The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind Le Bon, Gustave Creation of machine-readable version: Charles Keller Conversion to TEI.

2-conformant markup: University of ir!inia "ibrary Electronic Te#t Center ca. $%& kilobytes This version available from the University of ir!inia "ibrary Charlottesville' a. http:((ete#t.lib.vir!inia.edu(moden!(moden!&.bro)se.html *++, -ote: .ootnotes /some )hich e#tend over t)o pa!es0 are moved from end of pa!es to end of para!raph cited and renumbered successively. About the print version The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind Gustave Le Bon The 1acmillan Co. -e) 2ork *3+% The Criminolo!y 4eries -ote: Checked a!ainst University of ir!inia library copy: 51 23* ",$ *3+% -ote: 6ustave le 7on: 8b. 1ay 9' *3:* -- d. ;ec *$' *+$*< /note from Charles Keller0 4pell-check and verification made a!ainst printed te#t. Published: 1896 En!lish nonfiction= prose T5E C>?@; A STUDY OF THE POPULAR MIND

72 6U4TA E "E 7?-E@ 2?>K

T5E 1AC1I""A- C?. *3+%

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T5E follo)in! )ork is devoted to an account of the characteristics of cro)ds. The )hole of the common characteristics )ith )hich heredity endo)s the individuals of a race constitute the !enius of the race. @hen' ho)ever' a certain number of these individuals are !athered to!ether in a cro)d for purposes of action' observation proves that' from the mere fact of their bein! assembled' there result certain ne) psycholo!ical characteristics' )hich are added to the racial characteristics and differ from them at times to a very considerable de!ree. ?r!anised cro)ds have al)ays played an important part in the life of peoples' but this part has never been of such moment as at present. The substitution of the unconscious action of cro)ds for the conscious activity of individuals is one of the principal characteristics of the present a!e. I have endeavoured to e#amine the difficult problem presented by cro)ds in a purely scientific manner -- that is' by makin! an effort to proceed )ith method' and )ithout bein! influenced by

-viopinions' theories' and doctrines. This' I believe' is the only mode of arrivin! at the discovery of some fe) particles of truth' especially )hen dealin!' as is the case here' )ith a Buestion that is the subCect of impassioned controversy. A man of science bent on verifyin! a phenomenon is not called upon to concern himself )ith the interests his verifications may hurt. In a recent publication an eminent thinker' 1. 6oblet dDAlviela' made the remark that' belon!in! to none of the contemporary schools' I am occasionally found in opposition of sundry of the conclusions of all of them. I hope this ne) )ork )ill merit a similar observation. To belon! to a school is necessarily to espouse its preCudices and preconceived opinions. 4till I should e#plain to the reader )hy he )ill find me dra) conclusions from my investi!ations )hich it mi!ht be thou!ht at first si!ht they do not bear= )hy' for instance' after notin! the e#treme mental inferiority of cro)ds' picked assemblies included' I yet affirm it )ould be dan!erous to meddle )ith their or!anisation' not)ithstandin! this inferiority. The reason is' that the most attentive observation of the facts of history has invariably demonstrated to me that social or!anisms bein! every )hit as complicated as those of all bein!s' it is in no )ise in our po)er to force them to under!o on a sudden far-reachin! transformations. -ature has

-viirecourse at times to radical measures' but never after our fashion' )hich e#plains ho) it is that

nothin! is more fatal to a people than the mania for !reat reforms' ho)ever e#cellent these reforms may appear theoretically. They )ould only be useful )ere it possible to chan!e instantaneously the !enius of nations. This po)er' ho)ever' is only possessed by time. 1en are ruled by ideas' sentiments' and customs -- matters )hich are of the essence of ourselves. Institutions and la)s are the out)ard manifestation of our character' the e#pression of its needs. 7ein! its outcome' institutions and la)s cannot chan!e this character. The study of social phenomena cannot be separated from that of the peoples amon! )hom they have come into e#istence. .rom the philosophic point of vie) these phenomena may have an absolute value= in practice they have only a relative value. It is necessary' in conseBuence' )hen studyin! a social phenomenon' to consider it successively under t)o very different aspects. It )ill then be seen that the teachin!s of pure reason are very often contrary to those of practical reason. There are scarcely any data' even physical' to )hich this distinction is not applicable. .rom the point of vie) of absolute truth a cube or a circle are invariable !eometrical fi!ures' ri!orously defined by certain formulas. .rom the point of vie) of the impression

-viiithey make on our eye these !eometrical fi!ures may assume very varied shapes. 7y perspective the cube may be transformed into a pyramid or a sBuare' the circle into an ellipse or a strai!ht line. 1oreover' the consideration of these fictitious shapes is far more important than that of the real shapes' for it is they and they alone that )e see and that can be reproduced by photo!raphy or in pictures. In certain cases there is more truth in the unreal than in the real. To present obCects )ith their e#act !eometrical forms )ould be to distort nature and render it unreco!nisable. If )e ima!ine a )orld )hose inhabitants could only copy or photo!raph obCects' but )ere unable to touch them' it )ould be very difficult for such persons to attain to an e#act idea of their form. 1oreover' the kno)led!e of this form' accessible only to a small number of learned men' )ould present but a very minor interest. The philosopher )ho studies social phenomena should bear in mind that side by side )ith their theoretical value they possess a practical value' and that this latter' so far as the evolution of civilisation is concerned' is alone of importance. The reco!nition of this fact should render him very circumspect )ith re!ard to the conclusions that lo!ic )ould seem at first to enforce upon him. There are other motives that dictate to him a like reserve. The comple#ity of social facts is

