An Introduction to Type Type anatomy

Characters
The basic typographic element is called a character, which is any individual letter, numeral, or punctuation mark. The capital letters are called caps, or uppercase (u.c.) characters. Small letters are called lowercase (l.c.) characters. Numbers are called numerals or figures.

Modern, or lining numerals are cap height.

Oldstyle numerals have ascenders and descenders.

Special characters
Pi characters are special characters used for:

Math signs

Punctuation marks

Accented characters

Reference marks

On Macintosh computers, special characters can be viewed for any font with the Key Caps utility under the apple menu.

Ligatures are character pairs which have been re-designed as optional single characters.

Standard characters set in Adobe Garamond.

Ligature characters set in Adobe Garamond Expert and Adobe Garamond Alternative.

Character components
Typographic characters have basic component parts. The easiest way to differentiate characteristics of type designs is by comparing the structure of these components. The following terms identify some of the components referred to in the next chapter.

Ascender The lowercase character stroke which extends above the x-height.

Bar The horizontal stroke on the characters A, H, T, e, f, t. Baseline The imaginary horizontal line to which the body, or main component, of characters are aligned. Bowl The curved stroke which surrounds a counter. Bracket A curved line connecting the serif to the stroke.

Bracketed serifs with cupped bases

Brecketed serifs with flat bases

Unbracketed serifs

Contrast The amount of variation in between thick and thin strokes.

Minimum contrast

Extreme contrast

Counter The empty space inside the body stroke. Descender. The lowercase character stroke which extends below the baseline. Loop The bottom part of the lowercase roman g.

Sans serif From the French, meaning without serif. A typeface which has no serifs.Sans serif typefaces are typically uniform in stroke width. Serif Tapered corners on the ends of the main stroke. Serifs originated with the chiseled guides made by ancient stonecutters as they lettered monuments. Some serif designs may also be traced back to characteristics of hand calligraphy. Note that serif type is typically thick and thin in stroke weight. Shoulder The part of a curved stroke coming from the stem. Stem A stroke which is vertical or diagonal. Stress The direction in which a curved stroke changes weight.

Oblique, or angled, stress

Semi-oblique stress

Vertical stress

Terminal The end of a stroke which does not terminate in a serif. X-height The height of the body, minus ascenders and descenders, which is equal to the height of the lowercase x.

Avant Garde

Melior

Goudy Oldstyle

X-heights vary among typefaces in the same point size and strongly effect readability and gray vaule of text blocks.

Type Design
Since the first recordings of letterforms the concept of the typographic form has evolved into a seemingly endless variety of designs. Type design variations fall within specific categories.

Typeface
The basic category of type design is the typeface: the specific letterform design of an alphabet, including the serif shape, x-height, length of ascenders and descenders, variation of stroke weight, and any other characteristics that differentiate it from any other design. Each typeface is known by a name, such as Helvetica, Bodoni, and Times Roman, and there may be several interpretations of a typeface such as Century Schoolbook, New Century Schoolbook, and Century Oldstyle. The term typeface, as with much contemporary type terminology, originates with movable type, blocks of wood or metal containing a relief image of a character on one surface, called the face.

Typefaces are character sets based on distinct design characteristics.

Typestyle
A typeface usually includes several design variations called styles. The available number of typestyles, which varies among typefaces, is based on the following visual characteristics:

Standard type styles

Character angle. The fundamental typestyles are Roman, the standard vertical style, and italic, which is angled. Italic typestyles are cursive, unique letterform variations based on handwriting, or oblique, angled versions of the Roman style. Cursive italics are usually limited to serif designs.

Serif typefaces have true cursive italic styles with re-designed characters.

Sans serif typefaces have oblique italic styles in which the Roman characters are angled

Character weight. Most typefaces contain bold and bold italic typestyles which are much heavier in stroke weight than the Roman. Many typefaces offer a broader range of weights in addition to Roman, including light and medium (or book) and in addition to bold, including semibold (or demibold), extrabold (or heavy), and black.

Extended styles based on weight

Character width. Some typefaces include typestyles with character widths which are narrower than roman, called condensed, and wider, called extended. These typestyles generally include accompanying weight variations.

