What is a review of literature?

The format of a review of literature may vary from discipline to discipline and from assignment to assignment. A review may be a self-contained unit -- an end in itself -- or a preface to and rationale for engaging in primary research. A review is a required part of grant and research proposals and often a chapter in theses and dissertations. Generally, the purpose of a review is to analyze critically a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles.

Writing the introduction

In the introduction, you should:

Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an appropriate context for reviewing the literature. Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or a single problem or new perspective of immediate interest.

Establish the writer's reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature; explain the criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing literature and the organization of the review (sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not included (scope). top

Writing the body

In the body, you should:

Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case studies, etc.) according to common denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, chronology, etc. Summarize individual studies or articles with as much or as little detail as each merits according to its comparative importance in the literature, remembering that space (length) denotes significance. Provide the reader with strong "umbrella" sentences at beginnings of paragraphs, "signposts" throughout, and brief "so what" summary sentences at intermediate points in the review to aid in understanding comparisons and analyses.

Writing the conclusion

In the conclusion, you should:

Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.

Evaluate the current "state of the art" for the body of knowledge reviewed, pointing out major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and findings, and areas or issues pertinent to future study.

Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific endeavor, or a profession.

Home Research & Services Depts. EAAH Research Programs Pfiesteria Research Research Larval Fish Bioassay

Larval Fish Bioassay

Objective: To test, observe and evaluate cultures of Pfiesteria and Pfiesteria-like organisms using an innovative larval fish bioassay. Larval fish are exposed to Pfiesteria and Pfiesteria-like organisms in small-volume vessels. The small size of the vessels allows for microscopic observations of dinoflagellate behavior and interaction with fish, as well as gross evaluation of fish mortality. The larval fish bioassay has provided several new avenues for Pfiesteria research. For example, detailed observations regarding the life cycle and behavior of Pfiesteria have furthered our understanding of Pfiesteriabiology and the interaction between Pfiesteria and fish. Additionally, the use of permeable membrane inserts has allowed us to definitively exclude a toxin as the cause of fish mortality in our pathogenic cultures of Pfiesteria shumwayae, as detailed in the recent Nature publication. Routine incorporation of histopathology, cell counts, water-quality measurements, and microscopic observations facilitates investigation of pathobiology and life history of toxic/pathogenic dinoflagellates.

Small volume vessels fish bioassay

Larval Fish Bioassay

see: Lovko, V.J., Vogelbein, W.K., Shields, J.D., Kator, H., Zwerner, D.E., Kiryu, Y. Development of a larval fish assay for testing Pfiesteria toxicity. In: Proceedings of the CDC National Conference on Pfiesteria: from Biology to Public Health. 18-20 October 2000, Atlanta, Georgia.

Principal Investigators
Wolfgang Vogelbein Vincent Lovko Jeffrey Shields Larry Haas Kimberly Reece

Duckweed Bioassay

Lindsey Molstad Lesson taught at East High School, Duluth, MN

Author Profile

Summary This lab was designed with the intent to mimic the effect fertilizers can have on plants in a lake or pond ecosystem. Students determined the effect different fertilizer concentrations had on the growth rate of Duckweed plants compared to a control by counting fronds over a period of 8 days. A lab procedure and data sheet are provided.

Learning Goals
Bioassays provide chemistry students with a hands-on lab technique to better understand and investigate a local environmental toxicity issue. Students are able to determine the effect different levels of fertilizer can have on a local aquatic system, learn new research and analysis techniques to determine the growth rate and chemical toxicity levels fertilizers have on an aquatic plant, and better understand the effect humans have on their environment. Students are able to go through the scientific process and test their hypothesis, create their own concentrations, and determine growth and toxicity rates of their plants.

Context for Use

This lab has been used in a high school lab setting for biology, chemistry, and environmental science students. The lab set-up, data collection, and analysis takes approximately a week and a half. Students must learn how to count Duckweed fronds and not plants. This lab could easily be adapted to test for different variables such pH, lighting, fertilizer concentrations and nutrients, temperature, etc. Duckweed for this lab was purchased from a science company, but also could be collected in local outdoor aquatic environments.
Subject: Environmental Science:Water Quality and Quantity Resource Type: Activities:Lab Activity Grade Level: High School (9-12)

Description and Teaching Materials

Materials are all listed in the lab procedure. This can be done in a lab or classroom environment as long as there is a source of light. Students were told they would be doing a lab activity over the course of a week and a half. They started on Day 1 with a Pre-Test and then went through a powerpoint to learn about bioassays-what they are and how they are used, and then set up their lab experiment(50-60 min). On Day 3, students collect data by counting Duckweed fronds and we discuss observations and class averages(20-30 min). On Day 5 students again collect data by counting fronds,start creating their graph, and discuss class averages(20-30 min). On Day 8, we collect our final data, clean up lab materials, go

over graph, and discuss analysis techniques. On Day 9 lab data sheets are collected, final observations are made, a class graph is shared and discussed, and a post test is given(30 min.)