-ixsuch' that it is impossible to !rasp them as a )hole and to foresee the effects of their reciprocal influence. It seems' too' that behind the visible facts are hidden at times thousands of invisible causes. isible social phenomena appear to be the result of an immense' unconscious )orkin!' that as a rule is beyond the reach of our analysis. Eerceptible phenomena may be compared to the )aves' )hich are the e#pression on the surface of the ocean of deep-lyin! disturbances of )hich )e kno) nothin!. 4o far as the maCority of their acts are considered' cro)ds display a sin!ularly inferior mentality= yet there are other acts in )hich they appear to be !uided by those mysterious forces )hich the ancients denominated destiny' nature' or providence' )hich )e call the voices of

the dead' and )hose po)er it is impossible to overlook' althou!h )e i!nore their essence. It )ould seem' at times' as if there )ere latent forces in the inner bein! of nations )hich serve to !uide them. @hat' for instance' can be more complicated' more lo!ical' more marvellous than a lan!ua!eF 2et )hence can this admirably or!anised production have arisen' e#cept it be the outcome of the unconscious !enius of cro)dsF The most learned academics' the most esteemed !rammarians can do no more than note do)n the la)s that !overn lan!ua!es= they )ould be utterly incapable of creatin! them. Even )ith respect to the ideas of !reat men

-x are )e certain that they are e#clusively the offsprin! of their brainsF -o doubt such ideas are al)ays created by solitary minds' but is it not the !enius of cro)ds that has furnished the thousands of !rains of dust formin! the soil in )hich they have sprun! upF Cro)ds' doubtless' are al)ays unconscious' but this very unconsciousness is perhaps one of the secrets of their stren!th. In the natural )orld bein!s e#clusively !overned by instinct accomplish acts )hose marvellous comple#ity astounds us. >eason is an attribute of humanity of too recent date and still too imperfect to reveal to us the la)s of the unconscious' and still more to take its place. The part played by the unconscious in all our acts is immense' and that played by reason very small. The unconscious acts like a force still unkno)n. If )e )ish' then' to remain )ithin the narro) but safe limits )ithin )hich science can attain to kno)led!e' and not to )ander in the domain of va!ue conCecture and vain hypothesis' all )e must do is simply to take note of such phenomena as are accessible to us' and confine ourselves to their consideration. Every conclusion dra)n from our observation is' as a rule' premature' for behind the phenomena )hich )e see clearly are other phenomena that )e see indistinctly' and perhaps behind these latter' yet others )hich )e do not see at all.

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CONTENTS.
I-T>?;UCTI?-. THE ERA OF CRO DS! 7??K I. THE MIND OF CRO DS! C5AETE> I. EA6E 6E-E>A" C5A>ACTE>I4TIC4 ?. C>?@;4 -- E42C5?"?6ICA"

"A@ ?. T5EI> 1E-TA" U-IT2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * C5AETE> II. T5E 4E-TI1E-T4 A-; 1?>A"IT2 ?. C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .*% C5AETE> III. T5E I;EA4' >EA4?-I-6 E?@E>' A-; I1A6I-ATI??. C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .:9 C5AETE> I . A >E"I6I?U4 45AEE A44U1E; 72 A"" T5E C?- ICTI?-4 ?. C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%2 -- -7??K II. THE OPINIONS AND "ELIEFS OF CRO DS! C5AETE> I. >E1?TE .ACT?>4 ?. T5E ?EI-I?-4 A-; 7E"IE.4 ?. C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9&

-xiiC5AETE> II. EA6E T5E I11E;IATE .ACT?>4 ?. T5E ?EI-I?-4 ?. C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+3 C5AETE> III. T5E "EA;E>4 ?. C>?@;4 A-; T5EI> 1EA-4 ?. EE>4UA4I?-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . **9 C5AETE> I . "I1ITATI?-4 ?. T5E A>IA7I"IT2 ?. T5E 7E"IE.4

A-; ?EI-I?-4 ?. C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *:9 -- -7??K III. THE CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT #INDS OF CRO DS! C5AETE> I. T5E C"A44I.ICATI?- ?. C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *%: C5AETE> II. C>?@;4 TE>1E; C>I1I-A" C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *9* C5AETE> III. C>I1I-A" GU>IE4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *93 C5AETE> I . E"ECT?>A" C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3+ C5AETE> . EA>"IA1E-TA>2 A44E17"IE4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2&$

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!NT"O#$CT!ON. THE ERA OF CROWDS.

