHUH!! ! Tibetischen! Inschriften! ins! Maul! geschaut:! Beobachtungen! zu! Stein-! und! Felsinschriften!sowie!den!Schriften!des!7.!bis!9.!Jahrhunderts!in!Tibet! ! PETER!SCHWIEGER! ! A!Forbidden!Nepalese-Tibetan!Love!Affair! ! MARTA!SERNESI! ! Rare!Prints!of!bKa!brgyud!Texts:!A!Preliminary!Report! ! WEIRONG!SHEN!! ! Revitalizing!Sino-Tibetan!Buddhist!Studies:!Some!Old!and!New!Thoughts! ! PETER!SKILLING! ! The!Sam!dhir!ja-S"tra!and!its!Mah"s"$ghika!Connections! ! PER!K.!SRENSEN!&!FRANZ!XAVER!ERHARD! ! Tibetan!Proverbial!Literature:!Semantics!and!Metaphoricity!in!Context!! ! MANFRED!G.!TREU!! ! Lak%m&pras"da!Devako'"s!Essay!"Auf!der!Sitzmatte"! ! ! 1! ! ! 23! ! ! 37! ! 57! ! ! 75! ! ! 91! ! ! 117! ! ! 143! ! 185! ! 191! ! 211! ! 227! ! 237! ! 253!

vi

Contents! HELGA!UEBACH!! ! The! lHo-brag! Cliff! Inscription:! An! Attempt! to! Read! it! with! the! Help! of! Katia! Buffetrilles!Photographs!of!1988! ! ROBERTO!VITALI! ! From! Sum! ru! to! the! Great! Central! Asian! Sea! of! Sand:! Hints! on! the! Role! of! the! mThong!khyab!in!the!State!Organisation!of!Dynastic!Tibet! ! MICHAEL!WALTER! ! All! that! Glitters! Is! Gold:! The! Place! of! the! Yellow! Metal! in! the! Brahmanic,! Scythian,!and!Early!Buddhist!Traditions! ! ZUHI(!YAMAGUCHI! ! The! Connection! Between! Tu-fan! ()! in! the! First! Half! of! the! Seventh! Century! and!Nepal! ! KODO!YOTSUYA! ! dGe! lugs! pa! Interpretation! of! Bh"vavivekas! Critique! of! Buddhap"litas! Argumentation!of!Non-Origination!from!Self! ! ! ! 261! ! ! 269! ! ! 283! ! ! 299! ! ! 323!

ROYAL!KINSHIP,!PATRONAGE!AND!THE!INTRODUCTION!OF!PRINTING!IN!GUNG! THANG:!FROM!CHOS!KYI!SGRON!MA!TO!LHA!BTSUN!RIN!CHEN!RNAM!RGYAL! !
Hildegard!Diemberger!&!Michela!Clemente! ! Introduction! This! article! was! prompted! by! a! conversation! about! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! (14221455/6)! and! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! (14731557)! in! which! the! authors! compared! their! experiences! of! working! on! their! biographies! and! discussed! the! network! of! kinship! relations! that! connected! them! as! members! of! the! same! royal! family.! By! comparing! their! life! stories,! it! became! clear! that! they! had!a!lot!in!common,!starting!from!their!relationship!to!the!royal!family!of!Mang!yul!Gung!thang.! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma1! was! the! daughter! of! King! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshan! (14041464)! and! one! of! the! sisters! or! half-sisters! of! King! rNam! rgyal! lde! (1426-/71502),2! who! succeeded! his! father! as! the! 18th! Gung! thang! ruler.! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! father! was! probably! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang,! one! of! King! rNam! rgyal! ldes! sons.3! Both! figures! were! excluded! from! the! list! of! successors!to!the!throne.!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma,!as!a!woman,!was!forced!to!marry!the!son!of!the!ruler! of! La! stod! lHo! in! order! to! make! an! alliance! with! this! neighboring! polity! and! eventually! became! a! nun,! whereas! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! became! a! monk! as! a! young! boy.! Despite! their! exclusion! from! the! throne,! both! had! prominent! roles! in! society! and! shaped! the! religious! history! of! their! country.! They! not! only! became! highly! influential! religious! masters,! but! also! acted! as! dharmar!jas,! promoting! the! spread! of! Buddhas! teachings! as! Buddhist! kings! used! to! do.! Eventually,! they! were! able!to!reach!their!spiritual!aspirations,!by!overcoming!many!obstacles!including!those!created!by! their!own!family.! This! article! will! briefly! present! the! common! aspects! of! their! lives! and! show! how! their! position! was! highly! instrumental! in! the! realisation! of! these! aspirations! which! were! wideranging! and! included! promoting! the! Dharma! through! printing.! Born! some! fifty! years! apart,! they! experienced! and!contributed!to!the!spread!of!printing!in!Central!Tibet!relying!on!their!royal!status!and!kinship! and!their!spiritual!networks!of!patronage!that!reached!far!beyond!the!lites!of!their!time.! ! Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!and!Her!Relationship!with!the!Royal!Family!of!Mang!yul!Gung!thang! The! life! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! is! narrated! in! a! biography! probably! written! by! one! of! her! followers.4! She! was! the! eldest! daughter! of! Khri! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshan,! a! descendant! of! the! ancient! Tibetan! royal! house,! who! ruled! over! an! area! known! as! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! or! mNga! ris! smad! (Lower! Ngari).! Over! the! centuries,! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! had! developed! into! an! important!gateway!between!the!north!and!the!south!of!the!Himalayas,!traversed!by!the!main!route! between!Tibet!and!Nepal,!which!passed!through!the!sKyid!grong!valley!and!led!to!Kathmandu.!In! the! thirteenth! century,! under! Sa! skya! rule,! the! kingdom! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! was! founded! by! Bum! lde! mgon! (12531280),5! who,! like! the! kings! who! had! founded! Gu! ge! and! sPu! rang! in! western! Tibet! some! two! hundred! years! earlier,6! was! a! descendant! of! the! ancient! Tibetan! royal! house.! The! name! mNga! ris! smad! or! Lower! Ngari,! which! is! used! in! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! biography,! relates! this! polity! closely! to! the! western! Tibetan! kingdoms,! emphasizing! their! shared! ancestral!links!and!ancient!royal!connections.!Despite!this!celebrated!genealogical!connection,!the! kingdom! was! more! closely! associated! with! central! Tibetan! politics.! Under! the! Sa! skya! rule! and! for! some! time! afterward,! it! became! part! of! a! complex! network! of! local! political! domains! that! included! Sa! skya,! northern! and! southern! La! stod,! and! various! nomadic! groups.! The! relationships! among! these! powers! alternated! between! collaboration! and! hostility! with! marriage! alliances! and! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1 2

!On!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma,!see!Diemberger!2007;!Diemberger!2009.! !For!Khri!rNam!rgyal!ldes!birth!date,!see!Diemberger!2007:!53,!121-22,!326.!! 3 ! On! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal,! see! Clemente! 2009;! Clemente! (in! press);! Clemente! (forthcoming! a).! On!his!family!relationship,!see!Clemente!(in!press).! 4 !See!Diemberger!2007:!77-83.! 5 !See!Everding!2000:!391.! 6 !See!Petech!1988:!369-94.!

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religious!patronage!playing!an!important!part!as!integrating!factors!(this!continued!until!the!Gung! thang! kingdom! was! destroyed! in! 1620! by! the! King! of! gTsang).! An! eighteenth-century! source,! the! Royal! Genealogy! of! Gung! thang! (Gung thang rgyal rabs),! casts! some! light! on! the! situation! of! the!Mang!yul!Gung!thang!kingdom!at!the!time!of!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma.!The!collapse!of!the!Sa!skya! rule! had! left! the! kingdom! somewhat! independent! but! also! at! greater! risk! of! involvement! in! local! conflicts.! Partly! building! on! the! Sa! skya! legacy,! the! region! had! experienced! a! period! of! relative! prosperity! through! enhanced! communications,! an! increase! in! cultivated! areas,! and! promotion! of! trade.! The! new! capital,! rDzong! dkar/kha,! a! fortified! citadel! at! the! centre! of! a! large! fertile! area,! had! become! important! within! the! network! of! trans-Himalayan! trading! routes.! Like! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs,! the! biography! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! highlights! this! prosperity.! It! mentions! goods! such! as! silk! and! tea! that! came! through! long-distance! trade! with! China! as! well! as! other! goods!and!tools!that!came!from!trade!with!Nepal.! Despite! the! general! affluence,! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! father,! Khri! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshan,! had! ascended! the! throne! as! the! 17th! king! of! Gung! thang! at! a! difficult! time.! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! was! torn! by! succession! disputes,! the! murder! of! some! of! its! kings,! divided! loyalties! between! Sa! skya! and! other! allegiances,! and! some! local! aspirations! toward! independence! that! had! emerged! in! the! Phag! mo! gru! pa! period.7! In! addition,! the! two! sons! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! grandfather! Khri! rgyal! bSod! nams! lde! (13711404)! by! his! wife! Gu! ge! ma! Chos! skyong! rgyal! mo! had! died! prematurely,! leaving! him! without! a! legitimate! heir.! However,! just! before! his! own! death! at! the! age! of! thirtythree,! he! had! an! affair! with! a! woman! called! Jam! dbyangs! who! became! pregnant.! Her! son! was! later!enthroned!as!Khri!lHa!dbang!rgyal!mtshan!and!became!Chos!kyi!sgron!mas!father.!After!the! death! of! the! king,! his! widow! ruled! as! a! regent! for! several! years.! Since! the! young! Khri! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshan! was! the! only! heir! apparent,! fearing! intrigues! and! hostilities,! his! mother! took! him! to! her!homeland,!Nub!ris,!an!area!only!loosely!integrated!into!the!kingdom.!She!became!a!nun!at!her! uncles! monastery,! Nub! ris! lha! mdun,! which! followed! the! Sa! skya! tradition.! When! she! was! ordained,!she!was!given!the!name!Byang!sems!sangs!rgyas!dbang!mo.!She!is!mentioned!as!Byang! sems! in! the! biography! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma:! she! is! the! grandmother! described! as! having! supported!the!1452!reproduction!of!the!collected!works!of!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyal!(1376 1451)! initiated! by! her! granddaughter8! and! as! having! lamented! her! departure! for! the! east! a! few! months! later.9! From! 1404! to! 1418! Jam! dbyangs/Byang! sems! and! her! son! lived! in! Nub! ris,! sheltered! by! the! monastery! and! by! the! relative! distance! from! Gung! thang! proper.! Under! the! regency! of! the! widowed! queen,! there! were! no! major! crises! in! the! kingdom! even! though! it! lost! control!over!part!of!its!territory.!At!the!age!of!fifteen,!Khri!lHa!dbang!rgyal!mtshan!was!invited!to! the! capital! of! Gung! thang! as! the! legitimate! successor! to! the! throne;! he! was! crowned! there! in! 1418/19.! This! could! not! have! happened! without! substantial! support! from! within! the! kingdom,! including! the! regent! (who! we! presume! was! still! alive),! and! it! is! likely! that! his! being! seen! as! descended! from! the! imperial! line! was! decisive.! He! remained! however! in! vulnerable! position,! highly!dependent!on!the!support!of!royal!kin!and!ministers.!! Shortly! after! his! enthronement! Khri! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshan! married! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! mother,! mDo! sde! rgyal! mo.! This! woman! might! have! been! close! to! the! former! regent,! the! wife! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! grandfather:! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! is! said! to! have! expressed! as! a! child! very! positive! views! about! Gu! ge,! the! homeland! of! the! regent! and! this! is! likely! to! reflect! the! dominant! attitude! in! her! household.! Perhaps! Khri! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshans! marriage! was! a! strategic! move! to! help! him! secure! his! own! claim! to! the! throne! as! this! could! have! been! disputed! by! rival! factions! given! the! informal! relationship! between! his! father! and! his! mother.! The! delicate! question! of! succession! had! troubled! the! kingdom! since! the! untimely! death! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! grandfather!and!the!regency!of!his!widow.!! Tensions! surrounding! Gung! thang! governance! and! claim! to! the! throne! remained! a! recurring! factor! during! Khri! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshans! life.! According! to! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs! (f.! 125),!Khri!rNam!rgyal!lde,!the!brother!of!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma,!seems!to!have!been!enthroned!when! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7 8

!See!Vitali!1997:!1029.! !Cf.!CGMNT:!f.!95a.! 9 !Cf.!CGMNT:!f.!107b.!

The!Introduction!of!Printing!in!Gung!thang!

