Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
05/02/09
DEFINITIONS
All the external conditions, both abiotic and biotic, affecting organisms.
Environment
Where an organism lives, which generally has a particular environment.
Habitat
A biological community and the physical environment associated with it.
Ecosystem
The role of a species in its habitat or everything that it does, including its
requirements (its total use of biotic and abiotic resources).
Niche
The non-living (physical and climatic) aspects of an environment.
Abiotic factor
Aspects of an environment due to the presence of living organisms.
Biotic factor
Range of values for an environmental factor within which a species thrives and
reproduces.
Optimum range
The ability of an organism to withstand extreme variations in environmental
conditions.
Tolerance
Any change in the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it better
suited to its environment.
Adaptation
The group of plant, animal and micro-organism species inhabiting a given area.
Community
ENVIRONMENT
The environment includes all the factors, both living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic), that affect the lives of organisms.
BIOTIC FACTORS
These include all the relationships between members of the same species
(intraspecific) and with members of other species (interspecific).
ABIOTIC FACTORS
These are the physical factors in the environment that can act as stimuli for a
response from an organism.
BIOTIC: ABIOTIC:
Competition Light
Aggression Gravity
Co-operation Temperature
Predator/Prey Water
Reproduction Chemicals
Courtship Touch
Availability of mates Sound
Succession Pressure
Stratification Wind
Hierarchies Substance
Parental care Current
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Plants and Animals
09/02/09
MATCHING PREFIXES
PHOTO: Light
CHEMO: Chemical
HYDRO: Water
GEO: Gravity
THIGMO: Touch
THERMO: Temperature
RHEO: Current
PLANT RESPONSES
TROPISMS-
This is a growth response towards or away from an environmental
stimulus (e.g. light, water etc.) coming from one direction.
If the growth is towards the stimulus we say it is positive
If the growth is away from the stimulus we say it is negative
Examples of Tropisms:
- If the shoot of a plant grows toward the light it is positively phototropic.
- If the root of a seedling grows down it is positively geotropic.
- If the roots in soil grow away from copper pipes they are negatively
chemotropic.
- If the branches of a vine twist around a trellis it is positively thigmotropic.
- When a pollen tube grows towards a chemical in the egg it is positively
chemotropic.
10/02/09
HYDROTROPISM OF SEEDLING ROOTS.
AIM: To investigate the influence of moisture on direction of root growth.
HYPOTHESIS: I think that the roots will grow towards the water.
NASTIC RESPONSES
2
Plants and Animals
PHOTONASTY:
The response to alterations in the light intensity (opening of primrose
flowers in the evening).
THERMONASTY:
The response to changes in temperature (opening of crocus and tulip
flowers when the temperature increases).
HAPTONASTY:
The response to being touched (the folding up and drooping of Mimosa
leaves when touched).
Nastic movements can be distinguished from tropisms as they are usually more
rapid, often reversible, and their direction is independent of the stimulus
direction.
Nastic responses are spontaneous and much faster when compared to tropisms.
12/02/09
AUXINS:
- Auxins promote stem elongation, inhibit growth of lateral buds
(maintains apical dominance).
- They are produced in the stem, buds and root tips. E.g. Indole Acetic
Acid (IAA)
- Auxin is a plant hormone produced in the stem tip that promotes cell
elongation.
- Auxin moves to the darker side of the plant, causing the cells there to
grow larger than corresponding cells on the lighter side of the plant.
- This produces a curving of the plant stem tip toward the light, a
plant movement known as phototropism.
- Auxin also plays a role in maintaining apical dominance.
- Most plants have lateral (sometimes called axillary) buds located at nodes
(where leaves attach to the stem).
- Buds are embryonic meristems maintained in a dormant state. Auxin
maintains the dormancy.
- As long as sufficient Auxin is produced by the apical meristems, the lateral
buds remain dormant.
- If the apex of the shoot is removed (by a browsing animal or a
scientist), the Auxin is no longer produced.
- This will cause the lateral buds to break their dormancy and begin to grow.
In effect the plant becomes bushier.
- When a gardener trims a hedge, they are applying apical dominance.
GIBBERELLINS:
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Plants and Animals
CYTOKININS:
- Cytokinins promote cell division. They are produced in growing areas,
such as meristems at tip of the shoot.