Duckweed Bioassay Method Using the method below, you will determine duckweed sensitivity to a variety of compounds, or various concentrations of a single compound. This method may be used for any compound you would like to test (see examples). Materials

Fluorescent or plant grow lights Duckweed plants - 5 per beaker (information on obtaining and culturing duckweed plants) Beakers or clear plastic cups (3 beakers per compound or concentration being tested, plus 3 beakers for the control) Miracle-Gro Liquid Houseplant Food Drops or similar fertiziler solution (N:P:K = 8:7:6) Eye dropper (for fertilizer) Tweezers or paper clips (for handling duckweed) Clear plastic film such as Saran Wrap 90 mL of each of the chemical solutions to be tested 90 mL of spring water 100 mL distilled water (for rinsing)

Procedure 1. Determine which compound(s) and/or concentrations you will be using in the duckweed bioassay (information on possible compounds and dilutions) 2. Label beakers or cups with your name, the date, and the compound (including concentration). Each compound (or each different concentration) should have 3 beakers. Label 3 additional beakers "control". 3. Using tweezers or an unfolded paper clip, gently transfer five duckweed plants into each beaker. (Avoid using your fingers because that could introduce other chemicals into your culture solutions.) Choose only green, healthy-looking plants that have two fronds apiece and are approximately the same size. 4. Cover the beakers with clear plastic film, and place them under 24-hour fluorescent or plant grow lights. (Artificial lighting is optimal because it provides consistent conditions from one experiment to another. Indirect natural lighting is an acceptable alternative. Avoid placing the beakers directly in a sunny window because overheating may cause the duckweeds to get scorched.) 5. Let the beakers sit undisturbed for five days. Keep them covered with plastic, and do not add water to them during this time.

6. At the end of the five-day growth period, count the number of fronds in each beaker. It may be difficult to decide which fronds are real, and which are too small to count. The important thing is to be consistent so that your results will be comparable across treatments. 7. Record your data in a table like the one below, and make notes about any plants that are yellow, rootless, or sinking, or that otherwise appear unhealthy. X, Y, and Z refer to various dilutions of a particular compound. 8. Graph the mean (average) number of fronds for each treatment (each compound, as well as the control). Then analyze your data. Duckweed Bioassay Data Solution Concentration Control Compound 1 (X %) Compound 1 (Y %) Compound 1 (Z %) Compound 2 (X %) Compound 2 (Y %) Compound 2 (Z %)
http://ei.cornell.edu/toxicology/bioassays/index.html

# Duckweed Fronds/Beaker

Avg. # Fronds

Comments about Plant Health

Why Daphnia? Daphnia, popularly known as water fleas, are small crustaceans that live in fresh water such as ponds, lakes, and streams. They serve as an important source of food for fish and other aquatic organisms.Daphnia are excellent organisms to use in bioassays because they are sensitive to changes in water chemistry and are simple and inexpensive to raise in an aquarium. They mature in just a few days, so it does not take long to grow a culture of test organisms. Because Daphnia are transparent, it is possible to conduct bioassays using endpoints other than death. For example, through a microscope you can measure their heart rate or observe whether they have been eating. (Both of these signs are used to measure stress). If you are worried about killing Daphnia in your experiments, you could choose to measure one of these other endpoints instead. It is worth keeping in mind, though, that even under the best conditions these organisms live only a month or two, and in nature most of them get eaten within their first few days or weeks of life. Posters

Shawnee A

P20
UTILIZATION OF A DUCKWEED BIOASSAY TO EVALUATE LEACHING OF HEAVY METALS IN SMELTER-CONTAMINATED SOILS
T.L. Williams, M.J. Lydy, and A.L. Youngman, Department of Biological Sciences, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67260-0026 The purpose of this study was to determine whether a duckweed bioassay could be used to evaluate the downward migration of heavy metals in smelter soils. The duckweed bioassay was initially used to evaluate elutriates prepared from samples of smelter soils. These initial tests verified that the elutriates would elicit toxic responses. Elutriate testing was followed with an evaluation of leachate from untreated soil cores or soil cores that had been amended with organic matter either unplanted or planted to a grass-forb seed mixture. There was an inverse linear relationship between heavy metal concentrations in leachate and NOEC and IC50 values expressed as percentages among all soil cores. Based on these preliminary duckweed bioassays, there were no differences between soil types or organic amended or non-amended soil, but leachate from vegetated soil cores were less toxic than were leachates from non-vegetated soil cores. Key words: heavy metals, soil, leachate, duckweed, bioassay