121!

he!was!fifteen,!although!this!is!not!directly!confirmed!in!his!sisters!biography.!Apparently!power! shifted! back! and! forth! between! father! and! son! several! times;! their! relationship! was! difficult! and! probably! reflected! different! supporting! factions! within! the! kingdom.! The! biography! of! bTsun! pa! Chos! legs! (14371521),! a! spiritual! master! from! Gung! thang! who! was! a! few! years! younger! than! Chos!kyi!sgron!ma,!describes!how!Khri!rNam!rgyal!lde!became!blind!in!1461!as!a!consequence!of! the! conflict! with! his! father.10! This! may! have! been! due! to! an! actual! punishment! inflicted! by! the! king! after! he! discovered! a! conspiracy,! as! suggested! by! Everding! (2002:! 537),! but! it! is! also! possible! that! his! blindness! was! seen! as! karmic! retribution! for! his! wrongdoing,! a! metaphorical! punishment.! In! any! case,! the! conflicts! were! certainly! serious! and! had! an! important! bearing! on! Chos!kyi!sgron!mas!life,!as!she!often!had!to!mediate!between!her!father!and!her!brother!and!their! relevant!supporters.! Before! exercising! her! mediating! influence! as! a! spiritual! leader,! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! fulfilled! a! parallel! task! as! royal! bride.! After! the! birth! of! her! brother,! it! became! clear! that! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas!duty!was!that!of!playing!her!part!within!the!delicate!system!of!marriage!alliances!that!helped! to!keep!peace!among!the!various!polities.!During!the!regency!and!the!reign!of!her!father,!Khri!lHa! dbang!rgyal!mtshan,!the!kingdom!of!Gung!thang!lost!control!over!many!peripheral!areas,!and!this! affected! its! revenues! from! trade! levies.11! In! order! to! compensate! for! the! territorial! losses! and! the! vacuum! left! by! the! end! of! Sa! skya! overlordship! in! terms! of! mediation! of! local! conflicts,! the! kingdom! had! to! rely! more! on! a! system! of! marriage! alliances! with! the! other! regional! rulers including!those!of!areas!like!Mustang!that!formerly!had!been!under!its!control.!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma! became!part!of!one!of!these!marriage!alliances.!It!is!not!certain!whether!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!could! have! been! considered! as! a! potential! heir! to! the! throne! until! the! birth! of! her! brother.! There! are! remarkable!precedents!of!female!governance!in!Gung!thang!history,!from!lHa!rin!chen!mtsho12!to! the! regent! Gu! ge! ma! Chos! skyong! rgyal! mo,13! which! indicate! that! this! was! at! least! a! possibility.! Although! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs! mentions! the! same! mother! lHa! rgyal! mo! for! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! Khri! rNam! rgyal! lde! (and! a! younger! brother),14! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! biography! gives! a! different! and! more! complex! description! of! the! events:15! mDo! sde! rgyal! mo! was! the! main! consort! of! the! king! and! gave! birth! to! two! daughters,! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! rDzam! gling! rgyal! mo,! and! no! sons.! When! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! was! still! very! young! (and! there! was! no! reason! to! doubt! the! possibility! that! mDo! sde! rgyal! mo! could! still! give! birth)! the! king! had! a! son! from! a! junior! queen! (btsun mo gzhon pa)! from! Bong! rdzog! following! the! views! of! the! local! community! (yul gyi dgongs par)16which! may! have! reflected! some! local! interest! group! that! took! advantage! of! the! senior! queens! lack! of! sons.! The! junior! queen! was! presumably! the! lHa! rgyal! mo! mentioned! in! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs and!the!son!was!Khri!rNam!rgyal!lde,!who!became!heir!to!the!throne.!This! turn! of! events! jeopardised! mDo! sde! rgyal! mos! position! and! caused! her! to! be! side-lined! in! the! genealogy.! The! originally! junior! position! of! lHa! rgyal! mo! may! also! explain! some! of! the! tensions! around! Khri! rNam! rgyal! ldes! claim! to! the! throne! (and! the! conflation! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! Khri! rNam! rgyal! ldes! birthdates! in! later! records:! according! to! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! biography! she! was! born! in! 1422! whereas! her! brother! was! born! around! 1426).! Trying! to! soothe! her! mothers! distress!at!the!news!of!the!birth!of!her!half-brother,!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!reportedly!called!on!her!to! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!Everding!2002:!536.! !The!domain!was!reduced!to!its!core!regions,!Mang!yul,!Gung!thang,!and,!more!loosely,!Nub!ris.!Mustang! in! particular! managed! to! detach! itself! completely! under! the! rule! of! A! ma! dPal! (13881440?),! a! descendant! of! the! dynasty! established! there! in! 1375,! with! the! support! of! some! of! the! local! nomadic! groups! (see! Everding!2002:!525;!Vitali!1996:!1031).! 12 !See!Everding!2000:!57.!! 13 !See!Everding!2000:!125.! 14 !See!Everding!2000:!131.! 15 ! This! is! supported! also! by! the! biography! of! the! Gung! thang! court! chaplain! Chos! dpal! bzang! po! (CPZPNT:! f.! 4b).! The! name! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! mother! as! mDo! sde! rgyal! mo! appears! in! Thang! stong! rgyal! pos! biography! by! rGyur! med! bde! chen! in! a! passage! reporting! her! encounter! with! the! great! Siddha! (cf.! TGNT:! ff.! 281-83,! 308-09)! whereas! the! Bo dong chos byung (BDCB:! f.! 20a)! gives! mDo! sde! lha! rgyal! mo,! which! could!be!a!conflation!of!the!names!of!the!two!queens.! 16 !CGMNT:!f.!7b.!
11 10

