History and meaning of the flag

(http://flagspot.net/flags/id.html)

The Indonesian national flag is called "Sang Saka Merah Putih." As provided for in Article 35 of the 1945 Constitution, the
flag is made up of two colors, red on top of white. Its width is two-thirds of its length, or two meters by three meters. It is
hoisted in front of the presidential palace, of government buildings and Indonesian missions abroad. The first flag was
courageously flown amidst Japanese occupation forces on the day Indonesia's independence was proclaimed. Since then it
has been hoisted at independence day commemorations in front of the presidential palace in the capital city of Jakarta. This
historical flag, or "bendera pusaka," was flown for the last time on August 17, 1968. Since then it has been preserved and
replaced by a replica woven of pure Indonesian silk.

A lot of present and former flags in South East Asia have red and white, sometimes together with blue (apart from Indonesia:
Singapore, Malaysia, Philippines, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar/Burma).

The flag of Indonesia is based on the flag of the Majapahit Empire on Java at the end of the 13th century. This had nine stripes
red and white, and is nowadays used as jack.

In 1922 Indonesian students in Leiden (The Netherlands) adopted a flag red over white for their association, and had the head
of a banteng (bull) in the centre. In 1928 it was hoisted by the Partai Nasional Indonesia in Bandung. One year later the first
plain red over white flag was hoisted during a student congress in Batavia (nowadays Jakarta).

When the independence of Indonesia was proclaimed at 17 August 1945 in front of Soekarno's house at Pegangsaan Oost 56
in Djakarta, the flag was hoisted:

"It was a simple ceremony. But the lack of pomp and splendour was compensated by our hope. I walked to the microphone
stolen from a Japanese radio station and read the Proclamationshort and concise. My wife [Fatmawati] made a flag of two
pieces of cloth. A white piece of cloth and a red piece of cloth sewn together by hand. It was the first official flag of the
Republic. The staff was a piece of bamboo put in the ground short before. It was a primitive flagstaff, not very high. Nobody
received the order to hoist our holy Merah-Poetih. Nothing was prepared. Nobody had thought in advance. Captain Latief,
one of the few in uniform, stood near the flagstaff. Everybody waited tensed when he took the flag, fastened it to a thin
frayed rope and let it fly... lonely... proud... for the first time in three and a half centuries.
There was no music, no band. After the flag was hoisted we just sung the 'Indonesia Raya'. (...)
It was ten o'clock [in the morning]. The Revolution had started."

From Sukarno by Cindy Adams, The Hague 1967.

Merah-Poetih simply means Red-White. The official name however is Sang Saka, Lofty Bicolor. Red represents the human
blood, standing for the corporeal or concrete, white represents the spiritual. Together they are a pair, like the life on earth: day
and night; man and wife; creation and individual.
Mark Sensen, 21 May 1998

Traditionally almost all Indonesia since long ago has used red and white as their sacred colours, resembling the colour of
sugar (red in colour because the sugar comes from palm-sugar, "gula (sugar) aren (palm- sugar)") and rice (white in colour).
Both of these (rice & sugar) are the major components of daily Indonesian cuisine/cooking. When one of the tribes later
became so powerful in the islands, that is the Javanese's Majapahit Empire, they did not forget this tradition. They used red-
white colours as their National flag. Even today the Indonesians are still using red-white in their National Flag. So, a
thousand years of unbroken history. Surprisingly, their distant cousins in Madagascar also use the "sacred colour of red &
white" in their National Flag. Again, thousand years of unbroken history.
Ary Prihardhyanto Keim, 3 December 1999

Indonesia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
Capital Jakarta
 (and largest city) (land)) 6°10.5′S 106°49.7′E6.175°S 106.8283°E
Official languages Indonesian
Demonym Indonesian
Government Presidential republic
- President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
- Vice President Jusuf Kalla
Independence from the Netherlands
- Declared 17 August 1945
- Acknowledged 27 December 1949
Area
1,919,440 (land) km2 (16th)
- Total
735,355 sq mi
- Water (%) 4.85
Population
- 2009 estimate 229,965,000[2] (4th)
- 2000 census 206,264,595
119.8/km2 (84th)
- Density
312.7/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $908.242 billion[3]
- Per capita $3,986[3]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $511.765 billion[3]
- Per capita $2,246[3]
Gini (2002) 34.3
HDI (2008) ▲ 0.726 (medium) (109th)
Currency Rupiah (IDR)
Time zone various (UTC+7 to +9)
Drives on the left
Internet TLD .id
Calling code 62

The Republic of Indonesia (pronounced /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ or /ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/) (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a country in Southeast
Asia and Oceania. Indonesia comprises 17,508 islands, and with an estimated population of around 237 million people, it is the
world's fourth most populous country, and has the largest Muslim population in the world.

Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders
with Papua New Guinea, East Timor and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the
Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom traded
with China and India. Local rulers gradually adopted Indian cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and
Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources.
Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during
the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World
War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a
democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.

Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the largest and most
politically dominant ethnic group. Indonesia has developed a shared identity defined by a national language, ethnic diversity,
religious pluralism within a majority Muslim population, and a history of colonialism including rebellion against it. Indonesia's
national motto, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the
country. However, sectarian tensions and separatism have led to violent confrontations that have undermined political and economic
 stability. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's
second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of
contemporary Indonesia.

Etymology

The name Indonesia derives from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and the Greek nesos, meaning "island".[4] The name dates to the 18th
century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia.[5] In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms
Indunesians — and, his preference, Malayunesians — for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago".[6] In
the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.[7]
However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. Instead, they used the terms Malay
Archipelago (Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and
even Insulinde.[8]

From 1900, the name Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups
adopted it for political expression.[9] Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, popularized the name through his book Indonesien
oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki
Hajar Dewantara), when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.[5]

History

Main article: History of Indonesia

As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved on Borobudur, circa 800
CE.

Fossilized remains of Homo erectus, popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest that the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two
million to 500,000 years ago.[10] Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia
from Taiwan. They arrived in Indonesia around 2000 BCE, and confined the native Melanesian peoples to the far eastern regions as
they expanded.[11] Ideal agricultural conditions, and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE,[12]
allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position fostered
inter-island and international trade. For example, trade links with both Indian kingdoms and China were established several
centuries BCE.[13] Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history.[14]

The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European
colonial powers to Indonesia.

From the seventh century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and
Buddhism that were imported with it.[15] Between the eighth and 10th centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu
Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and
Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada,
its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.[16]

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest evidence of Islamized populations in
Indonesia dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.[17] Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, and it was the dominant
religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and
religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.[18] The first Europeans arrived
in Indonesia in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and
cubeb pepper in Maluku.[19] Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company
(VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800, and the
government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalized colony.[19]

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous outside of coastal strongholds; only in the early 20th
century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries.[20] The Japanese invasion and
subsequent occupation during World War II[21] ended Dutch rule,[22] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian
 independence movement.[23] Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader,
declared independence and was appointed president.[24] The Netherlands tried to reestablish their rule, and an armed and diplomatic
struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognized Indonesian
independence[25] (with the exception of The Dutch territory of West New Guinea, which was incorporated following the 1962 New
York Agreement, and UN-mandated Act of Free Choice).[26]

Sukarno, Indonesia's founding president

Sukarno moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, and maintained his power base by balancing the opposing forces of the
Military and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).[27] An attempted coup on 30 September 1965 was countered by the army, who
led a violent anti-communist purge, during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed.[28] Between 500,000
and one million people were killed.[29] The head of the military, General Suharto, out-maneuvered the politically weakened Sukarno,
and was formally appointed president in March 1968. His New Order administration[30] was supported by the US government,[31] and
encouraged foreign direct investment in Indonesia, which was a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial
economic growth.[32] However, the authoritarian "New Order" was widely accused of corruption and suppression of political
opposition.

In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the Asian Financial Crisis.[33] This increased popular discontent with the New
Order[34] and led to popular protests. Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998.[35] In 1999, East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after
a twenty-five-year military occupation that was marked by international condemnation of often brutal repression of the East
Timorese.[36] Since Suharto's resignation, a strengthening of democratic processes has included a regional autonomy program, and
the first direct presidential election in 2004. Political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption, and terrorism have slowed
progress. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and
violence remain problems in some areas.[37] A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.[38]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the central government. Following the
resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms. Four
amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia[39] have revamped the executive, judicial, and legislative branches.[40] The
president of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces, and the director of
domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be
elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people directly elected the president and
vice president.[41] The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.[42]

A session of the People's Representative Council in Jakarta

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions are supporting and
amending the constitution, inaugurating the president, and formalizing broad outlines of state policy. It has the power to impeach the
president.[43] The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR), with 550 members, and the Regional
Representative Council (DPD), with 128 members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned
members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation.[40] Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased the DPR's
role in national governance.[44] The DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management.[45]

Most civil disputes appear before a State Court; appeals are heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court is the country's highest
court, and hears final cassation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include the Commercial Court, which handles
bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional
Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of
state institutions; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.[46]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Indonesia and Military of Indonesia