The evolution of the present a!e -- The !reat chan!es in civilisation are the conseBuence of chan!es in -ational thou!ht -- 1odern belief in the po)er of cro)ds -- It transforms the traditional policy of the European states -- 5o) the rise of the popular classes comes about' and the manner in )hich they e#ercise their po)er -- The necessary conseBuences of the po)er of the cro)d -Cro)ds unable to play a part other than destructive -- The dissolution of )orn-out civilisations is the )ork of the cro)d -- 6eneral i!norance of the psycholo!y of cro)ds -- Importance of the study of cro)ds for le!islators and statesmen. T5E !reat upheavals )hich precede chan!es of civilisations such as the fall of the >oman Empire and the foundation of the Arabian Empire' seem at first si!ht determined more especially by political transformations' forei!n invasion' or the overthro) of dynasties. 7ut a more attentive study

of these events sho)s that behind their apparent causes the real cause is !enerally seen to be a

-xviprofound modification in the ideas of the peoples. The true historical upheavals are not those )hich astonish us by their !randeur and violence. The only important chan!es )hence the rene)al of civilisations results' affect ideas' conceptions' and beliefs. The memorable events of history are the visible effects of the invisible chan!es of human thou!ht. The reason these !reat events are so rare is that there is nothin! so stable in a race as the inherited !round)ork of its thou!hts. The present epoch is one of these critical moments in )hich the thou!ht of mankind is under!oin! a process of transformation. T)o fundamental factors are at the base of this transformation. The first is the destruction of those reli!ious' political' and social beliefs in )hich all the elements of our civilisation are rooted. The second is the creation of entirely ne) conditions of e#istence and thou!ht as the result of modern scientific and industrial discoveries. The ideas of the past' althou!h half destroyed' bein! still very po)erful' and the ideas )hich are to replace them bein! still in process of formation' the modern a!e represents a period of transition and anarchy. It is not easy to say as yet )hat )ill one day be evolved from this necessarily some)hat chaotic period. @hat )ill be the fundamental ideas on

-xv)hich the societies that are to succeed our o)n )ill be built upF @e do not at present kno). 4till it is already clear that on )hatever lines the societies of the future are or!anised' they )ill have to count )ith a ne) po)er' )ith the last survivin! soverei!n force of modern times' the po)er of cro)ds. ?n the ruins of so many ideas formerly considered beyond discussion' and to-day decayed or decayin!' of so many sources of authority that successive revolutions have destroyed' this po)er' )hich alone has arisen in their stead' seems soon destined to absorb the others. @hile all our ancient beliefs are totterin! and disappearin!' )hile the old pillars of society are !ivin! )ay one by one' the po)er of the cro)d is the only force that nothin! menaces' and of )hich the presti!e is continually on the increase. The a!e )e are about to enter )ill in truth be the E>A ?. C>?@;4. 4carcely a century a!o the traditional policy of European states and the rivalries of soverei!ns )ere the principal factors that shaped events. The opinion of the masses scarcely counted' and most freBuently indeed did not count at all. To-day it is the traditions )hich used to obtain in politics' and the individual tendencies and rivalries of rulers )hich do not count= )hile' on the contrary' the voice of the masses has become preponderant. It is this voice that dictates their conduct to kin!s'

-xvi)hose endeavour is to take note of its utterances. The destinies of nations are elaborated at present

in the heart of the masses' and no lon!er in the councils of princes. The entry of the popular classes into political life -- that is to say' in reality' their pro!ressive transformation into !overnin! classes -- is one of the most strikin! characteristics of our epoch of transition. The introduction of universal suffra!e' )hich e#ercised for a lon! time but little influence' is not' as mi!ht be thou!ht' the distin!uishin! feature of this transference of political po)er. The pro!ressive !ro)th of the po)er of the masses took place at first by the propa!ation of certain ideas' )hich have slo)ly implanted themselves in menDs minds' and after)ards by the !radual association of individuals bent on brin!in! about the realisation of theoretical conceptions. It is by association that cro)ds have come to procure ideas )ith respect to their interests )hich are very clearly defined if not particularly Cust' and have arrived at a consciousness of their stren!th. The masses are foundin! syndicates before )hich the authorities capitulate one after the other= they are also foundin! labour unions' )hich in spite of all economic la)s tend to re!ulate the conditions of labour and )a!es. They return to assemblies in )hich the 6overnment is vested' representatives utterly lackin! initiative and independence' and reduced most often to nothin! else

-xviithan the spokesmen of the committees that have chosen them. To-day the claims of the masses are becomin! more and more sharply defined' and amount to nothin! less than a determination to utterly destroy society as it no) e#ists' )ith a vie) to makin! it hark back to that primitive communism )hich )as the normal condition of all human !roups before the da)n of civilisation. "imitations of the hours of labour' the nationalisation of mines' rail)ays' factories' and the soil' the eBual distribution of all products' the elimination of all the upper classes for the benefit of the popular classes' Hc.' such are these claims. "ittle adapted to reasonin!' cro)ds' on the contrary' are Buick to act. As the result of their present or!anisation their stren!th has become immense. The do!mas )hose birth )e are )itnessin! )ill soon have the force of the old do!mas= that is to say' the tyrannical and soverei!n force of bein! above discussion. The divine ri!ht of the masses is about to replace the divine ri!ht of kin!s. The )riters )ho enCoy the favour of our middle classes' those )ho best represent their rather narro) ideas' their some)hat prescribed vie)s' their rather superficial scepticism' and their at times some)hat e#cessive e!oism' display profound alarm at this ne) po)er )hich they see !ro)in!= and to combat