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rely! on! the! Dharma! and! appreciate! the! excellence! of! her! daughters! rather! than! cursing! them! for! being! female.! Also,! by! stating! at! this! time! her! choice! of! a! religious! life,! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! was! placing! herself! outside! of! the! factional! fights! that! were! marring! the! stability! of! the! kingdom.! By! trading-off! an! unlikely! but! remotely! possible! claim! to! the! throne,! both! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and,! later,!lHa!btsun!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!eventually!developed!their!leadership!in! the!spiritual!sphere,! acting!often!as!mediators!rather!than!divisive!elements!in!the!delicate!social!and!political!fabric!of! their!kingdoms.!! The! kingdom! into! which! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! married,! southern! La! stod! (La! stod! lHo),! was! located! directly! east! of! Gung! thang! and! was! ruled! by! a! family! that! had! risen! to! power! under! Sa! skya! protection! and! had! produced! three! Sa! skya! governors.17! This! polity! was! tightly! connected! to! Gung! thang! through! marriage! alliances! and! spiritual! links.! In! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! time,! the! rulers! seat! was! located! in! Shel! dkar,! where! Situ! Chos! kyi! rin! chen! (d.! 1402),! the! grandfather! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! husband,! had! established! the! new! capital! of! the! domain.! In! 1385! he! founded! the! Shel! dkar! monastery! just! after! the! construction! of! a! spectacular! fortress! that! can! still! be! seen! there! today.! The! History! of! Shekar! (Shel dkar chos byung),! a! work! compiled! in! 1732! on! the! basis! of! pre-existing! sources,! recounts! how! he! also! built! new! irrigation! systems,! expanded! the! cultivated! areas,! increased! livestock! among! nomads,! encouraged! pastoral! productivity! by! reducing! the! tributes! owed! by! subjects! who! had! a! large! number! of! animals,! reduced! trade! levies,! and! opened! new! passes! to! promote! commercial! relations.! The! Shel dkar chos byung! also! describes! Situ! Chos! kyi! rin! chen! and! his! son! lHa! btsan! skyabs! as! great! supporters! of! Buddhism;! lists! a! great! number! of! monasteries,! nunneries,! and! collective! rituals! established! under! their! rule;! and!celebrates!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyal!(13761451)!and!his!predecessors,!who!were!born! in! the! area! and! became! leading! spiritual! masters! with! their! support.! It! is! thanks! to! this! spiritual! lineage! that! the! earliest! extant! xylograph! from! Central! Tibet,! a! print! edition! of! Haribadras! commentary! of! the! Abhisamay!la"k!ra, was! completed! in! 1407! (see! below).18! Although! genealogical! records! link! the! ruling! family! of! La! stod! lHo! to! the! ancient! dBa! clan,19! this! ruling! house!represented!an!emerging!political!leadership,!committed!to!asserting!its!profile!but!liable!to! be! considered! of! a! lesser! rank,! as! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! reportedly! often! declared! them! to! be.! The! perceived! difference! in! status,! made! marriage! alliances! with! Gung! thang! particularly! attractive! to! La!stod!lHo!and!these!were!often!repeated:!both!the!biography!of!bTsun!pa!Chos!legs20!and!that!of! gTsang! smyon! Heruka21! refer! to! Gung! thang! princesses! marrying! out! to! La! stod! lHo.! These! tight! kinship! connections! between! Gung! thang! and! La! stod! shaped! also! the! life! of! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam!rgyal!half!a!century!later.! ! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! and! His! Relationship! with! the! Royal! Family! of! Mang! yul! Gung!thang! lHa! btsun Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! (14731557),! a! famous! but! still! understudied! bKa! brgyud! pa master,! was! born,! like! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma,! within! the! Gung! thang! royal! family.! The! most! significant! sources! about! his! life! are two! biographies,! namely! his! rnam mgur (HTNG) and! rnam thar (HTMC).!Two!original!16th!century!Brag!dkar!rta!so!xylographs!of!these!texts!are!kept!in!the! Tucci!Tibetan!Collection!at!the!IsIAO!Library!in!Rome.22!The!former!bears!the!title!of!The!SelfBrightness! of! the! Inconceivable! Dharmak"ya:! The! Biography! and! Songs! of! the! Holy! Glorious! Master,! Scholar! and! Siddha lHa! btsun,! the! king! of! Dharma! (vol.! 657/5,! ff.! 1a-54a);23! the! latter! is!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!See!Petech!1990:!53.! !On!this!text,!see!Diemberger!2012:18-39.! 19 !Cf.!SKCB:!f.!4a.! 20 !Cf.!TCLNT:!ff.!45-46.!! 21 !Cf.!TMGTNT:!pp.!86-87.! 22 !For!the!cataloguing!of!the!Collection,!see!De!Rossi!Filibeck!1994;!De!Rossi!Filibeck!2003.! 23 ! dPal ldan bla ma dam pa mkhas grub lha btsun chos kyi rgyal poi rnam mgur blo das chos skui rang gdangs (Cf.!HTNG: f.!1a).!For!the!cataloguing!of!this!work,!see!De!Rossi!Filibeck!2003:!331.!
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entitled! Second! Part! of! the! Biography! of! the! Lord! of! yogins, lHa! btsun,! the! king! of! Dharma! (vol.!657/6,!ff.!1-32a).24!! Until! lately,! most! scholars! tended! to! think! that! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! was! the! son! of! lha sras Khri! rNam! rgyal! lde.25! The! respectful! title! lha btsun! (lit.! divine! venerable! one)! is,! indeed,!applied!only!to!ordained!monk!descendants!of!the!old!Royal!Dynasty!of!Tibet.26!His!royal! status! is! also! locally! underlined! by! the! title! mnga bdag,! often! still! added! to! the! epithet! lha btsun, when! people! in! Brag! dkar! rta! so! monastery! refer! to! him! in! the! 21st! century. It! is! therefore! surprising! that! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs,! compiled! by! Rig! dzin! Tshe! dbang! nor! bu! (1698 1755),! does! not! mention! him.! This! must! already! have! been! an! uncomfortable! puzzle! for! Brag! dkar! rta! so! sprul! sku! Chos! kyi! dbang! phyug! (17751837),! who! gives! an! ambiguous! statement! about! the! paternity! of! the! founder! of! his! monastery! (as! being! either! Khri! rNam! rgyal! lde! or! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang,! see! below).! In! recent! years,! several! tibetologists! have! studied! in! depth! the! history! of! the! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! area,! thereby! providing! us! with! a! clearer! picture! of! the! situation.27! This! evidence! questions! lHa! btsuns! relationship! with! rNam! rgyal! lde! and! highlights! a! more! intricate! connection.! The! exact! dating! of! this! latters! rulership! is! not! known! due! to! the! constant! shift! of! power! between! his! father! lHa! dbang! rgyal! mtshan! and! him.28According! to! Everding! (2004:! 290),! rNam! rgyal! lde! had! two! wives,! who! were! sisters,! lHa! mtshams! rgyal! mo! and! Sangs! rgyas! rgyal! mo! (?1495).! The! kings! main! wife! was! the! elder! sister! lHa! mtshams! rgyal! mo! who! resided!in!Gung!thang,!while!Sangs!rgyas!rgyal!mo!lived!in!sKyid!grong.!rNam!rgyal!lde!had!two! sons!from!his!first!wife,!chos rgyal!Nor!bu!lde!(14501484)!and!Khri!rgyal!bSam!grub!lde!as!well! as!a!daughter,!Don!grub!rgyal!mo.!In!addition,!he!had!two!sons!from!his!other!wife,!gong ma Shes! rab!dpal!bzang!and!gong ma Kun!dga!rnam!rgyal!lde!(?1524)29!and!also!a!daughter,!mKha!gro! rgyal!mo.!lHa!btsun!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!does!not!appear!in!Everdings!table!on!Khri!rNam!rgyal! ldes! genealogy,! but! according! to! the! scholar! the! line! of! descent! of! both! sisters! is! not! clear.30! The! reason! of! lHa! btsuns! absence! might! be! imputed! to! the! fact! that,! as! a! monk,! he! did! not! get! involved! in! the! power! struggles! that! occurred! during! and! after! rNam! rgyal! ldes! reign.! As! suggested! by! Everding! (2000:! 548-49,! n.! 1412),! another! explanation! could! be! the! similarity! between! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! and Kun! dga! rnam! rgyal! ldes! names,! and! also! the! fact! that! they! both! bore! the! same! title,! lha btsun.! The! actual! reason! however! might! be! another.! We! know! that! during! this! period! the! ruling! family! split! into! two! main! branches! due! to! the! internal! conflicts! between! the! two! different! lines! of! descent.! The! descendants!of! these! branches! repeatedly! vied! for! the! throne.! The! 19th! Gung! thang! ruler! was! Nor! bu! lde,! while! the! position! of! the! 20th! king! was! taken! collectively! by! bSam! grub! lde,! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang! and! Kun! dga! rnam! rgyal! lde! ruling! together.! After! rNam! rgyal! ldes! death,! the! kingdom! seemingly! became! a! federation! of! the! two! main! areas.! The! two! sons! he! had! with! Sangs! rgyas! rgyal! mo,! who! were! born! and! raised! in! sKyid! grong,! governed! the! southern! part! of! the! kingdom,! the! Mang! yul! area,! whereas! bSam! grub! lde,! who!was!born!and!brought!up!at!rDzong!dkar,!governed!the!northern!part!of!the!territory,!namely! Gung! thang.! At! some! point,! a! loyal! supporter! of! bSam! grub! lde! and! his! wifes! family! murdered!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! rNal byor dbang phyug lha btsun chos kyi rgyal poi rnam thar gyi smad cha bzhugs s.ho || e ba" ||! (Cf.! HTMC:!f.!1a).!For!the!catalogue!entry!of!this!work,!see!De!Rossi!Filibeck!2003:!331.!Both!xylographs!have! been! already! described! in! Clemente! 2007:! 124,! 130-35;! Clemente! (in! press).! Michela! Clemente! would! like! to! thank! the! former! President! of! IsIAO,! the! late! Professor! Gherardo! Gnoli,! and! the! former! Director! of! the! Library,! Dr.! Francesco! DArelli,! for! having! given! her! the! permission! to! study! both! sources! and! for! having! eased! her! work! there.! She! also! wishes! to! heartily! thank! Professor! Elena! De! Rossi! Filibeck! for! having! helped!and!supported!her!over!the!years.! 25 !See!Roberts!2007:!37;!Smith!2001:!75;!TBRC!(P7172).!On!the!title! lha sras!(lit.!sons!of!the!Gods),!see! Diemberger!2007:!41.! 26 !On!this!title,!see!Petech!1980:!94;!Roberts!2007:!37;!Smith!2001:!288,!n.!181.! 27 !See!Diemberger!2007;!Ehrhard!2000a;!Ehrhard!2004a;!Everding!2000;!Everding!2004.! 28 !On!this!period,!see!Everding!2000:!538-50.! 29 !For!this!dating,!see!Ehrhard!2008:!70-71,!n.!10.! 30 !See!Everding!2000:!539-40;!Everding!2004:!290.!
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Shes! rab! dpal! bzang.31! This! was! part! of! a! series! of! conflicts! between! rNam! rgyal! ldes! numerous! sons! that! had! begun! during! his! lifetime.32! Although! it! cannot! be! excluded! that! the! elderly! rNam! rgyal! lde! fathered! lHa! btsun,! it! is! more! probable! that! lHa! btsuns! father! was! one! of! rNam! rgyal! ldes!sons,!as!we!shall!see!below.!! In! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! biographies,! his! parents! names! are! not! mentioned:! the! biological! father! is! completely! absent! and! the! only! paternal! role! he! refers! to! is! gTsang! smyons! spiritual! one;!the!mother!appears!on!several!occasions!but!only!referred!to!with!the!generic!term!yum.!This! suprising! silence! might! reflect! the! intricate! situation! that! surrounded! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! birth! and!childhood.!! bSam! grub! lde! was! married! to! a! lady! from! the! bKan! family,! named! Shes! rab! rgyal! mo! and! her! brother! was! nang blon dPon! btsun! Grub! pa.! They! belonged! to! one! of! the! powerful! families! based! in! sKyid! grong.! The! followers! of! these! latter,! known! as! sku zhangs,! were! directly! implicated! in! the!murder!of!Shes!rab!dpal!bzangan!episode!that!so!far!cannot!be!dated!with!precision!and!that! according! to! Everdings! reconstruction! of! the! events! took! place! some! time! after! 1484.33! An! extremely! difficult! passage! of! lHa! btsuns! rnam mgur! seems! to! shed! light! on! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! family! relationship! and! on! the! way! in! which! his! life! may! have! been! shaped! by! the! conflict-ridden!life!at!the!Gung!thang!court.!It!refers!to!Khri!rNam!rgyal!ldes!second!wife,!Sangs! rgyas!rgyal!mo,!and!her!anxiety!about!the!dangerous!situation!in!which!her!sons!found!themselves! some! time! after! lHa! btsun! had! reached! the! age! of! ten,! i.e.! 1482.! From! this! passage! we! can! understand! that! Sangs! rgyas! rgyal! mo! was! extremely! concerned! about! the! threat! that! was! coming! from! nang blon dPon! btsun Grub! pa,! Shes! rab! rgyal! mo! and! their! followers:! worried! that! they! could!be!poisoned!by!food,!she!told!lHa!btsuns!mother!that!she!should!go!to!La!stod!lHo!with!her! son.34!La!stod!lHo!was!the!birthplace!of!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyals!mother,!where!she!would!be!out!of! the! reach! of! their! enemies! and! be! protected! by! her! kin! (and! perhaps! Sangs! rgyal! rgyal! mos! own! kin,! too,! as! she! is! likely! to! have! been! from! La! stod! lHo! as! well).35! According! to! his! biography,! lHa! btsun! left! for! his! mothers! place! when! he! was! thirteen,! i.e.! 1485.! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang,! who! was! eventually! murdered! by! the! supporters! of! his! half-brother,! was! still! alive! in! 1484! when! his! brother! rNor! bu! lde! died! and! he! was! enthroned! as! part! of! a! triumviratre! together! with! his! half! brother!Bsam!grub!lde!and!his!full!brother!Khri!Kun!dga!rnam!rgyal!ldewhich!must!have!been! a! very! difficult! and! tense! deal,! possibly! brokered! by! the! old! king! Khri! rnam! rgyal! lde! who! was! still!alive.!The!timing!of!lHa!btsuns!departure!suggests!that!this!was!linked!to!the!tensions!around! the! succession! to! the! throne! in! the! wake! of! Nor! bu! ldes! death! and! was! possibly! connected! to! the! murder! of! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang,! his! presumed! fatherwhich! would! also! justify! the! anxiety! of! Sangs!rgyal!rgyal!mo!as!his!presumed!grandmother.!! As! mentioned! above,! both! lHa!btsuns! biographies do!not!mention! his!father!at!all.!The! reason! for!the!absence!of!any!reference!to!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyals!father!might!be!imputed!to!the!fact!that! his! presumed! father! died! before! his! son! had! any! memorable! experience! of! him,! but! given! the! importance! that! is! usually! attributed! to! genealogical! links! this! seems! insufficient! as! a! reason! for! the! omission.! As! mentioned! above,! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal does! not! appear! in! the! royal! genealogy! of!the!Gung thang rgyal rabs,!which!probably!reflects!the!silence!in!the!sources!used!by!Rig!dzin! Tshe! dbang! nor! bu.! A! hypothesis! might! be! that! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! was! the! son! of! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang! with! an! illegitimate! consort.! This! could! also! explain! why! lHa! btsun! was! not! involved! in! the! struggle! for! the! throne! and! why! he! became! a! monk.! Since! Khri! rNam! rgyal! lde! had! numerous! sons,! an! illegitimate! offspring! could! have! hardly! competed! against! legitimate! heirs! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! See! Everding! 2000:! 540,! 550-53;! Everding! 2004:! 270,! 290.! bSam! grub! lde! died! during! the! great! earthquake!which!devastated!large!areas!of!Western!Tibet.!See!Ehrhard!2000a:!25,!n.!7.!On!this!earthquake,! see!Jackson!2002.! 32 !See!Everding!2000:!543.! 33 !See!Ehrhard!2004a:!259;!Everding!2000:!553.! 34 ! Cf.! HTNG:! f.! 9a3-7.! For! the! translation! of! this! passage,! see! Clemente! (in! press).! I! would! like! to! heartily! thank! Professor! Franz-Karl! Ehrhard:! without! his! help! it! would! not! have! been! possible! to! translate! this! difficult!passage.! 35 !Everding!2000:!539.!