In contrast to Sukarno's anti-imperialistic antipathy to western powers and tensions with Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the
Suharto "New Order" have been based on economic and political cooperation with Western nations.[47] Indonesia maintains close
relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit.[48] The nation restored
relations with the People's Republic of China in 1990 following a freeze in place since anti-communist purges early in the Suharto
era.[46] Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950,[49] and was a founder of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC).[48] Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the
Cairns Group, and the WTO, and has historically been a member of OPEC, although it is withdrawing as of 2008 as it is no longer a
net exporter of oil. Indonesia has received humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States,
western Europe, Australia, and Japan.[48]

National flags at the site of the 2002 terrorist bombing in Kuta, Bali

The Indonesian Government has worked with other countries to apprehend and prosecute perpetrators of major bombings linked to
militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda.[50] The deadliest killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of
Kuta in 2002.[51] The attacks, and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, severely damaged Indonesia's tourism
industry and foreign investment prospects.[52]

Indonesia's 300,000-member armed forces (TNI) include the Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes marines), and Air Force
(TNI–AU).[53] The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defense spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006,
and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations.[54] One of the reforms following
the 1998 resignation of Suharto was the removal of formal TNI representation in parliament; nevertheless, its political influence
remains extensive.[55]

Separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict, and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses
and brutality from all sides.[56] Following a sporadic thirty-year guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the
Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005.[57] In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect,
implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses, since the
presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.[58]

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Provinces of Indonesia and Administrative divisions of Indonesia

Provinces of Indonesia

Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces, five of which have special status. Each province has its own political legislature
and governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), which are further subdivided into
subdistricts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (either desa or kelurahan). Following the implementation of regional
autonomy measures in 2001, the regencies and cities have become the key administrative units, responsible for providing most
government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village
or neighborhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).

The provinces of Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, and West Papua have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy
from the central government than the other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an
independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law).[59] Yogyakarta was granted the status of Special
Region in recognition of its pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian Revolution.[60] Papua, formerly
known as Irian Jaya, was granted special autonomy status in 2001.[61] Jakarta is the country's special capital region.

Indonesian provinces and their capitals

(Indonesian name in parentheses if different from English)

† indicates provinces with Special Status

Geographical Unit = Province

Sumatra

• Aceh† (Nanggröe Aceh Darussalam) – Banda Aceh

• North Sumatra (Sumatera Utara) – Medan
• West Sumatra (Sumatera Barat) – Padang
• Riau – Pekanbaru
• Riau Islands (Kepulauan Riau) – Tanjung Pinang
• Jambi – Jambi (city)
• South Sumatra (Sumatera Selatan) – Palembang
• Bangka-Belitung (Kepulauan Bangka-Belitung) – Pangkal Pinang
• Bengkulu – Bengkulu (city)
• Lampung – Bandar Lampung

Java

• Jakarta† – Jakarta
• Banten – Serang
• West Java (Jawa Barat) – Bandung
• Central Java (Jawa Tengah) – Semarang
• Yogyakarta Special Region† – Yogyakarta (city)
• East Java (Jawa Timur) – Surabaya

Lesser Sunda Islands

• Bali – Denpasar
• West Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Barat) – Mataram
• East Nusa Tenggara (Nusa Tenggara Timur) – Kupang

Kalimantan

• West Kalimantan (Kalimantan Barat) – Pontianak

• Central Kalimantan (Kalimantan Tengah) – Palangkaraya
• South Kalimantan (Kalimantan Selatan) – Banjarmasin
• East Kalimantan (Kalimantan Timur) – Samarinda

Sulawesi

• North Sulawesi (Sulawesi Utara) – Manado

• Gorontalo – Gorontalo (city)
• Central Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tengah) – Palu
• West Sulawesi (Sulawesi Barat) – Mamuju
• South Sulawesi (Sulawesi Selatan) – Makassar
• South East Sulawesi (Sulawesi Tenggara) – Kendari

Maluku Islands

• Maluku – Ambon
• North Maluku (Maluku Utara) – Ternate

West Papua

• West Papua† (Papua Barat) – Manokwari

• Papua† – Jayapura
 Geography

Main article: Geography of Indonesia

Map of Indonesia

Indonesia consists of 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited.[62] These are scattered over both sides of the equator. The five
largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea), and
Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on the islands of Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of
New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. Indonesia also shares borders with Singapore, Malaysia, and the Philippines to
the north and Australia to the south across narrow straits of water. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city,
followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.[63]

At 1,919,440 square kilometers (741,050 sq mi), Indonesia is the world's 16th-largest country in terms of land area.[64] Its average
population density is 134 people per square kilometer (347 per sq mi), 79th in the world,[65] although Java, the world's most
populous island,[66] has a population density of 940 people per square kilometer (2,435 per sq mi). At 4,884 meters (16,024 ft),
Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake, with an area of 1,145 square kilometers
(442 sq mi). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan, and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication
and transport links between the island's river settlements.[67]

Mount Semeru and Mount Bromo in East Java. Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the world's highest.