Styles included in the Gill Sans family.

Font
A collection of all the characters of a typeface in one size and one style is called a font. This includes caps and lowercase, numerals, punctuation marks, and any special characters contained in the typeface, such as symbols or ligatures. The precise meaning of the term font is changing with the times. Originally, a font was a collection of pieces of wood or metal type. They were a specific size and, therefore, could only print one size character. Modern typesetting technology can reproduce almost any size character from one digital font. Therefore, the terms font and typeface, while distinct from one another, are often used interchangeably.

Type Family
The complete assembly of all the sizes and styles of a typeface forms a type family, bearing the name of its typeface. For example, all the styles and sizes of Helvetica form the Helvetica family. A type family may contain many variations (in fact, the Helvetica family currently contains more than 60 typefaces and styles),

but will always retain a strong visual continuity because all of the variations are based on common design characteristics. This allows the designer to present some visual variety on a page while maintaining a strong unified appearance.

The Univers family was designed with an extended range of 21 styles.

The concept of the type family is explored to fullest extent by Sumner Stone in his unique family of typefaces, designed in the 1980s for the contemporary designer using personal computer technology. The Stone family not only contains typeface variations based on a strong design characteristics, but includes complete groups of styles in three different typeface categories. Stone Serif is a traditional thick and thin serif face, Stone Sans is a contemporary uniform strike sans serif face, and Stone Informal is a graceful, contemporary rounded serif typeface. The Stone family was designed, in part to address the new user of typography, that is, the desktop publisher who produces typeset documents without an extensive background in typography and/or design. The Stone family, while running the gamut in typestyle variations, has a strong visual consistency based on common typographic design characteristics. Thus one can more safely combine many different typefaces and styles without worrying about visually incompatible images.

The Stone family was designed with 3 typefaces and 18 typestyles.

Type Measurements
The demands of good design, readability and legibility, especially with large amounts of text, requires attention to the size of type, the length of the typeset line (or column width) and the space between characters, words, lines and paragraphs. There are three basic units of measurement used in working with type: points, picas, and ems. Point, pica and inch conversions are as follows:

One point = 1/72 of an inch One pica = 12 points One inch = six picas or 72 points

Points Points are used to measure height, such as the type size (height of the character) and the space between lines and paragraphs. The point size of type is the height in points measured from the top of the ascender to the bottom of the descender plus a variable amount of space above and below to keep typeset lines from touching.

Type size is measured in points from the top

of the ascender to the bottom of the descender.

Picas Picas are use to measure width, such as the width of a typeset column (length of line) or the space between columns. Picas are more convenient than inches because smaller spaces can be measured in whole units instead of fractions. Ems and ens The em space is based on the em quad, which is the square of the type size. For example, the em quad of 48pt. Futura is 48 pts. high by 48 pts. wide. The em space measures 48 points.

An em space is always equal to the point size of the type being measured.

It is a particularly useful type measurement because, instead of being static like points and picas, it changes in proportion to the size of type used. It is primarily used to control space between characters and words, and the space of special characters such as the long dash or em-dash. The en is half of the em and the width of the en-dash.

Family Classifications of Type

Since the time of Gutenberg, the typographic form has evolved with technology, philosophy, and culture. In order to effectively analyze this typographic evolution, the design of type characters over the last five and a half centuries is most often broken down into classifications of common visual characteristics, called families of type:

(15th-17th century)

(mid 18th century)

(late 18th century)

(19th century)

(19th-20th century)

(19th-20th century)

(19th-20th century)

The families of type represent more than 500 years of development and each family displays distinct visual characteristics. These characteristics are basic to visual communication with type.