- Zeatin is a hormone in this class, and occurs in corn (Zea).
ABSCISIC ACID:
- Abscisic acid promotes seed dormancy by inhibiting cell growth.
- It is also involved in opening and closing of stomata as leaves wilt.
ETHYLENE:
- Ethylene is a gas produced by ripe fruits. Why does one bad apple spoil
the whole bunch?
- Ethylene is used to ripen crops at the same time. Sprayed on a field it will
cause all fruits to ripen at the same time so they can be harvested.
Auxin travels down one side, that side being the side that elongates.
Stimulus: Light
4
Plants and Animals
Animals use a variety of environmental cues to orient and navigate as they move
from one place to another. These behaviours are important as they affect the
distribution of animals.
Taxes and kineses are examples of orientation behaviour.
Examples of Taxes
Positive Phototaxis: movement of unicellular algae towards light.
Negative Phototaxis: movement of earthworms away from light.
Positive Chemotaxis: movement of flatworm towards meat.
Positive Thermotaxis: movement of mosquitoes towards heat.
18/02/09
During the migration of zebra across the African planes, they are vulnerable to
predators.
ANIMAL MIGRATION
WHAT is migration?
- Active movement in a particular direction by a population of animals.
- Regular, annual or seasonal.
- To a feeding and/or breeding ground.
- Usually a two way trip (there and back).
- Often a long distance.
- Often occurs at a certain stage in a life cycle.
WHO migrates?
5
Plants and Animals
- Birds.
- Salmon, Eels and Whitebait.
- Humpback Whales.
- Monarch Butterfly.
- Zebra.
24/02/09
BIOLOGICAL CYCLES
3/03/09
VERNALISATION
Many seeds require a period of cold before they will germinate.
6
Plants and Animals
DORMANCY
Many seeds enter a period of metabolic inactivity after they have formed.
GROWTH FORMS
1) ANNUAL PLANTS:
a. These grow, set seed and die in one year.
2) BIENNIALS:
a. Grow, store food in the first year, then go through a period of
chilling during the winter and flower the next year. They need
vernalisation in order to flower.
3) PERENNIALS:
a. These are plants that grow for a number of years. Many perennials
are adapted to have a stage that dies down to survive over winter.
This process is called OVER-WINTERING.
EPHEMERALS
These plants grow in semi- deserts. They germinate, grow, flower, set seed and
die in a very short time. These plants have a chemical that inhibits
germination. The chemical is water-soluble, but is only washed out of the
seeds if there is sufficient rain.
Ground and crown fires are usually disastrous, but some plants survive surface
fires. In environments with a very dry season, some plants have become adapted
to the fire factor.
1) Some plants have seeds that remain dormant unless their pods or cones
have been cracked open by fire. This happens with many of the Australian
outback nature plants.
2) Some trees, such as cork oaks, have such thick bark that they are
protected from all but the hottest fires.
3) Some trees produce buds and woody tubers after fire destroys the old
ones.
4) Fire-resistant species increase in abundance after fires, because of reduced
competition.
5) Fires open up the canopy, so sun-loving plants can grow on the ground
until the taller trees become re-established.
6) In very dry areas, the normal decomposers (bacteria and fungi) cannot get
established because they need water. In these conditions, fire releases
minerals from dead leaves and litter and makes them available for the
plants, thus increasing the fertility of the soil.
7) Fire burns off the dead litter on grazing lands and allows animals access to
new green shoots.
7
Plants and Animals
FLOWERING IN PLANTS
A plant knows that it is the right season to flower by the changes in the
day/night length. (Photoperiod- Light length)
E.g. a short day species with a 10 hour CDL will flower only if the
dark period exceeds 14 hours (24-10= 14hours). That is, these plants are
prevented from flowering if they experience more than a certain number of hours
of daylight.
Red light (wave length 650-660nm) was found to be the most effective in
preventing flowering in short day plants and enduring flowering in long day
plants. It was also discovered that far red light (725-750nm) flashed straight after
red light cancelled out the effect of the red light.
No matter how many flashes of light are given, the wavelength of only the last
one affects the plants measurement of night length. Thus, a succession of light
flashes with the sequence R-FR-R prevents short day plants from flowering but
flowering occurs if the sequence is R-FR-R-FR. As expected, the opposite
behaviour occurs in long day plants.