-xviiithe disorder in menDs minds they are addressin! despairin! appeals to those moral forces of the Church for )hich they formerly professed so much disdain. They talk to us of the bankruptcy of science' !o back in penitence to >ome' and remind us of the teachin!s of revealed truth. These ne) converts for!et that it is too late. 5ad they been really touched by !race' a like operation could not have the same influence on minds less concerned )ith the preoccupations )hich beset these recent adherents to reli!ion. The masses repudiate to-day the !ods )hich their admonishers repudiated yesterday and helped to destroy. There is no po)er' ;ivine or human' that can obli!e a stream to flo) back to its source. There has been no bankruptcy of science' and science has had no share in the present intellectual

anarchy' nor in the makin! of the ne) po)er )hich is sprin!in! up in the midst of this anarchy. 4cience promised us truth' or at least a kno)led!e of such relations as our intelli!ence can seiIe: it never promised us peace or happiness. 4overei!nly indifferent to our feelin!s' it is deaf to our lamentations. It is for us to endeavour to live )ith science' since nothin! can brin! back the illusions it has destroyed. Universal symptoms' visible in all nations' sho) us the rapid !ro)th of the po)er of cro)ds' and do not admit of our supposin! that it is

-xixdestined to cease !ro)in! at an early date. @hatever fate it may reserve for us' )e shall have to submit to it. All reasonin! a!ainst it is a mere vain )ar of )ords. Certainly it is possible that the advent to po)er of the masses marks one of the last sta!es of @estern civilisation' a complete return to those periods of confused anarchy )hich seem al)ays destined to precede the birth of every ne) society. 7ut may this result be preventedF Up to no) these thorou!h!oin! destructions of a )orn-out civilisation have constituted the most obvious task of the masses. It is not indeed to-day merely that this can be traced. 5istory tells us' that from the moment )hen the moral forces on )hich a civilisation rested have lost their stren!th' its final dissolution is brou!ht about by those unconscious and brutal cro)ds kno)n' Custifiably enou!h' as barbarians. Civilisations as yet have only been created and directed by a small intellectual aristocracy' never by cro)ds. Cro)ds are only po)erful for destruction. Their rule is al)ays tantamount to a barbarian phase. A civilisation involves fi#ed rules' discipline' a passin! from the instinctive to the rational state' forethou!ht for the future' an elevated de!ree of culture -all of them conditions that cro)ds' left to themselves' have invariably sho)n themselves incapable of realisin!. In conseBuence of the purely destructive nature of their po)er cro)ds act like those microbes )hich

-xxhasten the dissolution of enfeebled or dead bodies. @hen the structure of a civilisation is rotten' it is al)ays the masses that brin! about its do)nfall. It is at such a Cuncture that their chief mission is plainly visible' and that for a )hile the philosophy of number seems the only philosophy of history. Is the same fate in store for our civilisationF There is !round to fear that this is the case' but )e are not as yet in a position to be certain of it. 5o)ever this may be' )e are bound to resi!n ourselves to the rei!n of the masses' since )ant of foresi!ht has in succession overthro)n all the barriers that mi!ht have kept the cro)d in check. @e have a very sli!ht kno)led!e of these cro)ds )hich are be!innin! to be the obCect of so much discussion. Erofessional students of psycholo!y' havin! lived far from them' have al)ays i!nored them' and )hen' as of late' they have turned their attention in this direction it has only been to consider the crimes cro)ds are capable of committin!. @ithout a doubt criminal cro)ds e#ist' but virtuous and heroic cro)ds' and cro)ds of many other kinds' are also to be met )ith. The crimes of cro)ds only constitute a particular phase of their psycholo!y. The mental constitution of cro)ds is not to be learnt merely by a study of their crimes' any more than that of an individual by a mere description of his vices.

-xxi5o)ever' in point of fact' all the )orldDs masters' all the founders of reli!ions or empires' the apostles of all beliefs' eminent statesmen' and' in a more modest sphere' the mere chiefs of small !roups of men have al)ays been unconscious psycholo!ists' possessed of an instinctive and often very sure kno)led!e of the character of cro)ds' and it is their accurate kno)led!e of this character that has enabled them to so easily establish their mastery. -apoleon had a marvellous insi!ht into the psycholo!y of the masses of the country over )hich he rei!ned' but he' at times' completely misunderstood the psycholo!y of cro)ds belon!in! to other races= -ote: J*K and it is because he thus misunderstood it that he en!a!ed in 4pain' and notably in >ussia' in conflicts in )hich his po)er received blo)s )hich )ere destined )ithin a brief space of time to ruin it. A kno)led!e of the psycholo!y of cro)ds is to-day the last resource of the statesman )ho )ishes not to !overn them -- that is becomin! a very difficult matter -- but at any rate not to be too much !overned by them. J*K 5is most subtle advisers' moreover' did not understand this psycholo!y any better. Talleyrand )rote him that L4pain )ould receive his soldiers as liberators.L It received them as beasts of prey. A psycholo!ist acBuainted )ith the hereditary instincts of the 4panish race )ould have easily foreseen this reception. It is only by obtainin! some sort of insi!ht into the psycholo!y of cro)ds that it can be understood

-xxiiho) sli!ht is the action upon them of la)s and institutions' ho) po)erless they are to hold any opinions other than those )hich are imposed upon them' and that it is not )ith rules based on theories of pure eBuity that they are to be led' but by seekin! )hat produces an impression on them and )hat seduces them. .or instance' should a le!islator' )ishin! to impose a ne) ta#' choose that )hich )ould be theoretically the most CustF 7y no means. In practice the most unCust may be the best for the masses. 4hould it at the same time be the least obvious' and apparently the least burdensome' it )ill be the most easily tolerated. It is for this reason that an indirect ta#' ho)ever e#orbitant it be' )ill al)ays be accepted by the cro)d' because' bein! paid daily in fractions of a farthin! on obCects of consumption' it )ill not interfere )ith the habits of the cro)d' and )ill pass unperceived. >eplace it by a proportional ta# on )a!es or income of any other kind' to be paid in a lump sum' and )ere this ne) imposition theoretically ten times less burdensome than the other' it )ould !ive rise to unanimous protest. This arises from the fact that a sum relatively hi!h' )hich )ill appear immense' and )ill in conseBuence strike the ima!ination' has been substituted for the unperceived fractions of a farthin!. The ne) ta# )ould only appear li!ht had it been saved farthin! by farthin!' but this economic proceedin!