Indonesia's location on the edges of the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian tectonic plates makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and
frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes,[68] including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their
devastating eruptions in the 19th century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano, approximately 70,000 years ago, was one of the
largest eruptions ever, and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami that killed an
estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra,[69] and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. However, volcanic ash is a major contributor to
the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.[70]

Lying along the equator, Indonesia has a tropical climate, with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in
the lowlands varies from 1,780–3,175 millimeters (70–125 in), and up to 6,100 millimeters (240 in) in mountainous regions.
Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest
rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little throughout the year; the average daily
temperature range of Jakarta is 26–30 °C (79–86 °F).[71]

Biota and environment

Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia, Flora of Indonesia, and Environment of Indonesia

The critically endangered Sumatran Orangutan, a great ape endemic to Indonesia.

Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, support the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil),[72]
and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species.[73] Once linked to the Asian mainland, the islands of the Sunda
Shelf (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan,
elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Forests cover
approximately 60% of the country.[74] In Sumatra and Kalimantan, these are predominantly of Asian species. However, the forests of
the smaller, and more densely populated Java, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa
Tenggara, and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and
fauna.[75] Papua was part of the Australian landmass, and is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia,
including over 600 bird species.[76]

Indonesia is second only to Australia in its degree of endemism, with 26% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of
mammal being endemic.[77] Indonesia's 80,000 kilometers (50,000 mi) of coastline are surrounded by tropical seas that contribute to
the country's high level of biodiversity. Indonesia has a range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes,
 estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.[4] The British
naturalist, Alfred Wallace, described a dividing line between the distribution and peace of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian
species.[78] Known as the Wallace Line, it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and
Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian;
moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago, Wallace described numerous
species unique to the area.[79] The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea.[78]

Indonesia's high population and rapid industrialization present serious environmental issues, which are often given a lower priority due
to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.[80] Issues include large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and
related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine
resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution,
traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services.[80] Habitat destruction threatens the survival of
indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as
threatened, and 15 identified as critically endangered, including the Sumatran Orangutan.[81]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Indonesia

Using water buffalo to plough rice fields in Java. Agriculture has been the country's largest employer for centuries.

Indonesia's estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2007 is US$408 billion (US$1,038 bn PPP).[82] In 2007, estimated nominal per
capita GDP is US$1,812, and per capita GDP PPP was US$4,616 (International Dollars).[83] The services sector is the economy's
largest and accounts for 45.3% of GDP (2005). This is followed by industry (40.7%) and agriculture (14.0%).[84] However,
agriculture employs more people than other sectors, accounting for 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce. This is followed by
the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%).[85] Major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and
mining. Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices, and rubber.

Indonesia's main export markets (2005) are Japan (22.3%), the United States (13.9%), China (9.1%), and Singapore (8.9%). The major
suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus
with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources,
including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels,
and foodstuffs.[86]

Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia and the country's largest commercial center

In the 1960s, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and ill-
disciplined economic nationalism, which resulted in severe poverty and hunger.[87] Following President Sukarno's downfall in the
mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down,
stabilized the currency, rescheduled foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment.[88] Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only
member of OPEC, and the 1970s oil price raises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to sustained high economic
growth rates.[89] Following further reforms in the late 1980s,[90] foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the
rapidly developing export-oriented manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of
over 7%.[91]

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian financial crisis of 1997–98. Against the US dollar, the Rupiah dropped from
about Rp. 2,600 to a low point of 14,000, and the economy shrank by 13.7%.[92] The Rupiah has since stabilised in the Rp. 8,000 to
10,000 range,[93] and a slow but significant economic recovery has ensued. However, political instability, slow economic reform, and
corruption at all levels of government and business, have slowed the recovery.[94] Transparency International ranked Indonesia 143rd
out of 180 countries in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index.[95] GDP growth, however, exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005, and is
forecast to increase further.[96] This growth rate, however, is not enough to make a significant impact on unemployment,[97] and
stagnant wages growth and increases in fuel and rice prices have worsened poverty levels.[98] As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the
population live below the poverty line, 49.0% of the population live on less than US$2 per day,[99] and unemployment rate at
9.75%.[100]
Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia, Languages of Indonesia, and Religion in Indonesia