Daphnia magna
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Daphnia magna

Daphnia magna - female adult

Scientific classification

Kingdom:

Animalia

Phylum:

Arthropoda

Subphylum:

Crustacea

Class:

Branchiopoda

Order:

Cladocera

Family:

Daphniidae

Genus:

Daphnia

Species:

D. magna

Binomial name

Daphnia magna
Straus, 1820 [1]

Daphnia magna is a species of Daphnia (a cladoceran freshwater water flea) which is native to northern and western North America, Eurasia and some regions of Africa.

Laboratory animal[edit]
Domesticated, it is widely used as a laboratory animal for testing ecotoxicity starting with Einar Naumann in 1934.[2] As Anderson stated in 1944:[3] The use of Daphnia magna as an experimental animal for such purposes is advantageous in many respects. Daphnids are small, reaching a size of five mm, so that a great many can be reared in a small space. They have a relatively short life span, which reaches a maximum of about two months when they are reared at 25C. Daphnids are easy to culture, requiring only water containing bacteria or their equivalent for food. They can be grown individually in small bottles or in mass culture in large aquaria. They mature early, giving birth to young within their first week of life. After their first brood, they give rise to new broods every two or three days throughout the remainder of their lives. An average of twenty or more young may be produced in each brood. Each female who lives to a ripe old age can bear four hundred or more offspring. Again, all the young from one female are genetically like the mother if produced parthenogenically, and reproduction can be limited to parthenogenesis if the proper conditions are maintained. Further, daphnids are representatives of a class of animals that serve as food for many fish, especially while the fish are young. Fish do not remain in water where their food supply has been depleted. Daphnids would be affected if there was something toxic added to the water, therefore fish would leave and the Daphnia would die. For these reasons Daphnia prove satisfactory for testing on.

Daphnia magna
By Molly Elenbaas

Geographic Range
This species of water flea can be found in rocky pools along the Atlantic coastline of the northeastern United States. It is not considered to be widespread in this area, but is regularly found in certain pools in Maine. This species is also found in Western Europe, including England, Belgium, the Netherlands, Finland, areas of the Black Sea bordering Ukraine, and some Baltic Islands. ("Daphnia magna Straus, 1820", 2012; Ebert, 2005; Haney, 2010; Hanski and Ranta, 1983)

Biogeographic Regions nearctic native

palearctic native

Habitat
This species is found in freshwater and brackish (up to 8 ppt salinity) habitats including lakes, rivers, and temporary pools. Although they prefer temperatures between 18-22C, they can tolerate a much broader range.(Ebert, 2005; Haney, 2010; Vanoverbeke, et al., 2007)

Habitat Regions temperate freshwater Aquatic Biomes lakes and ponds rivers and streams temporary pools brackish water

Physical Description
These water fleas are very small, usually 2-5 mm long, with an overall shape similar to a kidney bean. The body is enclosed by a transparent shell-like structure, called a carapace, that is mostly made of chitin. Due to its transparent carapace, this species tends to be the color of what it is currently eating. The carapace extends into the head shields, an important diagnostic characteristic for this species. They have two sets of long, doubly branched antennae and six thoracic appendages that are held inside of the carapace and help to produce a current of water, carrying food and oxygen to their mouths and gills. They also have two large claws, used mainly for cleaning the carapace. They have one compound eye, which appears as an anterior dark spot, and one simple eye (ocellus). Males are smaller than females (typically only 2 mm long while females are 3-5 mm long) but have longer antennules and modified, hook-like first appendages used for clasping females during mating. (Clare, 2002; Ebert, 2005; Haney, 2010; "Daphnids", 2005)

Other Physical Features ectothermic bilateral symmetry Sexual Dimorphism female larger sexes shaped differently Range length 2 to 5 mm
0.08 to 0.20 in