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but! was! not! completed! ruled! out! (as! the! case! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! father! shows).! This! could! have!led!lHa!btsuns!mother!to!decide!the!future!of!her!son!as!a!monk,!trying!to!avoid!an!unlucky! destiny! for! him! as! it! was! well! known! that! royal! family! members often! died! by! poisoning.! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! illegitimacy! would! explain! also! the! absence! of! any! explicit! reference! to! his! parents! names! in! his! biography! (at! a! time! in! which! such! a! connection! could! be! both! a! blessing! and! a! course).! In! the! Brag! dkar! rta! so! sprul! skus! gDan rabs there! is! a! brief! biography! of! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal36! which! mentions! his! father! referring! to! two! names:! chos rgyal! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang! or! Khri! rNam! rgyal! lde.37! Ehrhard! (2004a:! 370,! n.! 96),! suggests! that! the! mention! of! Khri! rnam! rgyal! lde! should! be! interpreted! as! Kun! dga! rnam! rgyal! lde! and! that! lHa! btsuns! mother! could! have! had! a! polyandrous! relationship! with! both! brothers.! However,! the! two! names! could! also! simply! indicate! Brag! dkar! rta! so! sprul! skus! own! uncertainty! when! he! was! needing! to! connect! the! founder! of! his! monastery! to! the! Gung! thang! genealogy.! The! strongest! evidence! for! a! real! connection! of! lHa! btsun! with! the! Gung! thang! royal! kinship! remains! the! palpable! anxiety! expressed! by! his! presumed! grandmother! Sang! rgyas! rgyal! mo! that! may! have! distanced! him! from! potential!royal!claims!but!probably!saved!his!life.! In!the! rnam mgur!lHa!btsuns!mother!is!simply!mentioned!as!yum!in!three!passages,!namely!at! the! time! of! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! birth,! when! she! died! and! when! lHa! btsun! erected! a! hut! in! her! place! of! origin.! According! to! Everdings! table! (2004:! 290),! Sangs! rgyas! rgyal! mo! died! in! 1495! whereas! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! mother! died! much! later! (around! 1509),! therefore! the! woman! mentioned! as! yum in! his! rnam mgur! was! connected! to! her! but! was! apparently! not! her.! The! fact! that! both! Sangs! rgyal! rgyal! mo! as! queen! mother! and! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! mother! are! referred! to!with!the!same!generic!term!renders!translating!the!relevant!passages!particularly!challenging.!It! is! clear! however! that! there! were! two! different! women! who! cared! about! the! young! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal!and!who!took!a!decision!that!shaped!his!life.!! According! to! this! text,! lHa! btsuns! mother! was! renowned! as! Vajrav"r"h#.38! This! is! relevant! because! it! reverberates! with! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! role! in! the! establishment! of! the! line! of! female! reincarnations! of! this! deity! called! bSam! sdings! rDo! rje! phag! mo.39! She! did! not! belong! to! such! a! line,! but! this! epithet! was! probably! used! to! underline! her! importance.! In! the! text she! is,! indeed,! described! as! a! woman! with! all! the! characteristics! of! a! #!kin$.! The! same! occurs! in! the! gDan rabs,! where! she! is! mentioned! as! one! possessing! the! name! of! mKha! gro! or! having! the! characteristics! of! #!kin$s (mkha groi mtshan ldan).40! Her! death! occurred! two! years! after! that! of! lHa! btsuns! spiritual! father,! the! great! siddha gTsang! smyon! Heruka! Sangs! rgyas! rgyal! mtshan! (14521507),41! therefore! it! can! be! dated! around! 1509.42! Both! in! the! case! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! that! of! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal,! their! exclusion! from! political! power! did! not! prevent! them! from! relying! heavily! on! their! royal! status! and! kinship! to! achieve! their! spiritual! aims! and! mobilise!wider!networks!of!patronage.! ! Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!as!Princess,!Nun!and!Divine!Emanation!Leading!Networks!of!Patronage!! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! appears! in! the! biography! with! different! identities,! reflected! in! the! different! names! with! which! she! became! known:! as! a! princess! she! was! dKon! mchog! rgyal! mo,! as! an! ordained! nun! she! was! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! as! a! divine! emanation! she! was! rDo! rje! Phag! mo.! In! addition! she! is! called! with! a! range! of! epithets! such! as! dpal gyi dbang mo! that! underline! her! spiritual! glory! and! her! ability! of! bringing! prosperity.! These! different! facets! of! her! life! are! intertwined! so! that! even! when! she! became! a! nun! she! retained! some! aspects! of! her! royalty.! The! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! For! the! biography! of! lHa! btsun! within! this! work,! see! BKDR:! ff.! 25a1-28a5.! I! wish! to! warmly! thank! Professor!Franz-Karl!Ehrhard!and!Dr.!Marta!Sernesi!for!kindly!providing!me!with!this!text.!! 37 ![]!yab!chos!rgyal!shes!rab!dpal!bzang!am!|!khri!rnam!rgyal!lde![]!Cf.!BKDR:!f.!25a2.! 38 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!6b5-7.! 39 !On!this!subject,!see!Diemberger!2007.! 40 !Cf.!BKDR:!f.!25a2.! 41 ! On! this! figure! and! his! work,! see! Larsson! 2009;! Larsson! 2011;! Larsson! 2012;! Larsson! (forthcoming);! Quintman!2006:!chapt.!5-6;!Sernesi!2007:!introduction,!100-18;!Sernesi!2010:!406-08,!419-20,!422;!Sernesi! 2011a:!191-98,!201-02;!Sernesi!2011b;!Sernesi!(forthcoming);!Smith!2001:!59-74;!I.!M.!Stearns!1985.! 42 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!26a2-3.!
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biography! essentially! describes! her! as! what! we! would! today! call! a! formidable! fund! raiser.! The! biography! highlights! this! aspect! of! her! activity! and! describes! how! herdsmen! and! farmers,! surprised! at! seeing! their! princess! arriving! at! their! houses! and! tents! as! a! begging! nun,! heaped! her! with! donations.! Bringing! good! fortune! and! a! spiritual! message! to! local! chieftains,! she! was! showered! with! gifts! that! she! used! to! support! both! the! activities! of! her! masters! and! those! that! she! initiated.! Looking! at! several! episodes! mentioned! in! her! biography,! it! seems! that! it! is! the! closest! and! loyal! set! of! relationships! around! her! that! enabled! her! to! set! out! with! her! enterprises.! On! the! basis! of! her! successes! and! her! status,! she! could! then! take! things! forward! in! a! grander! way.! She! was!even!able!to!relate!to!the!political!leaders!of!her!time!such!as!the!Rin!spungs!pa!despite!being! a!woman.!She!was,!however,!weary!of!dealing!with!political!leaders!that!could!condition!and!take! advantage! of! her! and! she! often! tried! to! avoid! such! encounters.! She! sought! support! much! more! among!the!medium!and!lower!levels!of!society.!! Her! kinship! network! remained! important! throughout! her! life.! Especially! the! women! of! her! family! appear! again! and! again! as! crucial! supporters! of! her! enterprises.! For! example,! after! the! completion! of! the! artwork! and! reproduction! of! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyals! collected! works! that!she!had!instigated!after!his!demise,!the!biography!states!that:!! ! The! Great! Lady! was! able! to! achieve! all! this! also! thanks! to! her! sister,! rDzam! gling! rgyal! mo,! and! her! mother,! mDo! sde! rgyal! mo,! who! had! followed! her! instructions! without! hesitation! or! laziness.! The! Magnificent! Lady,! satisfied! with! the! results! and! particularly! grateful! to! them,! said:! The! sun! of! merit! shone! in! my! mind,! but! my! mother! and! sister! carried! out! the! actual! work.!(CGMNT:!f.!95b).! ! It! is! thanks! to! this! network! that! statues,! embroided! images,! volumes! and! ritual! performances! could! be! produced! in! his! honour.! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! biography! describes! the! activation! of! a! wide! religious! and! kinship! network! within! which! she! played! a! leading! role! as! a! true! visionary.! Before! setting! out! on! this! enterprise,! she! did! not! have! the! funding! that! was! needed.! She! therefore! requested! a! monk! of! her! entourage! to! pray! every! day! to! Vai$r"va%a;! eventually! the! god! of! wealth! appeared!to!him!in!a!vision!asking!him!to!give!the!key!of!his!treasury!to!the!princess!dKon!mchog! rgyal! mo,! i.e.! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma;! after! the! successful! completion! of! the! work,! this! was! attributed! to!the!auspicious!intervention!of!the!god.!Visions!and!rituals!certainly!played!an!important!part!in! mobilizing!people!and!resources.!Chos!kyi!sgron!mas!commitment,!her!network!and!the!blessing! of! the! deity,! made! it! possible! for! her! to! bring! together! all! that! was! needed,! which! she! managed! carefully.! Unsurprisingly,! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs,! as! a! later! chronicle,! remembers! her! father,! rather! than! her,! for! the! royal! patronage! in! honour! of! the! great! Bo! dong! pa! master.! In! a! similar! way,!it!is!well!known!that!Chos!kyi!sgron!mas!brother!supported!gTsang!smyon!Heruka,!but!it!is! much! less! conspicuous! that! some! women! of! the! family! became! his! followers,! for! example! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! younger! sister,! rDzam! gling! rgyal! mo,! is! reported! as! visiting! him! together! with! her! niece,! mKha! gro! rgyal! mo,! daughter! of! the! Gung! thang! king! Khri! rnam! rgyal! lde,! in! the! 1470s.43! As! sister! of! Shes! rab! dpal! bzang! and! Kun! dga! rnam! rgyal! lde,! this! latter! was! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! paternal! aunt.! Having! had! an! unsuccessful! marriage! to! the! ruler! of! La! stod! lHo,! she! returned! to! Gung! thang! where! she! found! spiritual! consolation! with! gTsang! smyon! Heruka,! who! is! described! as! prophesying! her! tragic! death! (she! committed! suicide! after! her! lover! had!been!assassinated).44! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! This! meeting! took! place! in! Mi! la! ras! pas! cave! in! upper! Ron,! which! is! close! to! Mi! la! ras! pas! birthplace! and! is! also! not! far! from! Shag,! a! locality! further! to! the! south! at! the! boundary! between! Mang! yul! and! Gung! thang!where!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!spent!part!of!her!childhood!with!her!sister.!In-between!are!Slong!rtse!where! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! had! a! monastery! (which! used! to! house! the! statue! that! is! currently! kept! in! Brag!dkar!rta!so!monastery)!and!Brag!dkar!rta!so!where!lHa!btsun!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!later!established!his! famous!printing!house.!gTsang!smyon!Heruka!dedicated!a!song!to!rDzam!gling!rgyal!mo,!which!is!reported! in!gTsang!smyons!biography.!Cf.!GTTMNT:!p.!88.!See!also!Diemberger!2007:!342.! 44 !See!Everding!2000:!540.!
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Chos!kyi!sgron!mas!ability!of!initiating!enterprises!and!mobilizing!resources!towards!spiritual! aims! was! highly! influential! not! only! within! her! actual! kinship! but! also! within! her! spiritual! kinship,! and! she! became! an! important! referent! especially,! but! not! only,! for! women.! There! are! at! least! two! of! them! who! followed! immediately! in! her! footsteps:! Byang! chub! bzang! mo,! a! chief! disciple! of! the! Bo! dong! pa! master! bTsun! pa! Chos! legs,! and! Kun! tu! bzang! mo,! the! consort! of! gTsang! smyon! Heruka.! The! first! is! recorded! as! belonging! to! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! entourage! and! is!mentioned!in!the!biography!of!bTsun!pa!Chos!legs!as!the!person!who!requested!him!to!write!his! biography.45!The!second!is!not!directly!mentioned!in!Chos!kyi!sgron!mas!biography!but!belonged! to! the! network! of! religious! women! based! in! sPo! rong! dpal! mo! chos! sdings,! the! main! seat! of! Bo! dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyal,!where!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!resided!and!where!she!had!established!her! nunnery.! Kun! tu! bzang! mo! played! an! important! part! in! supporting! gTsang! smyon! Herukas! printing! activities! and! instigated! the! print! of! his! works! after! his! demise.46! A! main! centre! of! these! operations!was!the!monastery!of!bSam!gling!(bSam!gtan!gling),!which!had!been!established!either! by! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! husband,! rTse! dbang! bkra! shis! or,! more! likely,47! his! grandfather! Si! tu! Chos! kyi! rin! chen.! This! was! the! lord! of! La! stod! lHo! in! honour! of! whom! her! father-in! law,! lHa! btsan!skyabs,!had!sponsored!the!1407!print!mentioned!above.!! These!kinship!and!patronage!networks!cut!across!different!religious!traditions!and!it!is!only!by! looking! at! the! recurrence! of! those! names! that! hagiographic! narratives! often! mention! just! in! passing! that! we! understand! the! social! and! cultural! fabric! within! which! great! religious! and! artistic! deeds! were! achieved.! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! were! operating! within! the! same! milieu,! an! environment! shaped! by! a! system! of! patronage! and! devotion! that! was! much! more! extensive! than! the! kings! and! the! greatest! spiritual! masters! that! became! famous! in! the! later!tradition.!! ! The!Outstanding!Scholar!lHa!btsun!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!and!His!Search!for!Patrons! According! to! his! biographies,! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! started! to! exhibit! his! extraordinary! abilities! since! his! birth,! which! was! accompanied! by! miraculous! events.48! Even! his! mothers! pregnancy! was! filled! with! astonishing! occurrences.! While! pregnant,! she! became! a! Dharma! follower,! thanks! to! some! bKa! brgyud bla mas,! gTsang! smyon! Heruka! in! particular.49! This! is! noteworthy! in! view! of! the! future! relationship! between! her! son! and! the! great! siddha. Her! meeting! with! gTsang! smyon! could! have! taken! place! at! court! since! he! was! the! chief! spiritual! master! of! King!rNam!rgyal!lde!as!well.!! lHa! btsun! was! born! at! Thang! po! che,! in! Gung! thang.! He! started! his! studies! when! he! was! four! years! old! and! completed! them! at! five.! At! six! he! was! ordained! as! Buddhist! monk! at! the! monastic! school! of! gSar! sngags! theg! pa,! where! he! was! provided! with! the! name! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal.50! At! the! age! of! eight,! he! started! to! explain! important! works! of! his! tradition! in! debates! at! several! monasteries.51! During! his! academic! tour,! he! also! received! many! teachings! from! different! relevant! masters.52!When!he!was!thirteen!years!old!(1486),!he!met!gTsang!smyon!Heruka!for!the!first!time! at!the!sacred!place!of!the!Crystal!Cave!(shel phug),!in!La!stod!lHo.!The!great!siddha!became!his! spiritual!father!and!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!became!one!of!his!closest!heart-sons.53!We!know!that!lHa! btsun! had! just! been! sent! to! La! stod! lHo! by! his! grandmother,! probably! after! his! fathers! death.! From!this!viewpoint,!the!relationship!with!gTsang!smyon!Heruka!assumes!a!more!significant!role! in! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! life.! Furthermore,! according! to! lHa! btsuns! rnam mgur,! brug pa lHa! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!See!Everding!2000:!223.! !See!Ehrhard!2010b:!154-55.! 47 ! The! issue! of! exactly! which! of! the! rulers! of! southern! La! stod! was! the! founder! of! the! monastery! is! discussed! by! the! author! of! the! Shel dkar chos byung,! which! provides! a! brief! history! of! this! monastery! located!in!the!Tsib!ri!(rGyal!kyi!$r#!ri)!mountain!range!(cf.!SKCB:!f.!52).! 48 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!7a4-7.! 49 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!6b5-7a4.!! 50 !Cf. HTNG: f.!8b6-7.! 51 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!8b7-9a1.! 52 !Cf.!HTNG: f.!9a1-3.! 53 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!9a7-9b4.!