-xxiii-

involves an amount of foresi!ht of )hich the masses are incapable. The e#ample )hich precedes is of the simplest. Its appositeness )ill be easily perceived. It did not escape the attention of such a psycholo!ist as -apoleon' but our modern le!islators' i!norant as they are of the characteristics of a cro)d' are unable to appreciate it. E#perience has not tau!ht them as yet to a sufficient de!ree that men never shape their conduct upon the teachin! of pure reason. 1any other practical applications mi!ht be made of the psycholo!y of cro)ds. A kno)led!e of this science thro)s the most vivid li!ht on a !reat number of historical and economic phenomena totally incomprehensible )ithout it. I shall have occasion to sho) that the reason )hy the most remarkable of modern historians' Taine' has at times so imperfectly understood the events of the !reat .rench >evolution is' that it never occurred to him to study the !enius of cro)ds. 5e took as his !uide in the study of this complicated period the descriptive method resorted to by naturalists= but the moral forces are almost absent in the case of the phenomena )hich naturalists have to study. 2et it is precisely these forces that constitute the true mainsprin!s of history. In conseBuence' merely looked at from its practical side' the study of the psycholo!y of cro)ds

-xxivdeserved to be attempted. @ere its interest that resultin! from pure curiosity only' it )ould still merit attention. It is as interestin! to decipher the motives of the actions of men as to determine the characteristics of a mineral or a plant. ?ur study of the !enius of cro)ds can merely be a brief synthesis' a simple summary of our investi!ations. -othin! more must be demanded of it than a fe) su!!estive vie)s. ?thers )ill )ork the !round more thorou!hly. To-day )e only touch the surface of a still almost vir!in soil.

-$-

BOO% !. THE M !D OF CROWDS.

C&'PTE" !. "E!ERA# CHARACTER ST CS OF CROWDS. $$ P%SCHO#O" CA# #AW OF THE R ME!TA# &! T%.
@hat constitutes a cro)d from the psycholo!ical point of vie) -- A numerically stron! a!!lomeration of individuals does not suffice to form a cro)d -- 4pecial characteristics of psycholo!ical cro)ds -- The turnin! in a fi#ed direction of the ideas and sentiments of individuals composin! such a cro)d' and the disappearance of their personality -- The cro)d is al)ays dominated by considerations of )hich it is unconscious -- The disappearance of brain activity and

the predominance of medullar activity -- The lo)erin! of the intelli!ence and the complete transformation of the sentiments -- The transformed sentiments may be better or )orse than those of the individuals of )hich the cro)d is composed -- A cro)d is as easily heroic as criminal. I- its ordinary sense the )ord Lcro)dL means a !atherin! of individuals of )hatever nationality' profession' or se#' and )hatever be the chances that have brou!ht them to!ether. .rom the psycholo!ical point of vie) the e#pression

-%Lcro)dL assumes Buite a different si!nification. Under certain !iven circumstances' and only under those circumstances' an a!!lomeration of men presents ne) characteristics very different from those of the individuals composin! it. The sentiments and ideas of all the persons in the !atherin! take one and the same direction' and their conscious personality vanishes. A collective mind is formed' doubtless transitory' but presentin! very clearly defined characteristics. The !atherin! has thus become )hat' in the absence of a better e#pression' I )ill call an or!anised cro)d' or' if the term is considered preferable' a psycholo!ical cro)d. It forms a sin!le bein!' and is subCected to the &'( o) the *ent'& unit+ o) ,ro(-s. It is evident that it is not by the mere fact of a number of individuals findin! themselves accidentally side by side that they acBuire the character of an or!anised cro)d. A thousand individuals accidentally !athered in a public place )ithout any determined obCect in no )ay constitute a cro)d from the psycholo!ical point of vie). To acBuire the special characteristics of such a cro)d' the influence is necessary of certain predisposin! causes of )hich )e shall have to determine the nature. The disappearance of conscious personality and the turnin! of feelin!s and thou!hts in a definite

-.direction' )hich are the primary characteristics of a cro)d about to become or!anised' do not al)ays involve the simultaneous presence of a number of individuals on one spot. Thousands of isolated individuals may acBuire at certain moments' and under the influence of certain violent emotions -- such' for e#ample' as a !reat national event -- the characteristics of a psycholo!ical cro)d. It )ill be sufficient in that case that a mere chance should brin! them to!ether for their acts to at once assume the characteristics peculiar to the acts of a cro)d. At certain moments half a doIen men mi!ht constitute a psycholo!ical cro)d' )hich may not happen in the case of hundreds of men !athered to!ether by accident. ?n the other hand' an entire nation' thou!h there may be no visible a!!lomeration' may become a cro)d under the action of certain influences. A psycholo!ical cro)d once constituted' it acBuires certain provisional but determinable !eneral characteristics. To these !eneral characteristics there are adCoined particular characteristics )hich vary accordin! to the elements of )hich the cro)d is composed' and may modify its mental constitution. Esycholo!ical cro)ds' then' are susceptible of classification= and )hen )e come to occupy ourselves )ith this matter' )e shall see that a hetero!eneous cro)d -- that is' a cro)d composed of dissimilar elements -- presents certain characteristics