The examples shown here are, for the most part, contemporary derivations of period type designs. Most available versions of pre-20th century typefaces have been refined according to the dictates of technology and popular taste. Although these may vary, sometimes substantially, from the original versions, they nonetheless preserve predominate characteristics and, since they are widely available today, are more relevant in helping the contemporary designer identify typographic forms. When conparing famaily characteristics, look closely at:

stroke variation (contrast) serifs and bracketing x-height stress

Old Style (15th-17th century)

The concept of adhering to manuscript models was the basis of the first 300 years of type design, and typefaces designed during this period are referred to as Old Style. Oldstyle Characterisitcs

minimal variation of thick and thin strokes small, coarse serifs, often with slightly concave bases small x-heights. In the round strokes, the stress is diagonal, or oblique, as their designs mimic the hand-held angle of the pen nibs of the scribes. The tops of lowercase ascenders often exceed the height of the capital characters. The numerals, called old style figures, vary in size and have ascenders and descenders. Many contemporary versions of Old Style typefaces do not retain the old style figures but, in catering to contemporary taste, use lining, or capital height figures.

It is interesting to note that in the revolutionary practice of cutting and casting the first types, no thought was given to the adaptation of letterforms themselves to this new medium. Since printers apparently regarded their craft as an evolution of manuscript preparation, the first type designs cut into metal were literal copies of the pen-drawn strokes of scribes. Gothic:The typefaces of Gutenbergs first prints mimicked the Germanic Gothic or blackletter manuscript style a heavy, broad-nibbed form, constructed with straight and angular strokes, with almost no curves.

When printing came to Italy a few decades later, type design was derived from their more rounded Roman letter style. The Roman style eventually prevailed, as its readability and appeal to the eye were markedly superior to the weighty, harsh Gothic.

Gothic

Roman

Venetian/Aldine: Because of its location and status as a center of trade, Venice became the focal point of type design and printing in the late 15th century. The most influential Venetian work came from Aldus Manutius, a printer and publisher whose books were reknowned for their authoritative scholarship. As they also were of the highest technical and aesthetic quality of their day, they were in great demand, and the typefaces they employed were widely copied by other printers. Aldus most important type, designed by Francesco Griffo, was created for a 60 page essay by Cardinal Pietro Bembo, in 1495. The typeface, called Bembo after the manuscripts author, was a Roman design of great typographic significance. Its popularity spread throughout Europe and remained the major influence in type design for the next hundred and fifty years. All of the type designs which we call Old Style can be traced back the design of Bembo. Aldus is best known as a entrepreneur who devised many creative innovations in the process of realizing his business goals. He was quite adept at marketing his products to the upperclass and university scholars. Among Aldus many innovations was publishing personal versions of the classics in a small format which was easy to carry. Books of that time were very large, usually read while being supported by a lectern. Aldus correctly recognized a market for a smaller, easily transportable book which would fit conveniently in a pocket or saddlebag. These, the forerunners of today's pocket-size books, utilized another of Aldus' unique innovations. They were printed in a new style of type which he commissioned from Griffo. This type, patterned after the official cursive hand of scholars and professionals, called cancellaresca, was designed at an angle, carried a distinct flavor of handwriting, and featured smaller character widths.

This typestyle, the first italic letterform, allowed for more characters per line than the Roman style, thus fitting more text to the smaller page format of his personal books. These books were enormously popular and had a profound effect on education and the diffusion of knowledge. A twentieth century revival of the Venetian types, Bembo is a copy of the Aldine Roman typeface cut by Francesco Griffo.

Bembo
Released by Monotype in 1929

A twentieth century revival of the Venetian types, Bembo is a copy of the Aldine Roman typeface cut by Francesco Griffo.Bembo is a classic typeface displaying the characteristics which identify Old Style designs: minimal variation in thick and thin stroke weight small x-height ascender height exceeding cap height oblique stress short, bracketed serifs with cupped bases angled serifs on lower case ascenders

A good type choice for expressing classic beauty and formal tradition, it reads well in large amounts of text and is an excellent book face.

Bembo is a classic typeface displaying the characteristics which identify Old Style designs:

minimal variation in thick and thin stroke weight small x-height ascender height exceeding cap height oblique stress short, bracketed serifs with cupped bases angled serifs on lower case ascenders

A good type choice for expressing classic beauty and formal tradition, it reads well in large amounts of text and is an excellent book face.