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btsun! pa! of! Shangs! sTag! lung,! one! of! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! numerous! gurus,! revealed! that! gTsang! smyon! was! lHa! btsuns! master! in! many! of! his! previous! lives.54! Since! their! first! encounter! at! Shel! phug,! they! met! each! other! several! times! and! every! time! gTsang! smyon! gave! some! teachings!to!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal.!The!relationship!between!them!continued!over!the!years.!It!was! so! strong! that! did! not! stop! even! when! the! great! siddha! passed! away.! This! latter! continued! to! appear! in! visions! and! dreams! to! his! spiritual! son,! guiding! and! exhorting! him! until! lHa! btsuns! death.55! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! reputation! as! an! outstanding! master! soon! spread! and! he! started! to! have! many!disciples!and!receive!continual!invitations!from!different!monasteries!as!well!as!from!rulers! of! the! neighbouring! territories.56! According! to! his! rnam mgur,! he! was! also! able! to! appear! to! people! in! a! dream! in! order! to! help! them! understand! the! experience! of! vivid! clearness! of! perception.57!! The! great! siddha asked! his! heart-son! to! accompany! him! during! his! fund! raising! tours,! which! benefitted! both,! since! gTsang! smyon! had! a! wide! range! of! followers! that! lHa! btsun! eventually! inherited! and! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! had! the! royal! kinship! connections.! gTsang! smyon,! indeed,! had! initiated!an!important!and!ambitious!cultural!project!which!had!the!aim!of!spreading!the!works!of! bKa! brgyud! pa! masters,! especially! biographies, in! order! to! provide! lay! people! with! a! holy! life! style! to! emulate! and! glorify! his! lineage.! The! project! consisted! in! the! compilation,! editing,! writing! and!printing!of!these!works.!Earlier!texts!had!mostly!remained!in!manuscript!form!until!that!time.! gTsang! smyon! Heruka! with! the! help! of! his! disciples! organized! the! carving! of! woodblocks! in! order! to! guarantee! a! wide! distribution! of! the! works! and! reduce! the! risk! of! their! loss.58! Such! an! ambitious! enterprise! required! extensive! support! and! had! to! rely! on! a! wide! network! of! patronage.! gTsang!smyons! success!was! due! to!the! fact! that! he!developed!close,! personal! ties!with!numerous! political! leaders! of! Western! Tibet,! including! the! royal! family! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang,! the! rulers! of! Mustang! (Glo! bo),! Don! yod! rdo! rje! (14631512)! of! Rin! spungs! pa,59! the! rulers! of! La! stod! lHo! and! La! stod! Byang! and! also! some! outstanding! masters,! including! the! Seventh! Karma! pa! Chos! grags! rgya! mtsho! (14541506).! All! these! figures! became! benefactors.60! By! accompanying! his! spiritual! father,! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! met! several! political! and! religious! figures! who! were! impressed!by!his!abilities.61!This!enabled!lHa!btsun!to!establish!relationships!with!these!patrons!as! well.! Some! of! gTsang! smyon! Herukas! sponsors! continued! to! support! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! work! after! his! masters! death.! He! was,! indeed,! one! of! the! key! disciples! who! carried! on! gTsang! smyons! project.! lHa! btsun! established! his! editorial! activity! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so,! the! place! where,! according! to! the! gDan rabs,! he! founded! the! small! homonymous! monastery! that! quickly! became! a! famous! printing! house! (par khang).62! Brag! dkar! rta! so! is! one! of! the! outer! fortresses! of! Mi! la! ras! pa,! where! he! obtained! his! siddhis.! According! to! lHa! btsuns! rnam mgur,! the! establishment! of! Brag! dkar! rta! so! was! predicted! by! the! Seventh! Karma! pa.63! According! to! HTNG,! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! arrived! for! the! first! time! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! just! after! gTsang! smyon! Herukas! death,64! but! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!12a5-12b2.!! !On!lHa!btsuns!relationship!with!gTsang!smyon!Heruka,!see!Clemente!(in!press).! 56 !For!some!examples,!cf.!HTNG:!ff.!10a2-7,!12b5-7,! 57 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!23a6-23b1.! 58 ! On! gTsang! smyon! Herukas! project! and! the! works! of! his! school,! see! Clemente! 2009:! chapt.! 1.2,! 3.6,! 3.7;! Clemente! (forthcoming! a);! Clemente! (forthcoming! b);! Clemente! (forthcoming! c);! Schaeffer! 2009:! 58-63;! Schaeffer!2011;!Sernesi!2011b;!Sernesi!(forthcoming);!Smith!2001:!73-79! 59 ! On! Don! yod! rdo! rje! and! his! sponsorships,! see! in! particular! Ehrhard! 2010a:! 230-33.! For! his! encounter! with!gTsang!smyon!and!lHa!btsun,!cf.!HTNG:!ff.!10a7-10b7.! 60 !See!Ehrhard!2000a:!13-14;!Quintman!2006:!194;!I.!M.!Stearns!1985:!41.! 61 !For!some!examples!of!these!tours,!see!HTNG:!ff.!15b6-16a1,!19b2-5,!20a2-21a2.! 62 ! Cf.! BKDR:! f.! 29b2.! On! lHa! btsuns! printing! activity,! see! Clemente! 2009:! par.! 3.6-3.7;! Clemente! (forthcoming! a);! Clemente! (forthcoming! c);! Schaeffer! 2009:! 58-63;! Schaeffer! 2011;! Sernesi! 2011b:! 197202;!Sernesi!(forthcoming);!Smith!2001:!75-77.! 63 !Cf.!HTNG: f.!20b4.!See!also!Ehrhard!2000a:!55,!n.!8;!Ehrhard!2004a:!426,!n.!203.! 64 !Cf.!HTNG: ff.!28a4-28b1.!
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he!established!his!seat!there!only!in!the!autumn!of!the!Bird!Year,!at!the!age!of!fifty-three!(1525).65! lHa! btsuns! choice! of! Brag! dkar! rta! so! as! his! seat! was! probably! due! not! only! to! the! sacredness! of! the! place! but! also! to! its! strategic! position,! at! the! border! between! the! Mang! yul! and! Gung! thang! areas.! This! could! have! facilitated! lHa! btsuns! mediation! between! the! ruling! factions! of! these! territories! and,! at! the! same! time,! offered! him! a! way! to! remain! relatively! autonomous,! receiving! sponsorship! from! both! parties.! Furthermore,! Brag! dkar! rta! so! is! perched! on! a! cliff! just! above! the! main!route!to!Nepal!and!is!not!distant!from!the!densely!wooded!areas!of!sKyid!grong,!from!which! lHa! btsun! presumably! imported! the! paper! and! the! wood! for! his! activity.! Although! a! specific! reference! to! the! Gung! thang! kings! in! relation! to! the! foundation! of! the! Brag! dkar! rta! so! monastery! hasnt!yet!surfaced,!it!is!almost!unthinkable!that!they!were!not!involved!in!the!process.!In!fact!the! date! of! the! foundation! of! Brag! dkar! rta! so,! just! after! the! death! of! Kun! dga! rnam! rgyal! lde! is! highly!suggestive.!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!established!his!seat!there!in!1525,!just!one!year!after!King! Kun!bzang!Nyi!zla!grags!pa!(15141560,!reign.!1524?)!had!succeeded!his!father!Kun!dga!rnam! rgyal! lde! in! one! form! or! another! (perhaps! with! a! sort! of! regency! by! his! mother,! the! widow! of! the! decesead! king).! By! supporting! the! monastery! and! its! activities! he! would! have! made! merits! for! himself! while! strengthening! his! position! against! his! rivals,! bKra! shis! dpal! bar! and! Kun! dga! blo! gros.!According!to!Everding!(2004:!281-82),!Kun!bzang!Nyi!zla!grags!pa!was!the!21st!Gung!thang! ruler!and!ascended!the!throne!at!a!very!young!age.!Only!ten!years!old!in!1524!and! fifteen!in!1529! (date! of! a! ritual! enthronement),! he! would! have! needed! a! strong! support! to! hold! his! position! as! he! had! to! deal! with! the! challenge! represented! by! his! two! cousins,! bKra! shis! dpal! bar! and! Kun! dga! blo!gros!who!also!had!a!claim!to!the!throne!as!sons!of!King!bSam!grub!lde,!who!had!died!in!1506.! In! addition,! their! maternal! uncle! was! involved! in! the! death! of! lHa! btsuns! presumed! father.! As! a! further!complication,!Kun!bzang!Nyi!zla!grags!pas!mother,!Gu!ge!ma!dKon!mchog!bzang!mo!(? 1554),! had! married! these! cousins! (according! to! a! kinship! practice! that! is! common! in! the! Himalaya).66!This!could!have!been!a!difficult!arrangement!for!the!young!Kun!bzang!Nyi!zla!grags! pa,! but! may! have! provisionally! settled! the! situation! as! in! that! capacity! his! mother! could! have! protected!him.!! However! as! his! position! was! still! vulnerable,! he! sought! outside! support! through! a! marriage! alliance! with! the! Yar! brog! rulers! and! spiritual! support! within! Gung! thang.! As! he! was! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! cousin,! heor! whoever! supported! himcould! have! sponsored! the! Brag! dkar! rta! so! monastery! to! facilitate! his! endorsement! and! he! certainly! appears! as! the! sponsor! of! many! of! his! activities!(see!below).!By!that!time,!lHa!btsun!was!a!well-renowned!religious!master,!the!spiritual! heir! of! gTsang! smyon! Heruka,! of! whom! his! father! was! a! great! follower! and! sponsor.! The! arrangement! that! enabled! Kun! bzang! Nyi! zla! grags! pa! to! ascend! the! throne! was! however! unstable! and! he! was! eventually! overthrown! by! his! cousins.! According! to! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs,! bKra! shis!dpal!bar!reigned!together!with!his!brother!as!the!22nd!Gung!thang!rulers. Kun! bzang! Nyi! zla! grags! pa,! once! dethroned,! was! ordained! according! to! the! tradition! of! the! West! Tibetan! kingdoms! rulers.! His! dethronement! was! conveniently! depicted! as! a! spontaneous! abdication! and! he! was! formally! enthroned! as! the! head! ritual! master! (chos dpon)! of! Gung! thang! chos! sde,! the! royal! monastery! of! Gung! thang.67! All! these! members! of! the! royal! house! appear! as! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!Cf.!HTNG: f.!31a2-5.!See!also!Clemente!(in!press);!Ehrhard!2004a:!426,!n.!203.! ! When! a! man! dies,! the! widow! is! often! pressured! into! marrying! his! real! or! classificatory! brother(s),! who! retain! control! over! the! property! and! take! over! paternal! functions! in! relation! to! the! children.! She! retains! thereby!her!authority!as!the!mother!of!the!house,!which!she!would!lose!if!she!re-married!outside!the!family.! Kun! bzang! Nyi! zla! grags! pa! took! over! the! throne! despite! his! young! age! and! must! have! had! the! relevant! backing,!possibly!through!his!mother.! 67 ! We! dont! know! when! Kun! bzang! Nyi! zla! grags! pa! was! overthrown.! He! is! still! mentioned! in! 1535,! at! the! consecration! of! Padma bka thangs! woodblocks.! In! 1538! he! encountered! Nam! mkha! rdo! rje! (14861553)! at!the!royal!palace!of!dGa!ldan!rnam!rgyal.!This!master!gave!the!king!some!precepts!and!the!empowerment! of! the! Long! Life! practice! according! to! Ma! gcig! Grub! pai! rgyal! mo! (see! Ehrhard! 2000a:! 60.! For! information! about! Nam! mkha! rdo! rje,! see! Ehrhard! 2000a:! 51-66).! In! 1539! Nyi! zla! grags! pa! sponsored! the! printing! of! a! bKa gdams glegs bams! edition,! the! consecration! of! which! he! attended! with! a! certain! yongs dzin Shes!rab!rgya!mtsho!in!the!ri khrod named!Kun!gsal!sGang!po!che,!bo dong Chos!dbang!rgyal!mtshan! (14841549)s! residence! (see! Ehrhard! 2000a:! 16,! 23,! 43,! n.! 36.! On! this! edition! of! the! bKa gdams glegs
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sponsor! of! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! works! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so,! which! highlights! the! religious!and!political!importance!of!this!master!and!of!what!was!happening!in!this!sacred!site.! According! to! his! rnam mgur,! before! founding! the! Brag! dkar! rta! so! Monastery,! lHa! btsun! had! established! a! hut! (spyil po)! in! La! stod! lHo! thanks! to! gong ma Chos! rgyal! chen! po,! who! had! sponsored! it.! According! to! Ehrhard! (2000a:! 16),! this! should! refer! to! King! Kun! dga! rnam! rgyal! lde,!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyals!uncle!and!Kun!bzang!Nyi!zla!grags!pas!father.!The!hut!had!been!built! in!one!of!the!places!where!Mi!la!ras!pa!dwelled,!but!also!where!lHa!btsuns!mother!was!born.!Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! had! resided! there! four! years.! The! place! had! also! been! blessed! by! gTsang! smyon! Heruka! who! had! remained! there! for! about! three! months.! Unfortunately,! we! are! not! aware! of! the! actual! location! of! this! hut! because! the! text! does! not! mention! the! place! name.! The! hut! was! established! around! 1504,! after! the! completion! of! the! renovation! works! of! the! Svaya&bh'n"th! St'pa! supervised! by! gTsang! smyon.68! According! to! HTNG,! lHa! btsun! and! his! spiritual! father! went! together! to! rDzong! dkar! to! the! kings! palace,! probably! to! ask! for! donations,! and! from! there! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! went! to! his! mother! birthplace.! These! episodes! show! that! when! he! founded! Brag! dkar! rta! so! he! was! acting! in! continuity! with! an! established! set! of! patronge! relations! that! tied! him!to!the!royal!family.69! lHa! btsuns! wide! patronage! network! relied! on! many! factors:! his! relationship! with! the! royal! family! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang,! his!strong! bond! with! the! great! siddha,! his! brilliant! work! on! texts! of!the!bKa!brgyud!pa!school,!his!reputation!as!excellent!master,!which!continued!to!increase!and! spread.! Beside! his! works! and! teachings,! he! started! to! be! renowned! for! his! miracles! as! well.70! As! mentioned! before,! the! royal! family! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! was! lHa! btsuns! main! sponsor.! He! often! went! to! the! royal! court! to! ask! for! donations.! In! return,! he! used! to! give! teachings! and! perform! rituals! for! the! royal! family! on! special! occasions.! According! to! HTNG,! at! Ri! bo! dpal! bar! he!performed!a!protective!ritual!ceremony!for!the!ruler who!was!poisoned!by!food.71!According!to! Ehrhard! (2008:! 70-71,! n.! 10),! the! ruler! was! Kun! dga! rnam! rgyal! lde.! Another! time,! lHa! btsun! performed! a! ritual! for! the! kings! long-life.72! Apparently,! lHa! btsun! also! used! to! offer! some! of! his! paintings! to! his! patrons,! the! royal! family! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! in! particular,73! as! his! master! did.74! According! to! HTMC,! the! Gung! thang! king! also! asked! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! to! restore! the! wall! paintings! of! the! Phags! pa! lha! khang,! after! having! received! a! request! from! sKyid! grongs! elderly! people.75! The! text! refers! to! King! Kun! bzang! Nyi! zla! grags! pa! and! his! cousin,! bKra! shis! dpal! bar,! by! mentioning! them! also! as! the! main! sponsors! of! the! restoration! among! many! others.76! As! spiritual! master! and! member! of! the! royalty,! he! was! able! to! rely! on! his! prominent! kin! to! support! his! spiritual! deeds;! at! the! same! time! the! Gung! thang! rulers! could! rely! on! his! Buddhist! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
bam,!see!Eimer!1979,!1: 22.!An!original!xylograph!of!this!edition!is!kept!in!the!Tucci!Tibetan!Collection!of! the! IsIAO! Library! in! Rome! [cf.! KDGB! 1-2].! For! a! study! of! this! text,! see! Clemente! [forthcoming! b].! On! Chos!dbang!rgyal!mtshan,!a!renowned!master!responsible!of!many!printing!activities!in!the!Mang!yul!Gung! thang!area,!see!Ehrhard!2000a:!23-50;!Ehrhard!2000b:!206).!In!1541!he!invited!Nam!mkha!rdo!rje!to!Gung! thang!and!received!the!reading!authorization!of!the!new!Ba!ra!ba!rGyal!mtshan!dpal!bzang!pos!Collected! Writings! xylograph! in! addition! to! other! teachings! (See! Ehrhard! 2000a:! 62).! In! 1555! he! was! one! of! the! donors! of! materials! for! the! reprinting! of! Mi! la! ras! pas! rnam thar and! mgur bum! edited! by! gTsang! smyon! Heruka.!The!reprinting!was!made!by!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!at!Brag!dkar!rta!so!(see!Ehrhard!2000a:!17-18,!n.! 15;! Schaeffer! 2009:! 62;! Sernesi! 2011b:! 200,! 225-26).! For! information! on! other! sponsorships! by! Kun! bzang! Nyi!zla!grags!pa!before!1555,!see!Ehrhard!2000a:!45.! 68 ! On! gTsang! smyons! renovation,! cf.! HTNG:! ff.!20a7-21a2.! See! also! Larsson! 2009:! 163-66;! Lewis&Jamspal!1988:!192-94;!I.!M.!Stearns!1985:!38;!Von!Rospatt!2001:!197,!203-05.! 69 !Cf.!HTNG: ff.!21a5-21b2.! 70 !For!some!examples!of!lHa!btsuns!miracles,!cf.!HTNG:!ff.!7b5-8a1,!f.!26a5-6,!f.!27a6-7.! 71 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!29a5-29b1.! 72 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!45b1-2.! 73 !For!example,!cf.!HTNG:!ff.!35b1,!44b4.! 74 ! gTsang! smyon,! indeed,! sent! one! of! his! heart-sons,! bSod! nams! grub! pa,! on! a! tour! to! dBus,! gTsang! and! Ts"ri!to!spread!xylographs!as!well!as paintings.!See!Schaeffer!2009:!57-58.! 75 !Cf.!HTMC:!f.!4a4-4b4.!On!the!renovation!works!of!the!Phags!pa!lha!khang!supervised!by!Rin!chen!rnam! rgyal,!cf.!HTMC: ff.!4a1-5a2,!5a6-8a3,!8a3-9b2.!See!also!Ehrhard!2000a:!49-50;!Ehrhard!2004a:!82-85.! 76 !Cf.!HTMC:!ff.!5a2-4,!5b6-8a3.!