-/in common )ith homo!eneous cro)ds -- that is' )ith cro)ds composed of elements more or less akin /sects' castes' and classes0 -- and side by side )ith these common characteristics particularities )hich permit of the t)o kinds of cro)ds bein! differentiated. 7ut before occupyin! ourselves )ith the different cate!ories of cro)ds' )e must first of all e#amine the characteristics common to them all. @e shall set to )ork like the naturalist' )ho be!ins by describin! the !eneral characteristics common to all the members of a family before concernin! himself )ith the particular characteristics )hich allo) the differentiation of the !enera and species that the family includes. It is not easy to describe the mind of cro)ds )ith e#actness' because its or!anisation varies not only accordin! to race and composition' but also accordin! to the nature and intensity of the e#citin! causes to )hich cro)ds are subCected. The same difficulty' ho)ever' presents itself in the psycholo!ical study of an individual. It is only in novels that individuals are found to traverse their )hole life )ith an unvaryin! character. It is only the uniformity of the environment that creates the apparent uniformity of characters. I have sho)n else)here that all mental constitutions contain possibilities of character )hich may be manifested in conseBuence of a sudden chan!e of

-0environment. This e#plains ho) it )as that amon! the most sava!e members of the .rench Convention )ere to be found inoffensive citiIens )ho' under ordinary circumstances' )ould have been peaceable notaries or virtuous ma!istrates. The storm past' they resumed their normal character of Buiet' la)-abidin! citiIens. -apoleon found amon!st them his most docile servants. It bein! impossible to study here all the successive de!rees of or!anisation of cro)ds' )e shall concern ourselves more especially )ith such cro)ds as have attained to the phase of complete or!anisation. In this )ay )e shall see )hat cro)ds may become' but not )hat they invariably are. It is only in this advanced phase of or!anisation that certain ne) and special characteristics are superposed on the unvaryin! and dominant character of the race= then takes place that turnin! already alluded to of all the feelin!s and thou!hts of the collectivity in an identical direction. It is only under such circumstances' too' that )hat I have called above the ps+,ho&o1i,'& &'( o) the *ent'& unit+ o) ,ro(-s comes into play. Amon! the psycholo!ical characteristics of cro)ds there are some that they may present in common )ith isolated individuals' and others' on the contrary' )hich are absolutely peculiar to them and are only to be met )ith in collectivities. It is

-2these special characteristics that )e shall study' first of all' in order to sho) their importance. The most strikin! peculiarity presented by a psycholo!ical cro)d is the follo)in!: @hoever be the individuals that compose it' ho)ever like or unlike be their mode of life' their occupations' their character' or their intelli!ence' the fact that they have been transformed into a cro)d puts them in

possession of a sort of collective mind )hich makes them feel' think' and act in a manner Buite different from that in )hich each individual of them )ould feel' think' and act )ere he in a state of isolation. There are certain ideas and feelin!s )hich do not come into bein!' or do not transform themselves into acts e#cept in the case of individuals formin! a cro)d. The psycholo!ical cro)d is a provisional bein! formed of hetero!eneous elements' )hich for a moment are combined' e#actly as the cells )hich constitute a livin! body form by their reunion a ne) bein! )hich displays characteristics very different from those possessed by each of the cells sin!ly. Contrary to an opinion )hich one is astonished to find comin! from the pen of so acute a philosopher as 5erbert 4pencer' in the a!!re!ate )hich constitutes a cro)d there is in no sort a summin!-up of or an avera!e struck bet)een its elements. @hat really takes place is a combination follo)ed by the creation of ne) characteristics' Cust as in

-3chemistry certain elements' )hen brou!ht into contact -- bases and acids' for e#ample -- combine to form a ne) body possessin! properties Buite different from those of the bodies that have served to form it. It is easy to prove ho) much the individual formin! part of a cro)d differs from the isolated individual' but it is less easy to discover the causes of this difference. To obtain at any rate a !limpse of them it is necessary in the first place to call to mind the truth established by modern psycholo!y' that unconscious phenomena play an alto!ether preponderatin! part not only in or!anic life' but also in the operations of the intelli!ence. The conscious life of the mind is of small importance in comparison )ith its unconscious life. The most subtle analyst' the most acute observer' is scarcely successful in discoverin! more than a very small number of the unconscious motives that determine his conduct. ?ur conscious acts are the outcome of an unconscious substratum created in the mind in the main by hereditary influences. This substratum consists of the innumerable common characteristics handed do)n from !eneration to !eneration' )hich constitute the !enius of a race. 7ehind the avo)ed causes of our acts there undoubtedly lie secret causes that )e do not avo)' but behind these secret causes there are many