Development

The life cycle begins when a female produces a clutch of eggs (usually 6-10) that are released into her brood chamber, located under her carapace. Eggs hatch into juveniles within this brood chamber and are released when their mother molts, typically within 2-3 days. Juveniles, which already resemble adults, go through a series of molts and instars. Females are considered sexually mature after developing brood pouches, usually after 4-6 instars, usually 6-10 days. If conditions are not favorable, or if they have been produced sexually, eggs will be released into an ephippium, a hard, protective casing, where eggs enter diapause before hatching when conditions are more favorable. (Clare, 2002; Ebert, 2005; Haney, 2010)

Development - Life Cycle diapause

Reproduction
These water fleas reproduce both asexually and sexually and have a cyclic parthenogenetic life cycle, exhibiting heterogonic reproduction. In asexual reproduction, females produce diploid eggs that develop into exact clones; only females are produced during asexual reproduction cycles. However, during adverse conditions (low food availability, temperature extremes, high population density), this species amy reproduce sexually. During sexual reproduction, males grab onto females using their specialized second antennae. Females produce haploid eggs which are fertilized by males and encased in ephippia. These cases are carried on the female's back and fall off during her next molt. Eggs enter diapause and stay in ephippia until conditions are favorable. Sexual reproduction tends to take place in late fall months, with the ephippia-protected eggs providing a population burst when spring comes. ("Daphnia spp., water flea", 2011; Alekseev and Lampert, 2001; Ebert, 2005)

Mating System polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Peak egg production is during spring months (April and May), but eggs can be produced during summer and fall as well. During spring months, a female can produce eggs every four days; eggs/juveniles remain in brood pouches for 2-3 days. Number of eggs produced at one time can be anywhere from 1-100, with an average of 6-10 eggs per brood. A female can reproduce up to 25 times throughout her lifetime, although the average is only 6 times. (Clare, 2002; Enserink, et al., 1995; Ignace, et al., 2011; Tessier, et al., 1983)

Key Reproductive Features iteroparous seasonal breeding year-round breeding gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate) parthenogenic sexual asexual fertilization internal

ovoviviparous oviparous Breeding interval Females produce eggs as often as every four days during their breeding season.

Breeding season These water fleas reproduce most frequently during April and May, though they are known to reproduce during summer and fall as well. Range number of offspring 1 to 100 Average number of offspring 8 Range gestation period 1 to 4 days Average gestation period 3 days Average time to independence 3 days Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female) 6 to 10 days Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male) 6 to 10 days

Females keep their eggs and recently hatched young in their brood chambers for several days, providing nutrients during development. Once juveniles are released there is no additional parental care. (Ebert, 2005)

Parental Investment female parental care pre-fertilization provisioning protecting female pre-hatching/birth

provisioning female protecting female pre-weaning/fledging protecting female pre-independence provisioning female

Lifespan/Longevity
Lifespan of these water fleas depends heavily on environmental conditions such as oxygen levels, food availability, and temperature. In general, as temperature decreases, lifespan increases, with averages of 40 days at 25C and 56 days at 20C. Unstable environmental conditions tend to lead to shorter lifespans. While it has been suggested that males of this species have shorter lifespans than females, recent research shows evidence that this is likely not the case. (Clare, 2002; Grzesiuk, et al., 2010; Pietrazak, et al., 2010)

Range lifespan Status: wild 1 to 56 days Average lifespan Status: captivity 40-56 days

Behavior
This species lives in groups and is very abundant when present in a habitat. There is no social hierarchy, though there is competition for resources between individuals of this and other Daphnia species when present. They use their antennae to propel themselves with quick, upward, jumping-like movements in the water and exhibit diel vertical migration, moving to upper levels of water at night to feed and back down during the day to avoid predators. Their larger size excludes them from predation by species who feed on smaller g. Daphnia, but can cause problems when space and resources are limited. Even though these water fleas are one of the larger species in their genus, they can go extinct in habitats including Daphnia pulex and Daphnia longispina. This species goes through population density cycles, with numbers decreasing during cold or dry seasons.(Coors, et al., 2009; Ebert, 2005; Haney, 2010; Hanski and Ranta, 1983)

Key Behaviors natatorial nocturnal motile social

Home Range

Individuals of this species do not have distinct home ranges.