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renown!to!enhance! their!reputation! and! legitimacy! through! patronage.! Apart!from! King! Kun!dga! rnam! rgyal! lde,! Kun! bzang! Nyi! zla! grags! pa! and! bKra! shis! dpal! bar,! we! also! find! King! Kun! dga! blo!gros!among!his!sponsors.!This!latter!was!involved!in!the!consecration!of!Slong/Klong!rtse,!the! monastery! located! in! Klong! mda! (sKyid! grong! valley)77! as! well! as! in! the! offering! and! rituals! in! front!of!lHa!btsuns!gdung khang!at!Brag!dkar!rta!so!after!this!latters!death.78! Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!received!donations!from!the!king!of!Nepal!as!well.!According!to!his!rnam mgur,! when! lHa! btsun! was! going! to! repair! the! parasol! of! the! Svayambh'n"th! St'pa,! which! had! been! demolished! by! the! Magar! troops,! the! Nepalese! king! offered! the! salaries! for! the! craftsmen! and! the! paint! for! the! wooden! parasol.79! When! the! king! was! sick,! lHa! btsun! was! invited! at! court.! He! treated! the! king! deploying! his! medical! skills.! After! the! kings! recovery,! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! received! from! him! gold! and! copper! for! the! decoration! of! pillars,! parasol! and! steps! of! the! Svayambh'n"th!St'pa.80! Some! time! after! 1544,! lHa! btsun! started! to! have! significant! dreams.! One! night,! while! he! was! experiencing!the!od gsal!practice,!he!saw!a!manifestation!of!gTsang!smyon!Heruka.!His!spiritual! father! made! a! prophecy! that! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! would! increase! the! welfare! of! sentient! beings! until! the! age! of! eighty.! After! this! prophecy,! lHa! btsun! received! many! donations! such! as! gold,! silver!and!copper!from!several!sponsors,!chos rje Gro!mgon!pa!from!Mon!in!particular.81! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! activities! were! mainly! sponsored! by! the! Gung! thang! royal! family,! but! his! patronage! network! also! involved! a! wide! range! of! people! of! different! social! standing.! For! example,! some! of! the! famous! craftsmen! who! used! to! work! with! him! are! also! mentioned! as! sponsors!of!prints!and!renovation!works.!The!same!occurred!for!many!of!the!minor!patrons!of!his! several! printing! projects! mentioned! in! long! colophons! with! their! very! small! donations! ranging! from! butter! to! tea,! cups,! ritual! items,! boots! etc.! His! disciples! used! to! offer! gifts,! too.82! Rin! chen! rnam!rgyals!enterprises!therefore!show!that!they!were!not!merely!driven!by!the!lites!of!the!time! but!involved!a!wider!popular!support.83! Both! the! biography! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! of! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! show! that! patronage! networks! were! crucial! for! the! achievement! of! the! many! artistic! and! religious! enterprises! of! the! time,!including!the!introduction!and!development!of!printing!in!Tibet.!The!particular!political!and! economic! setting! of! the! fifteenth! century! seems! to! have! promoted! the! rapid! expansion! of! this! technology.!Mang!yul!Gung!thang!was!one!of!the!places!in!which!early!printing!flourished!and!its! royalty! was! heavily! involved! in! it.! While! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! experienced! the! early! days! of! this! technological! innovation,! by! the! time! of! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! printing! houses! were! mushrooming!everywhere.! !! ! ! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! Cf.! HTMC:! ff.! 3b6-3a4.! Brag! dkar! rta! so! was! a! branch! (bu dgon)! of! Slong/Klong! rtse! before! the! foundation! of! the! latter! monastery.! On! this! monastery,! see! Diemberger! 2007:! 191;! Ehrhard! 2004a:! 287,! 427,!n.!205.! 78 ! Cf.! HTMC:! ff.! 29b1-30a5.! We! also! know! from! different! sources! that! other! Gung! thang! royal! members! were! involved! as! sponsors! in! some! printing! projects! carried! on! by! other! masters.! Among! them,! there! were! at! least! two! women,! Gu! ge! ma! dKon! mchog! bzang! rgyal! mo! and! Shes! rab! rgyal! mo.! The! former! sponsored! the! printing! of! Yang! dgon! pas! spiritual! songs! in! 152324! (Cf.! YGPMB:! f.! 162b1.! On! dKon! mchog! bzang! rgyal! mo,! see! Everding! 2000:! 557;! Everding! 2004:! 281,! 290).! Shes! rab! rgyal! mo,! King! bSam! grub! lde's! wife,! sponsored! both! the! printing! of! Yang! dgon! pas! spiritual! songs! and! that! of! the! text! entitled! sKyes mchog gi zhus lan thugs kyi snying po zab moi gter mdzod in! 154041. Cf.! BRBZL:! f.! 391b5;! YGPMB:! f.! 162b1-2;!Sernesi!2011b:!193.! 79 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!34a5-6.!On!the!renovation!works!of!the!Svaya&bh'n"th!St'pa!supervised!by!lHa!btsun,!cf.! HTNG: ff.! 32b7-34a6,! 37b4-5,! 38a6-38b6,! 40b5-42b5;! cf.! HTMC:! 8a3-9a1.! See! also! Decleer! 2000:! 39;! Von!Rospatt!2001:!206-07.! 80 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!40b1-5.! 81 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!40a4-40b1.! 82 !We!know!that!this!also!occurred!with!gTsang!smyon!Herukas!prints.!See!Sernesi!2011b:!184-85.!! 83 !On!this!subject,!see!Clemente!(forthcoming!b);!Clemente!(forthcoming!d).!
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How!Chos!kyi!sgron!ma!Took!Part!in!the!Early!Spread!of!Printing!! According! to! the Gung thang rgyal rabs,! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! father! sponsored! among! other! things! the! print! of! the! collected! works! of! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyal:! He! had! the! De nyid dus pa! in! its! extensive,! medium! and! short! form! printed.84! In! the! genealogical! sequence! of! the! Gung! thang! rulers! he! was! the! first! to! sponsor! a! printing! operation,! but! unfortunately! no! extant! copies! of! this! enterprise! has! turned! up! so! far.85! With! the! few! exceptions! that! we! are! going! to! address! below,! the! volumes! of! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyal! that! have! survived! are! in! manuscript! form.! Given! the! challenge! that! printing! a! collection! of! that! size! represented! (with! the! extensive! version! counting! in! its! original! form! 110! volumes)! in! the! early! days! of! printing,! it! is! possible! that! the! description! in! the! Gung thang rgyal rabs! conflates! several! different! operations! that! happened! around! the! same! time,! some! of! which! included! the! involvement! of! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma.! From!the!above!mentioned!1407!extant!print!produced!at!Shel!dkar!under!the!aegis!of!Bo!dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyal,! it! is! clear! that! printing! was! available! in! the! region.! In! addition! to! this! canonical! scripture,! recent! discoveries! suggest! that! particular! volumes! of! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyals! works! were! produced! at! Shel! dkar! as! early! as! 1410.86! Printing! is! explicitly! referred! to! in! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! biography! in! a! passage! in! which! she! is! described! as! preparing! the! texts! of! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyals! teachings! for! printing! along! with! blessing! images! to! be! distributed! to! a! large! assembly! that! had! gathered! in! sKyid! grong.! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! biography! reports! this! event! that! took! place! in! the! late! 1440s87! (this! translation! is! more! detailed! than! my! recent!one):! ! The! Sahaja! yoga! (lhan cig skyes sbyor)! according! to! the! Mah"mudr" tradition,! and! the! teachings! of! [the! collection]! Clarification of the Hidden Meanings! (sbas gdon gsal ba)88! were! learnt!and!rehearsed.!The!teachings!for!the!attending!followers!were!supervised,!the!texts!were! written!down,!every!textbooks!was!edited!for!printing!(yig cha so soi spar zhu dag),!images!of! the! lords! tutelary! deity! were! printed! (rjei thugs dam lha sku spar) and! every! ritual! item! was! looked! after.! [She]! looked! after! all! the! activities! that! were! performed! to! please! the! lama,! providing! everything! that! the! people! assembled! around! the! Omniscient! needed! for! the! celebration!(CGMNT:!f.!62b).! ! All!these!activities!seem!to!have!involved!a!crowd!of!people!of!different!social!standing!and!seem! consistent! with! a! popularization! of! Buddhist! practices,! something! pointed! out! by! Franz-Karl! Ehrhard! in! relation! to! the! cult! of! Avalokite$vara! and! the! Phags! pa! lha! khang! (Ehrhard! 2004a:! 127,! 461)the! first! biography! of! this! holy! site! was! compiled! by! the! Bo! dong! pa! scholar! dPal! ldan! dar! (14241510)! and! printed! shortly! afterwards! (the! 16th! century! prints! are! extant).89! The! increasingly! popular! participation! in! Buddhist! practices,! for! which! printing! was! instrumental,! is! also! reflected! in! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! explicit! commitment! to! teach! reading! skills! to! nuns! (who! would! have! diverse! social! backgrounds).! This! was! consistent! with! her! desire! of! transcending! worldly!conventions!about!status!and!gender.!! After! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyals! demise,! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! instigated! the! edition! and! reproduction! of! his! collected! works.! The! workshop! she! set! up! included! scribes! but! there! is! no! mention! of! carvers! in! connection! to! a! printing! operation.! The! whole! process! took! about! four! months! which! is! more! consistent! with! the! reproduction! of! one! or! more! manuscript! copies! rather! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!See!Everding!2000:!129.! !See!Ehrhard!2000a:!12-13.! 86 ! The! Paltsek! Research! Institute! is! about! to! publish! a! collection! of! early! prints! that! include! a! 1410! extant! copy!of!a!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyals!print.! 87 !According!to!the!biography!this!took!place!some!time!before!the!death!of!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyal! in!1451!and!after!she!had!been!with!him!for!a!number!of!years!and!had!received!full!ordination.! 88 ! sBas don gsal ba! can! be! either! a! generic! indication! of! the! teaching! content! or,! more! likely,! the! reference! to!a!specific!collection!of!texts;!in!this!case!it!may!well!indicate!the!Haribadras!commentary!printed!at!Shel! dkar!in!1407!or!a!text!related!to!it.!! 89 !See!Ehrhard!2004a:!127,!306.!
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than! the! preparation! of! a! large! set! of! blocks.! It! cannot! be! excluded! that! the! production! of! a! print! edition!was!also!involved!but!one!would!expect!it!to!be!mentioned!in!more!detail!given!the!size!of! the! operation.! Perhaps! it! took! place! later! on! the! basis! of! the! manuscript! version,! or! perhaps! only! the!more!concise!forms!of!the!collected!works!were!actually!printed.!The!extant!copy!of!the!most! concise!version!of!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyals!collected!works,!the!dPal de kho na nyid dus pa snying po,! sponsored! by! the! rulers! of! Yar! brog,! seems! to! indicate! that! at! least! this! form! of! his! collection!was!printed!during!the!15th!century,!possibly!1410.90! Certainly! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! first! spiritual! master,! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyal,! had! a! significant! role! in! the! expansion! of! printing.! This! is! something! that! may! be! connected! to! his! own! spiritual! and! genealogical! descent:! his! uncle! Lo! chen! Grags! pa! rgyal! mtshan! (13521403),! founder! of! both! Shel! dkar! and! Gung! thang! chos! sde! monasteries,! was! the! spiritual! master! who! initiated! the! 1407! print! of! a! Haribadras! commentary! to! the! Abhisamay!la"k!ra91! just! after! the! demise! of! Si! tu! Chos! kyi! rin! chen! (died! in! 1402)! with! the! patronage! of! his! son! Si! tu! lHa! btsan! skyabs! (Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! father-in-law).! This! was! explicitly! mentioned! in! the! Shel dkar chos byung! (f.! 43b)! as! something! new! (grel pa don gsal par gsar bzheng).! In! his! turn! Lo! chen! Grags! pa! rgyal! mtshans! maternal! uncle! and! main! teacher! was! Lo! chen! Byang! chub! rtse! mo! (1315? 1392)! who! prophetically! announced! the! foundation! of! the! Shel! dkar! monastery.! The! maternal! uncle! of! Lo! chen! Byang! chub! rtse! mo! was! dPang! lo! ts"! ba! Blo! gros! brtan! pa! (12761342).! All! of! these! masters! were! born! in! Zur! tsho,! an! area! that! together! with! the! neighbouring! sMan! khab! appears! again! and! again! in! relation! to! the! availability! of! carving! and! printing! skills! and! editorial! work! (including! those! linked! to! gTsang! smyon! Heruka! and! Kun! tu! bzang! mo),92! and! is! located! on! the! main! route! between! Shel! dkar! and! rDzong! dkar/kha! (as! well! as! in! the! proximity! of! sPo! rong! dPal!mo!chos!sding,!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyals!main!seat).!Furthermore,!Zur!tsho!was!also! the! area! within! which! U! rgyan! pa! (12301309),! teacher! of! dPang! lo! ts"! ba,! was! born,! lived! over! significant! stretches! of! his! life,! especially! in! his! sBud! skra! monastic! residence,! and! produced! some!of!his!works.93!During!his!peripatetic!life!U!rgyan!pa,!who!had!been!trained!and!ordained!at! Bo! dong! E,! had! supervised! printing! operations! at! the! Yuan! court,! including! that! of! a! K"lacakra! text! produced! at! the! end! of! the! 13th! century.94! It! is! perhaps! not! a! coincidence! that! precisely! this! text!is!included,!as!print,!in!the!collected!works!of!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyal!(vol.!116!of!the! modern!facsimile!edition).95!! Whether!acquired!through!U!rgyan!pa!and!the!Bo!dong!pa!masters!or!the!Sa!skya!political!and! religious! networks,! printing! skills! spread! in! South-Western! Tibet! involving! increasingly! not! only! the! ruling! lite! but! also! larger! sections! of! the! population! thanks! to! the! action! of! charismatic! spiritual!masters.!! As!a!royal!bride!first!and!as!a!disciple!of!Bo!dong!Phyogs!las!rnam!rgyal!later,!Chos!kyi!sgron! ma! participated! in! a! wider! range! of! connections! that! linked! La! stod! lHo! and! Gung! thang! and! created!an!important!hub!for!the!development!and!rapid!expansion!of!printing!technologies!in!15th! century!Tibet.! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! This! was! produced! by! the! rulers! of! Yar! brog,! Nam! mkha! bzang! po! and! his! nephew! Kun! dga! rgyal! mtshan,! closely! connected! to! Bo! dong! Phyogs! las! rnam! rgyal! (see! Erhard! 2000a:! 13).! The! Bo! dong! pa! tradition!was!thriving!in!both!places!and!religious!and!technical!cross-fertilization!was!likely.!This!included! the! fact! that! Chos! kyi! sgron! mas! reincarnation! line! was! eventually! established! in! bSam! sdings! monastery! in! Yar! brog! with! the! support! of! the! Yar! brog! rulers! (see! Diemberger! 2007:! 253-54).! The! connection! between! these! two! areas! was! further! enhanced! through! marriage! alliances! between! the! ruling! lites! of! the! two!places!(see!Everding!2000:!558).! 91 ! Details! are! mentioned! not! only! in! the! colophon! of! the! print! but! also! in! the! text Ta si tu lha btsan skyabs kyi grel cung don gsal par du bsgrubs pai dkar chag tshigs bcad la published! in! a! collection! of! newly! retrieved!Bodongpa!texts.!Cf.!TSHTK:!vol.!4,!3-1/303.!! 92 !See!Ehrhard!2010b:!154-55;!Sernesi!2011b:!179-237.! 93 !See!Li!2011:!passim;!Van!der!Kujip!1996:!43-51.! 94 !This!is!part!of!a!variety!of!13th/early!14th!century!prints!produced!at!the!Yuan!court!that!made!it!to!Central! Tibet!and!are!currently!surfacing!in!an!increasing!number.!See!Sherab!Sangpo!2009:!41-42.! 95 ! I! am! indebted! to! the! late! Gene! Smith! for! drawing! my! attention! to! this! peculiar! occurrence! and! to! the! potential!link!between!U!rgyan!pa!and!the!Bo!dong!pa!masters!in!relation!to!printing.!!