A pigment named phytochrome triggers the plant response to the length of night
and day.
Phytochrome exists in two forms:
P665 or PRed or P AND P725 or PFar-Red or PFR
MATING SYSTEMS
POLYGAMY
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Plants and Animals
MONOGAMY
- Partnerships for a season or for life.
BENEFITS COSTS
POLYGAMY Spread genes. A lot of effort to make
eggs/sperm, STIs.
MONOGAMY Help with caring for kids. A lot of effort on both
parts to take care of kids.
A lot of effort goes in to
courtship.
GROUP FORMATION
BENEFITS:
- Hunting:
o Many animals (wolves, lions, wild dogs) work as a team while
hunting.
o In wild dog packs, male (all) dogs work as a team to bring down a
large prey. They eat, and then refill their stomachs to regurgitate to
the puppies and nursing females.
o Wolf packs hunt by having some circle the prey while others drive
them forward. Another technique is to separate the young or
crippled.
o Farmers use these techniques with sheep dogs for rounding up
sheep.
9
Plants and Animals
HOME RANGE:
The area that an animal traverses (moves around in) for its normal
requirements of food, water and cover.
BAR-TAILED GODWIT:
- Migrate from Alaska to NZ, to Korea/China, back to Alaska.
- Feeds in NZ, stores fat and protein before taking off to migrate.
- Goes through three stages before migrating.
• Gets rid of flight feathers/grows new ones.
- Breed in Alaska.
- NZ: Moult and feed, nutrients in mud flats, dependent on tides.
- Colourful plumage – act to attract mate.
- Innate behaviour – the birds instinctively migrate/know how to fly.
PREDATOR-PREY RELATIONSHIPS:
- Belligerent.
- Most predators tend to catch the least well adapted, sick or old.
• Keeps gene pool of prey strong.
- Two species are dependent on each other’s wellbeing.
• Predator that wipes out its prey is cutting off its own
food source.
- Predator-prey graph: pray always has a higher population and precedes the
predator.
- Three major variables:
1) Density, size and reproductive rate of prey.
2) Variation in predator-prey ratios for different prey species.
3) Possible difference in what the predator might eat if there was plenty of
food, compared to what it actually does eat.
FACTORS:
1) ENERGY BALANCE: not profitable if animal uses up more energy in the
hunt than it can retrieve by eating carcass.
2) WEATHER: in warm weather, less energy is expended by mammals in
keeping warm.
i. E.g. lions need less food than wolves.
3) SIZE: larger animals tend to eat less food per unit weight.
4) ENDURANCE: cats in general, lack the endurance of animals like wolves.
While wolves are always hunting, lions sleep 22hours a day.
5) SOCIAL SYSTEMS: male lion may expend no energy in a hunt.
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Plants and Animals
6) SIZE OF THE PREY: if a group of hunters can bring down a large animal
and share the carcass, the energy expended would be worthwhile. Small
preys are for individual kills.
11
Patterns of Evolution
PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
METHOD:
1) Cut out 50, 1 squares of...
i. Newspaper.
ii. White paper.
iii. Coloured paper.
2) Sprinkle the squares onto a background piece of paper. This is your
habitat.
3) The colour of my habitat is white.
4) In one minute pick up as many squares as you can.
5) Re-sprinkle the squares and repeat this method two more times.
RESULTS:
NEWSPAPER WHITE COLOUR
DISKS SURVIVO DISKS SURVIVO DISKS SURVIVO
PICKED UP RS PICKED UP RS PICKED UP RS
TRIAL: 8 42 24 26 7 43
1
2 10 40 10 40 8 42
3 6 44 14 36 2 48
AVERA 8 42 16 34 6 44
GE
- Mutation.
Changes in the DNA either random or by mutagen.
- Genetic drift.
Change in allele frequencies in small populations.
- Gene flow.
Immigration and emigration.
Founder effect and Bottleneck effect.
- Natural selection.
Stabilising selection – favours the mean.
Directional selection – favours one extreme.
Disruptive selection – favours both extremes over the
average.
GENETIC DRIFT:
Is the change in the gene pool of a small population due to chance.
FOUNDER EFFECT:
If only a few individuals move into a new area, they may only have a few of
the available genes from the gene pool of that species. Thus isolated species
descended from these ‘founder’ ancestors may have very different genes from
the parent populations elsewhere.