Communication and Perception

These water fleas have a compound eye that responds to light stimulus, can perceive different color wavelengths, and can also track movements. They also use olfactory and chemical cues in order to help them locate and evaluate potential food sources, conspecifics, and potential predators. ("Daphnia spp., water flea", 2011; Consi, et al., 1990; Roozen and Lrling, 2001; Young, 1974)

Communication Channels visual chemical Perception Channels visual tactile chemical

Food Habits
These water fleas are filter feeders; filtration rates depend on temperature, body size, food density and quality, oxygen concentration, and water pH. These animals use leaf-like appendages called phylopods, located under their carapaces, to help produce a water current. Setae on their thoracic legs filter food particulates (generally smaller than 50 micrometers in diameter), which are then moved along a body groove to their mouths. Their primary diet consists of zooplankton and phytoplankton; they are also known to consume bacteria, detritus, and fungal spores. ("Daphnia spp., water flea", 2011; Buck, et al., 2011; Ebert, 2005; Haney, 2010; Hanski and Ranta, 1983; Roozen and Lrling, 2001)

Primary Diet herbivore algivore planktivore mycophage detritivore Animal Foods zooplankton Plant Foods algae

phytoplankton Other Foods fungus detritus microbes Foraging Behavior filter-feeding

Predation
Predators of this species include many species of fishes, insects and other invertebrates. They are larger than many other zooplankton species, which protects them from some invertebrate predators, and they migrate to upper water levels at night to avoid predators that feed during the day. Individuals can also alter their size and age at maturity, egg production levels, and perform swarming behavior and escape reactions to avoid predation. ("Daphnia spp., water flea", 2011; Roozen and Lrling, 2001; "Daphnia spp., water flea", 2011; Boersma, et al., 1998; Ebert, 2005; Haney, 2010; Lauridsen and Lodge, 1996; Roozen and Lrling, 2001)

Known Predators Heterocope septentrionalis (Subclass Copepoda, Subphylum Crustacea)

Cranefly (Chaoborus obscuripes) Common backswimmer (Notonecta sp.) Common bream (Abramis brama) Common roach (Rutilus rutilus) Belica (Leucaspius delineatus) Ide (Leuciscus idus) European perch (Perca fluviatilis)

Ecosystem Roles
These water fleas consume algae, bacteria and detritus in the water. They play a key part in aquatic food webs as prey to fishes and invertebrates. (Ebert, 2005; Hooper, et al., 2008) This species is host to a number of bacteria (including one causing White Fat Cell Disease) and fungi, as well as some species of nematodes, amoebas and tapeworms. (Ebert, 2005)
Commensal/Parasitic Species

Pasteuri ramosa (Kingdom Bacteria) Spirobacillus cienkowskii (Kingdom Bacteria) Flabelliforma magnivora (Phylum Microsporidia, Kingdom Fungi) Glugoides intestinalis (Phylum Microsporidia, Kingdom Fungi) Larssonia obtusa (Phylum Microsporidia, Kingdom Fungi)

Octosporea bayeri (Phylum Microsporidia, Kingdom Fungi) Ordospora colligata (Phylum Microsporidia, Kingdom Fungi) Metschnikowia bicuspidata (Order Saccharomycetales, Kingdom Fungi) Echinuria uncinata (Family Acuariidae, Phylum Nematoda) Pansporella perplexa (Order Amoebida, Phylum Protozoa) Cysticercus mirabilis (Class Cestoda, Phylum Platyhelminthes)

Economic Importance for Humans: Positive

This species can provide cleaner water in ponds and lakes, by eating algae and other detritus that may build up in the water. It is also an indicator organism for water quality and is used in tests of water toxicity and detecting various pollutants. This species is easily cultivated, and is commonly fed to fish reared in aquaria. (Clare, 2002; Coors, et al., 2009)

Positive Impacts pet trade research and education

Economic Importance for Humans: Negative

There are no known adverse effects of this species on humans.

Conservation Status
This species has not been evaluated by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and is not considered endangered or threatened. (IUCN, 2012)

IUCN Red List [Link] Not Evaluated US Federal List No special status CITES No special status State of Michigan List No special status

Contributors
Molly Elenbaas (author), Alison Gould (editor), Jeremy Wright (editor).

Glossary
Nearctic

living in the Nearctic biogeographic province, the northern part of the New World. This includes Greenland, the Canadian Arctic islands, and all of the North American as far south as the highlands of central Mexico.