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lHa!btsun!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal!and!His!Editorial!Activity96! lHa! btsun! produced! many! important! works! at! the! sacred! place! of! Brag! dkar! rta! so,! most! of! them! sponsored! by! the! royal! family! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang.! For! example,! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! rnam thar,!one!of!the!main!sources!of!this!article,!was!printed!on!the!Gung!thang!kings!order.97 I! counted! 48! works! compiled,! edited,! written! or! printed! by! this! master.! As! far! as! I! know,! 13! of! these! works! have! not! surfaced! yet;! therefore! it! is! impossible! to! verify! the! attribution! to! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal.! 18! of! them! are! listed! in! lHa! btsuns! rnam mgur! and! rnam thar.! According! to! both! works,! most! of! the! unavailable! texts! were! written! by! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! after! having! experienced!some!visions,!while!two!of!them!should!be!the!dkar chags!of!the!renovation!works!of! the!Svaya&bh'n"th!St'pa!and!the!Phags!pa!lha!khang!supervised!by!lHa!btsun.98!! The! first! reference! provides! information! about! the! drafting! of! gTsang! smyons! rnam thar. After! the! great! siddha! had! taught! lHa! btsun to! draw! ma%#alas! and! had! recounted! the! attainment! of! his! Complete! Liberation! at! sTag! tshang,! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! started! to! draft! his! masters! biography,! probably! by! using! the! basic! material! written! by! another! heart-son! of! gTsang! smyon,! namely! Nor! bu! dpal! ldan.! lHa! btsun! wrote! the! rnam thar! in! a! scroll! at! bSam! gtan! spyil! po.99! This! biography!was!then!printed!at!Brag!dkar!rta!so!in!1543!by!lHa!btsun.100! The! second! reference! to! his! rnam mgur! mentions! that! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! spent! seven! years! in! several! secluded! sites! on! the! way! to! sKyid! grong,! where! he! sponsored! the! realization! of! many! ritual! objects,! providing! instructions! and! composing! a! textbook! on! The! Four-lettered! Mah"mudr"! (Yi ge bzhi pai khrid yig).101! This! happened! around! 1525,! before! the! establishment! of! his! seat! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so.! The! text! could! refer! to! the! work! entitled! The! Treasury! of! the! View:! The! textbook! of! the! Four-lettered! Mah"mudr"! (Phyag rgya chen po yi ge bzhi pa'i khrid yig lta ba'i gter mdzod) listed! in! the! Bras! spungs! Catalog! (p.! 1019).102! According! to! the! same! catalog!(p.!1637),!a!further!text!entitled!Elucidation![of]!Wisdom:!Notes!on!the!Instruction!for!the! Four-lettered! Mah"mudr"! (Phyag rgya chen po'i yi ge bzhi pa'i khrid kyi zin bris ye shes gsal byed)!could!be!ascribed!to!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyal.103! Another! reference! to! lHa! btsuns! activity! mentions! his! encounter! with! the! king! of! Kathmandu.! It! refers! to! the! renovation! works! of! the! Svaya&bh'n"th! st'pa,! the! consecration! ceremony! and! the! request!of!the!composition!of!a!dkar chag.104!! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! A! part! of! this! paragraph! was! presented! by! me! at! the! 12th! Seminar! of! the! International! Association! for! Tibetan!studies!(IATS)!which!was!held!in!Vancouver!in!2010.! 97 ! Cf.! HTMC:! f.! 32a1-2.! The! ruler! who! sponsored! lHa! btsuns! rnam thar! might! be! Kun! bzang! nyi! zla! grags! pa!or!his!two!cousins,!bKra!shis!dpal!bar!and!Kun!dga!blo!gros.! 98 !For!a!list!of!these!works,!see!Clemente!(forthcoming!a).! 99 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!16a6-16b5.! 100 ! It! bears! the! title! of! The! Hair! Bristling! Biography! of! grub thob gTsang! smyon! (Grub thob gtsang pa smyon pai rnam thar dad pai spu long g.yo ba).! An! original! xylograph! of! this! work! is! kept! in! the! Tucci! Tibetan! Collection! of! the! IsIAO! Library! in! Rome! (vol.! 706,! ff.! 1-65a).! Cf.! HTTMNT.! For! its! cataloguing,! see! De! Rossi! Filibeck! 2003:! 341.! For! its! description! and! the! translation! of! the! colophon,! see! Clemente! 2007:! 124,! 135-37.! For! a! presentation! of! the! text,! see! Larsson! 2009:! 50-52.! This! biography! has! been! published! together! with! gTsang! smyons! bDe mchog mkha gro snyan brgyud yig cha! at! the! beginning! of! the! first! volume,! but! it! comes! from! a! separate! manuscript! and! it! is! not! part! of! the! collection! (see! Sernesi! 2007:! Ch.! 2).! Two! microfilms! of! this! work! are! also! obtainable! from! the! NGMPP! (reel! n.! E! 2518/10,! reel! n.! L!12/2).!! 101 ! Cf.! HTNG: ff.! 30b5-31a5.! Phyag chen yi ge bzhi pa! is! a! teaching! transmitted! by! Sha! ra! Rab! byams! pa! Sangs! rgyas! seng! ge! (14271470)! to! gTsang! smyon.! Sha! ra! Rab! byams! pa,! who! was! the! great! siddhas! main! master,! had! received! it! from! his! rtsa bai bla ma! Ngag! dbang! grags! pa! (1418-1496),! the! 12th! abbot! of! the!sTag!lung!monastery.!Among!the!lineages!of!the!phyag chen yi ge bzhi pa!which!he!conferred!upon!Sha! ra! Rab! byams! pa,! two! had! passed! through! sGam! po! pas! disciple! Phag! mo! gru! pa! (11101170).! See! Ehrhard!2004b:!587-88;!Sernesi!2007:!197-98;!I.!M.!Stearns!1985:!23,!49,!n.!14.!On!Sha!ra!Rab!byams!pa,! see! Ehrhard! 2004b:! 587-88,! 593,! n.! 6;! Ehrhard! 2012:! 162,! n.12! &! 173;! Larsson! 2009:! 240-42;! Larsson! 2011:!432-37;!I.!M.!Stearns!1985:!23.! 102 !I!took!this!information!from!Martin&Cherniaks!database.!See!Martin&Cherniak!2011.! 103 !I!took!this!information!from!Martin&Cherniaks!database.!See!Martin&Cherniak!2011.! 104 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!40b1-5.!
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At!the!end!of!lHa!btsuns!rnam mgur,!we!find!a!reference!to the!printing!of!120!woodblocks!of! Mi! la! ras! pas! mgur bum,105! Ras! chung! pas! rnam mgur,106! Gling! ras! pas! rnam mgur,107! rGod! tshang! pa! mGon! po! rdo! rjes! rnam mgur,108! gTsang! smyons! rnam mgur,! the! Outline! of! the! FourLettered! Mah"mudr"109! and! a! textbook! on! this! teaching,! the! Outline! of! the! Three! Cycles! of! Doh!s,! the! Six! Treasures! of! Doh!s (Do ha mdzod drug).110! Some! of! these! works! are! mentioned! again! in! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! rnam thar! together! with! The! Three! Cycles! of! Doh!s (Do ha skor gsum) and!the!dkar chag of!the!Phags!pa!lha!khang!restoration.111! Visions! played! an! important! part! in! the! realization! of! lHa! btsuns! works.! In! this! paragraph! I! am! going! to! detail! how! these! visions! acted! as! a! powerful! source! of! inspiration! for! him! as! it! had! been! for! his! spiritual! father.! We! know! that! gTsang! smyons! cultural! project! originated! from! a! vision! of! N"ropa,! who! told! him! to! compose! Mi! la! ras! pas! rnam thar! and! also! to! edit! the! collection! of! his! spiritual! songs! (mgur bum).! According! to! the! biography! of! gTsang! smyon! Heruka! written! by! lHa! btsun,! N"ropa! also! directed! him! towards! the! patrons! who! would! sponsor! the! work.112! In! the! course! of! time! a! number! of! visions! kept! on! contributing! to! the! great! siddhas! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
! It! referes! to! rJe btsun mi la ras pa rnam thar rgyas par phye pa mgur bum,! edited! by! gTsang! smyon! Heruka! and! printed! by! lHa! btsun! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! in! 1555.! A! xylograph! of! this! edition! is! kept! at! the! British! Library! in! London! (BL! 19999a3).! This! is! the! one! used! by! Jschke! to! work! on! his! dictionary.! It! has! many! hand-written! notes! on! it.! Cf.! MNTGB.! A! microfilm! of! this! work! is! also! available! at! the! NGMPP! (L! 250/8-251/1,! 250! folios).! On! this! text,! see! Eimer&Tsering! 1990:! 71-72;! Roesler! 2000:! 227-29;! Schaeffer! 2009:!62;!Sernesi!2011b:!200,!225-26.! 106 ! It! refers! to! Tshe gcig la ja lus brnyes pa rje ras chung pai rnam thar rags bsdus mgur rnam rgyas pa,! written! by! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal,! completed! and! printed! in! 1563! (Male! Water! Pig! Year)! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so.! The!date!of!printing!of!this!text!arises!some!problems.!According!to!lHa!btsuns! rnam thar,!indeed,!he!died! in! 1557! (Cf.! HTMC:! f.! 28a2-7).! There! is! also! another! source! that! confirms! lHa! btsuns! death.! In! the! colophon! of! Sha! ra! Rab! byams! pas! biography! printed! in! 1559! by! Byams! pa! phun! tshogs! (15031581),! this! latter!wrote!that!the!work!was!done!in!order!to!fulfill!lHa!btsuns!last!wishes.!See!Schaeffer!2011:!473.!The! xylograph!of!Ras!chung!pas!rnam mgur could!have!been!written!by!lHa!btsun!before!his!death,!but!printed! by! one! of! his! disciples! in! 1563.! The! Male! Water! Pig! Year! could! also! refer! to! 1503,! but! we! know! that! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! arrived! for! the! first! time! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! some! time! after! gTsang! smyons! death,! therefore! after! 1507! and! that! he! established! his! seat! there! in 1525.! A! xylograph! of! this! work! is! kept! in! the! Tucci!Tibetan!Collection!of!the!IsIAO!Library!in!Rome!(vol.!657/3,!ff.!1-93a).! 107 ! It! refers! to! the! biography! with! songs! of! Gling! ras! pa! Pad! ma! rdo! rje! (11281188)! entitled! Grub thob gling ras kyi rnam mgur mthong ba don ldan,! which! was! edited! and! printed! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! by! lHa! btsun.! This! xylograph! was! sponsored! by! Kun! bzang! Nyi! zla! grags! pa.! Cf.! GRPNG:! f.! 57/61a6-61b1.! For! other! copies! of! this! microfilm,! see! NGMPP! reel! no.! E! 2518/6,! L! 12/1,! L! 581/5! (incomplete).! On! this! work! see!also!Schaeffer!2011:!472;!Smith!2001:!76.! 108 ! It! refers! to! the! biography! with! songs! of! rGod! tshang! pa! (11891258)! entitled! rJe rgod tshang pai rnam thar rgyal thang pa bde chen rdo rjes mdzad pa la mgur chen gas rgyan pa.! This! work! was written! by! rGyal! thang! pa! bDe! chen! rdo! rje,! but! edited! and! expanded! with! songs! of! rGod! tshang! pa! by! lHa! btsun Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal,! compiled,! committed! to! blocks! and! printed! in! 1563! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so.! Cf.! GTPNT:! f.! 42a2-7.! For! other! microfilms! of! the! same! work,! see! also! NGMPP! reel! no.! E! 2518/8,! L! 969/5! (incomplete),! L!970/1.!See!also!Schaeffer!2011:!472;!Smith!2001:!75-76,!289,!n.!183.! 109 !It!should!refer!to!the!work!entitled!Phyag rgya chen po yi ge bzhi pai sa bcad sbas don gsal bai nyi ma.! This! was! written! by! lHa! btsun! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! and! printed! at! the! same! place.! For! microfilms! of! this! work,!see!NGMPP!reel!no.!L!569/10,!E!2517/6.!See!also!Schaeffer!2011:!476.! 110 !Both!texts!should!refer!to!Bram ze chen pos mdzad pai dho ha bskor gsum | mdzod drug | ka kha dho ha | sa spyad rnams,! a! miscellanea! of! different! authors! such! as! Saraha,! N"g"rjuna,! (avaripa,! Vir'pa,! Tilopa,! N"ropa,! Maitr#pa,! K)*%"c"rya,! compiled! and! edited! by! lHa! btsun! and! printed! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! in! 1543.! An! original! xylograph! of! this! work! from! Brag! dkar! rta! so! is! kept! in! the! Tucci! Tibetan! Collection! at! the! IsIAO!Library!in!Rome!(vol.!1102,!ff.!1a-35b).!For!its!cataloguing,!see!De!Rossi!Filibeck!2003:!397.!For!its! description! and! a! partial! translation! of! some! colophons,! see! Clemente! 2007:! 125,! 138-40.! The! whole! text! was! reproduced! from! the! original! Brag! dkar! rta! so! woodblocks.! See! U! rgyan! rDo! rje! 1976:! 107-79.! Cf.! HTNG: ff.!52a7-53a4.! 111 !Cf.!HTMC: ff.!8a3-9a1,!10a6-12a5.! 112 ! The! story! of! the! inspirational! vision! of! N"ropa! is! narrated! by! lHa! btsun! in! his! biography! of! gTsang! smyon! Heruka.! Cf.! HTTMNT:! ff.! 46b3-47a6.! A! translation! of! this! episode! is! provided! in! I.! M.! Stearns! 1985:!66-68;!Quintman!2006:!198-99.!!
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project.! According! to! lHa! btsuns! rnam thar,! he! experienced! a! vision! in! a! dream! before! establishing! his! seat! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so.! He! saw! Ras! chung! pa! together! with! two! women! adorned! with! bones.! Ras! chung! pa! predicted! that! he! would! not! encounter! any! obstacles! in! his! life.113! Also! lHa! btsuns! editorial! activity! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! began! with! a! vision.! During! the! first! one,! lHa! btsun! saw! gTsang! smyon! Heruka! in! the! form! of! the! great! brahmin! Saraha.! He! experienced! such! vision! while! coming! back! from! the! Nepal! Valley,! where! he! had! got! the! renovation! works! of! the! Svaya&bh'n"th! St'pa! underway! (1530).! Saraha! granted! him! the! introduction! to! the! Three! Cycles! of! Doh!s,! the! Ka kha do ha! and! The! Thirteenth! Chapter! of! the! Sign! Lineage! (brDa rgyud!leu bcu gsum pa),!after!which!he!dissolved!into!the!top!of!lHa!btsuns!head.!Rin!chen!rnam! rgyal! woke! up,! offered! a! praise! to! Saraha! and! drew! his! vision! in! a! wall! painting.! Later! on,! he! composed!the!The!Outline!of!the!Three!Cycles!of!Doh!s!(Do ha skor gsum gyi sa bcad).114!! Following! this,! lHa! btsun! experienced! other! visions! as! well.! The! narrative! pattern! of! these! visions!in!lHa!btsuns!rnam mgur is!usually!the!same.!The!master!appears!and!grants!instructions,! then! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! wakes! up! and! sings! a! praise! for! his! master.! He! draws! his! vision! and! finally!composes!one!or!more!works!on!the!received!teachings.!! lHa! btsuns! second! vision! occurred! again! after! his! return! from! the! Nepal! Valley! (1531).! He! saw!the!Indian!mah!siddha Vir'pa!who!bestowed!The!eighteen!oral!instructions!of!the!Path!with! the! Result! (Lam bras bu dang bcas pai man ngag bcwa brgyad)! upon! him.! Vir'pa! then! turned! into! the! letter! dhi! and! dissolved! into! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyals! heart! centre.! When! lHa! btsun! woke! up,! he! painted! his! vision! in! a! thang kha! which! was! offered! to! the! king! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang.! Later! on,! he! drew! the! same! vision! on! a! wall! painting! and! wrote! down! some! notes! on! lam bras! oral! tradition! (Lam bras kyi gsung rgyun man ngag rnams zin bris).115! Unfortunately,! it! seems! that! this! latter! painting! and! also! others! made! by! lHa! btsun! in! various! parts! of! the! monastery! got! lost!due!to!the!reconstruction!of!the!building!in!the!course!of!time.!Nevertheless,!the!wall!painting! of! the! eight! mah!siddhas! that! lHa! btsun! and! his! disciples! created! in! the! summertime! of! 1529! (glang loi dbyar)! near! Mi! la! ras! pas! cave! might! still! be! there.! Traces! of! them! might! be! among! the!few!lines!and!pale!figures!visible!around!the!cave.116! lHa! btsun! then! experienced! a! vision! of! gTsang! smyon! in! the! form! of! N"g"rjuna! who! taught! him!the [text]!gTum mo gtsor ston pai sgyu lus, The!Five!Stages!of!the!Profound!Path!(Zab lam rim pa lnga),! The! Explanation! of! the! Five! Stages! (Rim lngai bshad pa), and The! View! of! Profound! Madhyamaka (Zab mo dbu mai lta ba).! After! his! awakening,! lHa! btsun! drew! his! vision!and!composed!The!Essential!Meaning!of!the!Five!Pacifications!(Zhi lngai bsdus don).117! After! this! came! the! vision! of! gTsang! smyon! in! the! form! of! Tilopa! who! explained! to! him! the! rDo rje gzhung chung.! This! time! lHa! btsun! painted! his! vision! on! a! cotton! piece! of! cloth.! Then,! he! composed!The!Outline!of!the!rDo rje gzhung chung!(rDo rje gzhung chung!gi sa bcad)!and!other! works!on!its!teachings.118! Then! gTsang! smyon! appeared! to! him! in! the! form! of! N"ropa.! He! spoke! about! the! supplementary! words! of! the! rDo rje tshig rkang and! the! instructions! on! the! twelve! major! trials! submitted! to! him! by! his! master! Tilopa.! After! this! vision,! lHa! btsun! once! more! painted! it! on! a! cotton! piece! of! cloth! and! wrote! The! Instructions! on! the! Twelve! Major! Trials! (dKa chen bcu gnyis kyi gdams pa rnams).119! Again,! lHa! btsun! saw! the! Indian! mah!siddha! (avaripa.! The! master! explained! to! him! the! SeventhChapter! of! the! Sign! Lineage! (brDa rgyud leu bdun pa)! and! the! oral! instructions! on! the! Six! Dharmas.! lHa! btsun! portrayed! (avaripa! on! a! cotton! piece! of! cloth.! Then,! he! authored! The!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
113 114