BOTTLENECK EFFECT:
Disasters such as fire, floods and earthquakes can reduce a population to
just a few survivors. Often the deaths are completely at random, so the small
number of survivors is not really representative of the original gene pool. Some
alleles will be above the normal number and some may be lost altogether.
Bottlenecking, and the genetic drift that follows reduces the genetic viability in
the population.
STABILISING SELECTION:
Favours the average over the extremes.
DIRECTIONAL SELECTION:
Favours one extreme over the average or the other extreme.
DISRUPTIVE SELECTION:
Favours both extremes over the average.
REPRODUCTIVE BARRIERS
BIOGEOGRAPHY:
Geologically separate areas tend to be inhabited by organisms
that are similar.
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY:
Evolutionary relationships between species are reflected in the small
differences in their DNA and proteins.
FOSSIL RECORD:
The succession of fossils in strata can be aged to show the most
primitive forms of life in the oldest layers. Fish tend to be in the
oldest strata, then amphibians, then reptiles. Birds and mammal
are found in the youngest strata.
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES:
COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY:
The early embryonic stages of all vertebrates, is
very similar, even though the adults are different.
VESTIGIAL ORGANS:
Organs that have become reduced or have lost their
function. For example, tail bone in humans, wing
bones in kiwi and leg bones in snakes.
SPECIATION:
Formation of a new species.
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION:
When a species population is separated by a geographical barrier.
SYMPATRIC SPECIATION:
Occurs when a sub-population becomes reproductively isolated in the
midst of the parent population. Populations are said to be sympatric if their ranges
overlap. These are species of the same genus living together in the same area.
PATTERNS OF EVOLUTION
DIAGRAM:
HEBE PLANTS:
- More than 80 species. None occur all over the islands.
- Restricted by adaptations to very specific areas.
- Most found in rocky sites.
- Original native: probably large shrub with normal-sized leaves.
- The flowers were probably racemes (flowering with no pattern).
- Only one type of bee, so environment did not change this feature.
- Today there are three main groups of Hebe.
LARGE-LEAFED HEBES:
- Most like ancestral types. Large shrubs to small trees.
- Un-toothed leaves (broad/narrow) but never overlap.
- Flowers are long racemes, usually larger than the leaves.
- Found in lowland scrub, on coast, in forest margins; not extreme areas.
EXAMPLES: Hebe elliptica, H. Salicifolia, H. Pubescens and H.
Stricta.
MEDIUM-LEAFED HEBES:
- Show xeromorphic features.
Features help plant to withstand dry, and conditions with
wind and cold.
- Toothed, generally fleshy leaves.
- Leaves flat or concave, short and closely set.
- Flowers are spikes crowded together at the tips or lacers.
- Found mainly in sub-alpine to alpine regions, mainly on rocks.
EXAMPLES: H. Hulkeana, H. Sibalpina and H. Rakaiensis.
NATURAL SELECTION
EVOLUTIONARY RATES
For many years after Darwin’s death it was thought that a new species always
took millions of years to evolve, showing a gradual transition from one species to
another. This is called Gradualism.
As knowledge of the fossil record increased, it became evident that for many
organisms, evolutionary rates were not steady. There were long periods of little
change punctuated by sudden bursts of rapid evolution called Punctuated
Equilibrium.
GRADUALISM:
- Variation and selection that happens gradually.
- Over a short period of time it’s hard to notice.
- Small variations that adapt an organism slightly better to its environment
are selected for.
- Very gradually, over a long time, the population changes.
- Change is slow, constant and consistent.
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM:
- Changes occur in spurts. There is a period of very little change, and then
one or a few huge changes occur, often through mutations in the genes of
a few individuals.
- Mutations are random changes in the DNA that are not inherited from the
previous generation, but are passed on to generations that follow.
- The species changes very rapidly over a few generations, and then settles
down again to a period of little change.
BIOTECHNOLOGY
GENE:
We are all made up of Genes/Discreet section of DNA with a code for a protein.
DNA:
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (polar molecule).
PLASMID:
Circular pieces of DNA.
BIOTECHNOLOGY:
Living tools i.e. Bacterium.
ENZYME:
Molecule that has an active site; biological catalyst.
This is only one side. The other side is the same, just
travelling the other way.