Palearctic

living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.

asexual

reproduction that is not sexual; that is, reproduction that does not include recombining the genotypes of two parents
bilateral symmetry

having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirrorimage halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
brackish water

areas with salty water, usually in coastal marshes and estuaries.

chemical

uses smells or other chemicals to communicate

detritivore

an animal that mainly eats decomposed plants and/or animals

detritus

particles of organic material from dead and decomposing organisms. Detritus is the result of the activity of decomposers (organisms that decompose organic material).
diapause

a period of time when growth or development is suspended in insects and other invertebrates, it can usually only be ended the appropriate environmental stimulus.
ectothermic

animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature
female parental care

parental care is carried out by females

fertilization

union of egg and spermatozoan

filter-feeding

a method of feeding where small food particles are filtered from the surrounding water by various mechanisms. Used mainly by aquatic invertebrates, especially plankton, but also by baleen whales.
freshwater

mainly lives in water that is not salty.

herbivore

An animal that eats mainly plants or parts of plants.

internal fertilization

fertilization takes place within the female's body

iteroparous

offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).

motile

having the capacity to move from one place to another.

mycophage

an animal that mainly eats fungus

natatorial

specialized for swimming

native range

the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
nocturnal

active during the night

oviparous

reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
ovoviviparous

reproduction in which eggs develop within the maternal body without additional nourishment from the parent and hatch within the parent or immediately after laying.
parthenogenic

development takes place in an unfertilized egg

pet trade

the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.
phytoplankton

photosynthetic or plant constituent of plankton; mainly unicellular algae. (Compare to zooplankton.)

planktivore

an animal that mainly eats plankton

polygynandrous

the kind of polygamy in which a female pairs with several males, each of which also pairs with several different females.
seasonal breeding

breeding is confined to a particular season

sexual

reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
social

associates with others of its species; forms social groups.

tactile

uses touch to communicate

temperate

that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
visual

uses sight to communicate

year-round breeding

breeding takes place throughout the year

zooplankton

animal constituent of plankton; mainly small crustaceans and fish larvae. (Compare to phytoplankton.)

References

2012. "Daphnia magna Straus, 1820" (On-line). World Register of Marine Species. Accessed February 08, 2013 at http://www.marinespecies.
org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails& id=148372.

2011. "Daphnia spp., water flea" (On-line). GeoChemBio.com. Accessed February 21, 2012 at http://www.geochembio.com
/biology/organisms/daphnia/ #refs.

Marinco Bioassay Laboratory, Inc. 2005. "Daphnids" (On-line). Marinco Bioazzay Laboratory Aquaculture. Accessed January 30, 2012 at http://mblaquaculture.com
/content/organisms/daphnids .php#daphnia.

Alekseev, V., W. Lampert. 2001. Maternal control of resting-egg production in Daphnia. Nature, 414/6866: 899-901. Boersma, M., P. Spaak, L. De Meester. 1998. Predatormediated plasticity in morphology, life history, and behavior of Daphnia: the uncoupling of responses. American Naturalist, 152/2: 237-248. Buck, J., L. Truong, A. Blaustein. 2011. Predation by zooplankton on Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis: biological control of the deadly amphibian chytrid fungus?. Biodiversity and Conservation, 20/14: 3549-3553. Accessed February 08, 2013 at http://link.springer.com/

article/10.1007%2Fs10531011-0147-4.

Clare, J. 2002. "Daphnia: An aquarist's guide" (On-line). Accessed December 05, 2012 at http://www.caudata.org/da phnia/#anatomy. Consi, T., M. Passani, E. Macagno. 1990. Eye movements in Daphnia magna. Regions of the eye are specialized for different behaviors. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 166/3: 411-420. Accessed February 08, 2013 athttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g ov/pubmed/2324997. Coors, A., J. Vanoverbeke, T. De Bie, L. De Meester. 2009. Land use, genetic diversity and toxicant tolerance in natural populations of Daphnia magna. Aquatic Toxicology, 95/1: 71-79. Ebert, D. 2005. Ecology, Epidemiology, and Evolution of Parasitism in Daphnia. Bethesda, Maryland: National Center for Biotechnology Information (US). Enserink, E., M. Kerkhofs, C. Baltus, J. Koeman. 1995. Influence of food quality and lead exposure on maturation in Daphnia magna: evidence for a trade-off mechanism. Functional Ecology, 9/2: 175-185. Grzesiuk, M., B. Pietrzak, A. Bednarska. 2010. Longevity of Daphnia magna males and females. Hydrobiologia, 643: 7175.

Haney, J. 2010. "Daphnia magna" (On-line). An ImageBased Key To The Zooplankton of the Northeast (USA). Accessed February 01, 2012 athttp://cfb.unh.edu/CFBKey
/html/Organisms/CCladocera/ FDaphnidae/GDaphnia/Daphnia _magna/daphniamagna.html.

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