-4others more secret still )hich )e ourselves i!nore. The !reater part of our daily actions are the result of hidden motives )hich escape our observation. It is more especially )ith respect to those unconscious elements )hich constitute the !enius of a race that all the individuals belon!in! to it resemble each other' )hile it is principally in respect to the conscious elements of their character -- the fruit of education' and yet more of e#ceptional hereditary conditions -- that they differ from each other. 1en the most unlike in the matter of their intelli!ence possess instincts' passions' and feelin!s that are very similar. In the case of every thin! that belon!s to the realm of sentiment -- reli!ion' politics' morality' the affections and antipathies' Hc. -- the most eminent men seldom surpass the standard of the most ordinary individuals. .rom the intellectual point of vie) an abyss may e#ist bet)een a !reat mathematician and his boot maker' but from the point of vie) of character the difference is most often sli!ht or non-e#istent. It is precisely these !eneral Bualities of character' !overned by forces of )hich )e are

unconscious' and possessed by the maCority of the normal individuals of a race in much the same de!ree -- it is precisely these Bualities' I say' that in cro)ds become common property. In the collective mind the intellectual aptitudes of the individuals' and in conseBuence their individuality' are )eakened. The

-4hetero!eneous is s)amped by the homo!eneous' and the unconscious Bualities obtain the upper hand. This very fact that cro)ds possess in common ordinary Bualities e#plains )hy they can never accomplish acts demandin! a hi!h de!ree of intelli!ence. The decisions affectin! matters of !eneral interest come to by an assembly of men of distinction' but specialists in different )alks of life' are not sensibly superior to the decisions that )ould be adopted by a !atherin! of imbeciles. The truth is' they can only brin! to bear in common on the )ork in hand those mediocre Bualities )hich are the birthri!ht of every avera!e individual. In cro)ds it is stupidity and not mother-)it that is accumulated. It is not all the )orld' as is so often repeated' that has more )it than oltaire' but assuredly oltaire that has more )it than all the )orld' if by Lall the )orldL cro)ds are to be understood. If the individuals of a cro)d confined themselves to puttin! in common the ordinary Bualities of )hich each of them has his share' there )ould merely result the strikin! of an avera!e' and not' as )e have said is actually the case' the creation of ne) characteristics. 5o) is it that these ne) characteristics are createdF This is )hat )e are no) to investi!ate. ;ifferent causes determine the appearance of

-$5these characteristics peculiar to cro)ds' and not possessed by isolated individuals. The first is that the individual formin! part of a cro)d acBuires' solely from numerical considerations' a sentiment of invincible po)er )hich allo)s him to yield to instincts )hich' had he been alone' he )ould perforce have kept under restraint. 5e )ill be the less disposed to check himself from the consideration that' a cro)d bein! anonymous' and in conseBuence irresponsible' the sentiment of responsibility )hich al)ays controls individuals disappears entirely. The second cause' )hich is conta!ion' also intervenes to determine the manifestation in cro)ds of their special characteristics' and at the same time the trend they are to take. Conta!ion is a phenomenon of )hich it is easy to establish the presence' but that it is not easy to e#plain. It must be classed amon! those phenomena of a hypnotic order' )hich )e shall shortly study. In a cro)d every sentiment and act is conta!ious' and conta!ious to such a de!ree that an individual readily sacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an aptitude very contrary to his nature' and of )hich a man is scarcely capable' e#cept )hen he makes part of a cro)d. A third cause' and by far the most important' determines in the individuals of a cro)d special characteristics )hich are Buite contrary at times

-$$to those presented by the isolated individual. I allude to that su!!estibility of )hich' moreover' the conta!ion mentioned above is neither more nor less than an effect. To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to bear in mind certain recent physiolo!ical discoveries. @e kno) to-day that by various processes an individual may be brou!ht into such a condition that' havin! entirely lost his conscious personality' he obeys all the su!!estions of the operator )ho has deprived him of it' and commits acts in utter contradiction )ith his character and habits. The most careful observations seem to prove that an individual immer!ed for some len!th of time in a cro)d in action soon finds himself -- either in conseBuence of the ma!netic influence !iven out by the cro)d' or from some other cause of )hich )e are i!norant -- in a special state' )hich much resembles the state of fascination in )hich the hypnotised individual finds himself in the hands of the hypnotiser. The activity of the brain bein! paralysed in the case of the hypnotised subCect' the latter becomes the slave of all the unconscious activities of his spinal cord' )hich the hypnotiser directs at )ill. The conscious personality has entirely vanished= )ill and discernment are lost. All feelin!s and thou!hts are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser. 4uch also is appro#imately the state of the

-$%individual formin! part of a psycholo!ical cro)d. 5e is no lon!er conscious of his acts. In his case' as in the case of the hypnotised subCect' at the same time that certain faculties are destroyed' others may be brou!ht to a hi!h de!ree of e#altation. Under the influence of a su!!estion' he )ill undertake the accomplishment of certain acts )ith irresistible impetuosity. This impetuosity is the more irresistible in the case of cro)ds than in that of the hypnotised subCect' from the fact that' the su!!estion bein! the same for all the individuals of the cro)d' it !ains in stren!th by reciprocity. The individualities in the cro)d )ho mi!ht possess a personality sufficiently stron! to resist the su!!estion are too fe) in number to stru!!le a!ainst the current. At the utmost' they may be able to attempt a diversion by means of different su!!estions. It is in this )ay' for instance' that a happy e#pression' an ima!e opportunely evoked' have occasionally deterred cro)ds from the most bloodthirsty acts. @e see' then' that the disappearance of the conscious personality' the predominance of the unconscious personality' the turnin! by means of su!!estion and conta!ion of feelin!s and ideas in an identical direction' the tendency to immediately transform the su!!ested ideas into acts= these' )e see' are the principal characteristics of the individual formin! part of a cro)d. 5e is no lon!er himself' but