!Cf.!HTMC:!f.!11b2-5.! !Cf.!HTMC:!ff.!34a6-34b3.! 115 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!35a5-35b2.! 116 !Personal!observation!by!Dr.!Hildegard!Diemberger!(2011).! 117 !Cf.!HTNG:!ff.!39b6-40a4.! 118 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!44b1-5.! 119 !Cf.!HTNG:!f.!45a3-7.!

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Oral!Instructions!on! the! Six! Dharmas! (Chos drug gi man ngag rnams)! as! well! as! The! Outline! of! the!Seventh!Chapter!of!the!Sign!Lineage!(brDa rtsa leu bdun pai sa bcad).120! The! visions! of! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! appear! repeatedly! until! the! end! of! the!rnam mgur.! He! saw! gTsang! smyon! in! the! form! of! different! masters:! Mar! pa,121! Mi! la! ras! pa122! and! Padmasambhava,123! in!that!order.! lHa!btsuns!last!vision!consists!of!another!apparition!of!Saraha.!After!his!awakening,!Rin!chen! rnam! rgyal! wrote! The! Root! Text! and! Commentary! of! the! Sign! Lineage! (brDa rgyud kyi rtsa grel)! and! also! The! Oral! Instructions! of! Ye shes stong mthun124! (Ye shes stong mthun gyi man ngag).125! It! is! remarkable! that! lHa! btsun! experienced! visions! of! masters! belonging! to! different! religious! traditions! such! as! N"g"rjuna,! Vir'pa! and! Padmasambhava.! Unfortunately,! all! the! texts! written! by! him!after!these!visionsaccording!to!the!rnam mgurare!unavailable.! According!to!Rin!chen!rnam!rgyals!rnam thar,!one!night,!toward!the!end!of!his!life,!lHa!btsun! dreamt! of! a! woman! who! ordered! him! to! print! books.! Following! this! vision,! he! prepared! an! anthology! of! Mi! la! ras! pas! songs! that! had! not! been! included! in! the! mgur bum compiled! by! his! master.126! This! was! presumably! the! so-called! rDo rjei mgur drug (The! Six! Adamantine! Songs),! a! separate! collection! of! songs! attributed! to! Mi! la! ras! pa,! but! entirely! compiled! and! edited! by! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal,! printed! at! Brag! dkar! rta! so! on! the! 1st! April! 1550.127! Originally,! the! songs,! often! with!title!and!final!dedication,!existed!as!independent!short!texts.128! These! visions! probably! helped! lHa! btsun! make! his! works! more! authoritative,! giving! him! the! blessing! of! previous! important! masters.! At! the! same! time,! they! attracted! sponsors! for! his! printing! projects,! in! other! words,! visions! had! the! same! relevance! of! prophecies! in! being! powerful! agents! for!the!mobilization!of!popular!support.! ! Conclusion! As! we! mentioned! in! the! introduction! of! this! article,! both! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! lHa! btsun! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! belonged! to! the! royal! family! of! Mang! yul! Gung! thang! but! they! were! both! excluded! from! the! competition! for! the! throne,! the! former! being! a! woman,! the! latter! probably! because! of! his! illegitimacy! or! because! of! his! decision! to! embrace! a! spiritual! role! rather! than! a! hazarduous! political! one.! However,! they! did! not! disappear! from! historical! memory! as! marginal! figures.! They! engaged! with! their! predicament! and! gained! a! prominent! role! in! the! society! of! their! time.! Both! were! indeed! able! to! become! leaders! in! a! way! that! transcended! the! ordinary! separation! of! temporal! and! religious! powers.! Both! used! their! influence! to! unify! the! opposite! sides! of! the! Gung! thang! royal! family! as! well! as! the! rulers! of! the! neighboring! territories.! Both! became! !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
!Cf.!HTNG: f.!46a2-7.! ! After! this! vision! lHa! btsun! wrote! The! Oral! Instructions! of! the! Essential! Meaning! of! rGya gar gsang spyod (rGya gar gsang spyod kyi don bsdui man ngag rnams).!Cf.!HTNG: ff.!46b3-47a3.! 122 ! When! lHa! btsun! woke! up,! he! composed! The! Notes! on! the! Oral! Instructions! of! the! Three! Cycles! of! Sre pho!(Sre pho skor gsum gyi zhal gdams zin bris). Cf.!HTNG: ff.!48a5-48b1.! 123 ! Padmasambhava! gave! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! some! rnying ma pa! teachings.! Then,! lHa! btsun! wrote! The Profound! Instructions! of! the! Inner! Essence! of! the! Master! (Bla ma yang tig gi zab don rnams).! Cf.! HTNG: ff.! 49a4-49b3.! According! to! Ehrhard,! Bla ma yang tig! refers! to! Klong! chen! Rab! byams! pas! new! codification! of! the! Bi ma snying! thig! and! is! part! of! his! sNying thig ya bzhi! collection.! On! this! subject,! see! Ehrhard!1990:!20-27.! 124 !See!Sernesi!2007:!70.! 125 ! Cf.! HTNG: ff.! 51a4-51b6.! Some! of! these! visions! have! been! mentioned! by! Quintman! in! a! note! appeared! in!his!PhD!dissertation.!See!Quintman!2006:!238,!n.!123.! 126 !Cf.!HTMC:!f.!22b4.!See!Schaeffer!2011:!470.! 127 ! The! complete! title! is! rJe btsun mi la ras pai rdo rje mgur drug sogs gsung rgyun thor bu ga.! An! original! Brag! dkar! rta! so! xylograph! of! this! work! is! kept! in! the! Tucci! Tibetan! Collection! of! the! IsIAO! Library! in! Rome! (vol.! 1089/2,! ff.! 1-109a).! For! its! cataloguing,! see! De! Rossi! Filibeck! 2003:! 394.! For! its! description,! see! Clemente! 2007:! 124-25,! 138.! Another! copy! of! the! same! edition! is! kept! in! the! Cambridge! University!Library!(UL!Tibetan!155.2).! 128 ! On! this! work,! see! Sernesi! 2004;! Sernesi! 2011b:! 198-200;! Roberts! 2007:! 37-38.! For! a! translation! of! the! whole!text,!see!Cutillo&Kunga!Rinpoche!1978;!Cutillo&Kunga!Rinpoche!1986.!
121 120

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prominent! spiritual! masters! who,! while! renouncing! the! world,! were! also! able! to! undertake! significant! projects! by! mobilizing! a! huge! quantity! of! resources! thanks! to! their! royal! kinship! as! well! as! to! their! popularity.! Their! patronage! networks! included! not! only! members! of! their! family,! but! also! local! rulers,! noblemen,! craftsmen! and! common! people! such! as! shepherds,! farmers,! monks,! and! so! on.! By! relying! on! their! charisma,! religious! authoritativeness! as! well! as! prophecies! and! visions,! both! Chos! kyi! sgron! ma! and! Rin! chen! rnam! rgyal! successfully! built! a! relatively! popular! basis! for! their! Buddhist! enterprises.! Their! story! shows! how! printing! was! promoted! and! spread! throughout! Tibet! thanks! to! the! synergy! between! higher! and! lower! classes! which! was! skilfully! and! cleverly! created! by! masters! who! operated! at! different! levels! of! society.! One! of! the! big! questions! that! remain! still! to! be! explored! concerns! the! extent! and! the! long! term! impact! of! the! technological,!religious!and!social!innovation!of!this!period! ! ! ! ! ! !

! ! ! ! !

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