- Four bases: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C).
- Rungs of the ladder are made up of two bases always:
Adenine with Thymine; (AT)
Guanine with Cytosine; (GC)
- The bases are held together with weak hydrogen bonds (three bonds
between GC and two bonds between AT).
- One turn of the helix contains 10 nucleotides.
GENE EXPRESSION
PROKARYOTES:
- No membrane bound organelles.
- Conjugation.
- Bacteria.
- Unicellular.
- DNA not bound by membrane.
- DNA not bound by proteins.
- Plasmids.
EUKARYOTES:
- Multicellular.
- DNA is wound around proteins in a chromosome structure.
- Membrane bound organelles.
- Nucleus.
Mitosis Meiosis
Differences Similarities Differences
- Growth and - Cell division. - Formation of
repair. - DNA replicates. gametes.
- Reproduction in - Two divisions, four
asexual daughter cells.
organisms. - Haploid number, ⅟2
- One division. number of
- Two daughter chromosomes.
cells. - All genetically
- Diploid (2) different.
numbers.
- Genetically
identical.
DNA A T G G C T A A T G C Triplet
RNA U A C C G A U U A C G Codon
tRNA A U G Anticodon
MUTATIONS
- Any change in DNA sequence that is not immediately and properly
repaired or any inherited change in the sequence of DNA.
- Mutations that occur in body cells cause cell death or cancer and are not
passed on to the next generation. Mutations that occur in sex cells are
passed on to the offspring (called mutants).
- Usually recessive.
- Majority of mutations give disadvantages to the organism that inherits
them.
- Caused by mistakes in DNA replication or by mutagenic agents.
- Occur spontaneously.
- 2 main types:
Gene mutations: change in nucleotide coding.
Gene Expression
2) INVERSION.
- Positions of two nucleotides are inverted. If it happens within a codon, only
that amino acid will be affected.
INSERTION:
Gene Expression
DELETION:
MODIFIER GENES
The expression of many genes can be altered to varying degrees by other genes.
This can result in a range of different phenotypes.
For Example: Eye colour is determined by the B (brown) and b (blue)
alleles along with modifier genes that control the amount, tone and dispersal
pattern of the iris pigment, which results in the additional phenotypes of hazel
and green.
Now four different gametes have formed. The ones in the middle that have
exchanged pieces of chromosomes, i.e. have ‘recombined’, are called the
recombinants (Ab and aB) and the ones that did not exchange pieces are
called the non-recombinants (AB and ab).
QUICK NOTES:
Gene Expression
64 codes for 20 amino acid therefore there is more than one code for each amino
acid.
If there is a mutation, there will be another code to replace it.
HUMAN EVOLUTION
PRIMATES – A SPECIAL MAMMAL
HUMAN CLASSIFICATION CHIMPANZEE
CLASSIFICATION
KINGDOM Animalia Animalia
PHYLUM Chordata Chordata
CLASS Mammalia Mammalia
ORDER Primate Primate
FAMILY Hominidae Hominidae
GENUS Homo Pan
SPECIES Sapiens Troglodytes
MAMMAL CHARACTERISTICS
- Suckle young on milk from mammary glands.
- Viviparous (give birth to live young).
- Intelligent, large skull.
- External ear and three middle ear bones.
- Four different types of teeth.
- Homoeothermic (maintain constant body temperature) “warm blooded”.
- Hair and sweat glands.
- Four chambered heart.
- Diaphragm.
PRIMATE CHARACTERISTICS
- Prehensile hands (and tails).
- Nails and sensitive hands.
- Pentadactyl (5 fingers).
- Reduced sense of smell.
- Collar bone.
- Binocular, stereoscopic vision.
- Good hand-eye co-ordination.
- Large brain and eyes.
- Tail.
- Retina sensitive to low levels of light.
- Wrist, elbow, shoulder and hip very mobile joints.
- Hind limb dominated locomotion.
- Oestrus cycle and two nipples.
- Usually only one young per pregnancy.
- Good sense of balance.
- Upright sitting posture.
- Social life (grooming, parental care, learning, breeding etc...).
APES
Orangutan, Gorilla, HOMININS
Chimpanzee (Great Australopithecus Sp.,
Apes), Gibbons Homo Sp. (Humans)
(Lesser Apes)