The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million,[101] and the Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics
Indonesia estimate a population of 222 million for 2006.[102] 130 million people live on the island of Java, the world's most populous
island.[103] Despite a fairly effective family planning program that has been in place since the 1960s, the population is expected to
grow to around 315 million by 2035, based on the current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25%.[104]

An ethnic Minangkabau woman in traditional dress. There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia.

Most Indonesians are descendant from Austronesian-speaking peoples who originated from Taiwan. The other major grouping are
Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia.[105] There are around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia, and 742 different
languages and dialects.[106] The largest is the Javanese, who comprise 42% of the population, and are politically and culturally
dominant.[107] The Sundanese, ethnic Malays, and Madurese are the largest non-Javanese groups.[108] A sense of Indonesian
nationhood exists alongside strongly maintained regional identities.[109] Society is largely harmonious, although social, religious and
ethnic tensions have triggered horrendous violence.[110] Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than
1% of the population.[111] Much of the country's privately owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-controlled,[112] which has
contributed to considerable resentment, and even anti-Chinese violence.[113]

The Istiqlal Mosque and Jakarta Cathedral in Central Jakarta. Indonesia has the world's largest population of Muslims

The official national language, Indonesian, is universally taught in schools, and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language
of business, politics, national media, education, and academia. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including
present-day Malaysia, and is thus closely related to Malay. Indonesian was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s, and declared
the official language on independence in 1945. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages (bahasa
daerah), often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely spoken as the language of the largest ethnic group.[86] On
the other hand, Papua has 500 or more indigenous Papuan and Austronesian languages, in a region of just 2.7 million people. Much
of the older population can still speak a level of Dutch.[114]

Although religious freedom is stipulated in the Indonesian constitution,[115] the government officially recognizes only six religions: Islam,
Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism.[116] Although it is not an Islamic state, Indonesia is the
world's most populous Muslim-majority nation, with almost 86.1% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census.[86]
8.7% of the population is Christian,[117] 3% are Hindu, and 1.8% Buddhist or other. Most Indonesian Hindus are Balinese,[118] and
most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese.[119] Though now minority religions, Hinduism and Buddhism remain
defining influences in Indonesian culture. Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in the 13th century, through
the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the 16th century.[120] Roman Catholicism was brought to
Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries,[121] and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch
Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.[122] A large proportion of Indonesians—such as the
Javanese abangan, Balinese Hindus, and Dayak Christians—practice a less orthodox, syncretic form of their religion, which draws
on local customs and beliefs.[123]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Indonesia

A Wayang kulit shadow puppet performance as seen by the audience

Indonesia has around 300 ethnic groups, each with cultural differences developed over centuries, and influenced by Indian, Arabic,
Chinese, Malay, and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and
mythology, as do wayang kulit (shadow puppet) performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat and songket are created across Indonesia
in styles that vary by region. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however,
Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant.
Sports in Indonesia are generally male-orientated and spectator sports are often associated with illegal gambling.[124] The most popular
sports are badminton and football; Liga Indonesia is the country's premier football club league. Traditional sports include sepak
takraw, and bull racing in Madura. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as, caci in Flores,
and pasola in Sumba. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art.

A selection of Indonesian food, including Soto Ayam (chicken soup), sate kerang (shellfish kebabs), telor pindang (preserved eggs),
perkedel (fritter), and es teh manis (sweet iced tea)

Indonesian cuisine varies by region and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.[125] Rice is the main
staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish and chicken are
fundamental ingredients.[126] Indonesian traditional music includes gamelan and keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary
genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The Indonesian film industry's popularity
peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia,[127] although it declined significantly in the early 1990s.[128] Between 2000
and 2005, the number of Indonesian films released each year has steadily increased.[127]

The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern
Indonesian literature include: Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule;
Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians;[129] and
proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist.[130] Many of Indonesia's peoples have strongly rooted
oral traditions, which help to define and preserve their cultural identities.[131]

Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of
Information monitored and controlled domestic media, and restricted foreign media.[132] The TV market includes ten national
commercial networks, and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins
and foreign broadcasters supply programs. At a reported 25 million users in 2008,[133] Internet usage is limited to a minority of the
population, approximately 10.5%.