French/Garamond: By the 16th century, France became a leading influence in printing and typography. The most popular type designs of the time were those of Claude Garamond, who was heavily influenced by the Aldine types. As Aldus Manutius was an innovator in publishing, Garamond was certainly innovative in his type designs. While the typographic form was basically a copy of hand lettering, Garamond was perhaps the first to consider the qualities of letterform design as distinct from earlier manuscript styles. Thus his designs, while based on the Venetian types, introduced subtle and delicate refinements: more open lower case characters with generous counters, larger capitals, and a delicate grace to the curved strokes. While these refinements are subtle, they nonetheless produced type which was at once more graceful and inviting to the eye than the popular Aldine Roman. Garamond's type was a great success and became so widely accepted that it is considered to be the final deathblow to the Gothic letterforms. Many contemporary variations of Garamond continue to be among the most widely used typefaces today. Garamond's innovations established many of today's typographic conventions. His appreciation of the Aldine italic was such that he felt it to be a suitable complement to all of his Roman types. Thereafter, for each roman typeface he created, he also designed a complimentary italic style. This concept was so universally accepted that the italic became a standard variation to Roman types. Garamond also established the concept of the commercial type founder. Since the time of Gutenberg, custom dictated that printers design and cast their own types. They also manufactured their own paper, and formulated their own printing inks. When a printer created a particularly popular typeface, other printers were quick to copy the designs for their own typecasting. Whether Garamond wished to preserve the integrity of his own designs, or merely make additional profit is not known, but he initiated the practice of casting his types for retail sale to other printers. This eventually led to the establishment of independent businesses which were exclusively devoted to the design, cutting, and casting of type for sale to the printing trade.

These establishments, called typefoundries, became sources of type for many printers and were instrumental in the widespread acceptance and distribution of new designs.

Garamond
Designed by Claude Garamond in 1532

he preeminent French Old Style design exhibits subtle refinements to the Venetian designs with its graceful serifs and delicate weight changes. Counters are generous, with the exception of the lowercase a and e, which are small. Lowercase top serifs are extended, diagonal, and curve to join the main strokes. The Uppercase T is unique, with the top left serif slanted and the top right serif straight.

Garamond remains one of the most popular text faces today. It is highly readable, lends a graceful quality to text, and its long ascenders give it a light, airy quality.

English/Caslon: The religious reform and government censorship of 16th

century France heralded the end of the influence of its printing industry. Dutch foundries, noted for their high quality metal work, were the chief source of type manufacture well into the 18th century. The establishment of England's influence in type was brought about almost single-handedly by William Caslon. Caslon was a engraver who specialized in

ornamenting and personalizing gun locks and barrels and occasionally engraving lettering for bookbinders. Because of his steady hand and superior engraving skills, his work was highly prized and his business very lucrative. He was occasionally commissioned to cut engravings for book covers and his lettering work was so impressive that, in 1720, he was persuaded to establish his own type foundry. The exquisite letterform refinements in his type designs were not only well received, but quickly became the universal printing standard. Caslon's type brought him fame and his foundry became the largest and most prestigious in England. The success of Caslons types came from his skill as an artist. English typecasting in his time was considered a common trade rather than the prominent craft it was regarded abroad. As a result, the quality of English types was so poor that most printers exclusively employed types from the vastly superior Dutch foundries. While Caslon certainly based his designs on Dutch types, his artistic sensitivity gave his types a superior quality of delicate modeling and form. While not as elegant as the French types, Caslons designs embodied a sturdier grace which better suited the English aesthetic.Every foundry in the world has offered a variation of the Caslon types, and the phrase, When in doubt, use Caslon, was a standard printer's epithet for generations.

Caslon
Designed by William Caslon in 1725

odeled after late 17th century Dutch designs, Caslon became the most popular type of the 18th century. Its design shows the evolution of the Old Style types and bears some of the traits that would characterize the Transitional designs. Its stroke variation is more pronounced Serifs display a more graceful bracketing. Lowercase characters bear wedge-shape top serifs the Uppercase A has a distinctive curve at the apex.

Caslon can be used to express a formal dignity. It is a highly readable typeface which evokes the charm of its period.