-$.has become an automaton )ho has ceased to be !uided by his )ill. 1oreover' by the mere fact that he forms part of an or!anised cro)d' a man descends several run!s in the ladder of civilisation. Isolated' he may be a cultivated individual= in a cro)d' he is a barbarian -- that is' a creature actin! by instinct. 5e possesses the spontaneity' the violence' the

ferocity' and also the enthusiasm and heroism of primitive bein!s' )hom he further tends to resemble by the facility )ith )hich he allo)s himself to be impressed by )ords and ima!es -)hich )ould be entirely )ithout action on each of the isolated individuals composin! the cro)d -and to be induced to commit acts contrary to his most obvious interests and his best-kno)n habits. An individual in a cro)d is a !rain of sand amid other !rains of sand' )hich the )ind stirs up at )ill. It is for these reasons that Curies are seen to deliver verdicts of )hich each individual Curor )ould disapprove' that parliamentary assemblies adopt la)s and measures of )hich each of their members )ould disapprove in his o)n person. Taken separately' the men of the Convention )ere enli!htened citiIens of peaceful habits. United in a cro)d' they did not hesitate to !ive their adhesion to the most sava!e proposals' to !uillotine individuals most clearly innocent' and' contrary to their interests' to renounce their inviolability and to decimate themselves.

-$/It is not only by his acts that the individual in a cro)d differs essentially from himself. Even before he has entirely lost his independence' his ideas and feelin!s have under!one a transformation' and the transformation is so profound as to chan!e the miser into a spendthrift' the sceptic into a believer' the honest man into a criminal' and the co)ard into a hero. The renunciation of all its privile!es )hich the nobility voted in a moment of enthusiasm durin! the celebrated ni!ht of Au!ust :' *93+' )ould certainly never have been consented to by any of its members taken sin!ly. The conclusion to be dra)n from )hat precedes is' that the cro)d is al)ays intellectually inferior to the isolated individual' but that' from the point of vie) of feelin!s and of the acts these feelin!s provoke' the cro)d may' accordin! to circumstances' he better or )orse than the individual. All depends on the nature of the su!!estion to )hich the cro)d is e#posed. This is the point that has been completely misunderstood by )riters )ho have only studied cro)ds from the criminal point of vie). ;oubtless a cro)d is often criminal' but also it is often heroic. It is cro)ds rather than isolated individuals that may be induced to run the risk of death to secure the triumph of a creed or an idea' that may be fired )ith enthusiasm for !lory and honour' that are led on -- almost )ithout bread and )ithout arms' as in the

-$0a!e of the Crusades -- to deliver the tomb of Christ from the infidel' or' as in D+$' to defend the fatherland. 4uch heroism is )ithout doubt some)hat unconscious' but it is of such heroism that history is made. @ere peoples only to be credited )ith the !reat actions performed in cold blood' the annals of the )orld )ould re!ister but fe) of them.

-$2-

C&'PTE" !!. THE SE!T ME!TS A!D MORA# T% OF CROWDS.

M *. I*pu&siveness6 *obi&it+6 'n- irrit'bi&it+ o) ,ro(-s! The cro)d is at the mercy of all e#terior e#citin! causes' and reflects their incessant variations -- The impulses )hich the cro)d obeys are so imperious as to annihilate the feelin! of personal interest -- Eremeditation is absent from cro)ds ->acial influence. M 2. Cro(-s 're ,re-u&ous 'n- re'-i&+ in)&uen,e- b+ su11estion! The obedience of cro)ds to su!!estions -- The ima!es evoked in the mind of cro)ds are accepted by them as realities -- @hy these ima!es are identical for all the individuals composin! a cro)d -- The eBuality of the educated and the i!norant man in a cro)d -- arious e#amples of the illusions to )hich the individuals in a cro)d are subCect -- The impossibility of accordin! belief to the testimony of cro)ds -- The unanimity of numerous )itnesses is one of the )orst proofs that can be invoked to establish a fact -- The sli!ht value of )orks of history. M $. The ex'11er'tion 'n- in1enuousness o) the senti*ents o) ,ro(-s! Cro)ds do not admit doubt or uncertainty' and al)ays !o to e#tremes -Their sentiments al)ays e#cessive. M :. The into&er'n,e6 -i,t'tori'&ness6 'n- ,onserv'tis* o) ,ro(-s! The reasons of these sentiments -- The servility of cro)ds in the face of a stron! authority -- The

-$3momentary revolutionary instincts of cro)ds do not prevent them from bein! e#tremely conservative -- Cro)ds instinctively hostile to chan!es and pro!ress. M ,. The *or'&it+ o) ,ro(-s! The morality of cro)ds' accordin! to the su!!estions under )hich they act' may be much lo)er or much hi!her than that of the individuals composin! them -- E#planation and e#amples -- Cro)ds rarely !uided by those considerations of interest )hich are most often the e#clusive motives of the isolated individual -- The moralisin! r7&e of cro)ds. 5A I-6 indicated in a !eneral )ay the principal characteristics of cro)ds' it remains to study these characteristics in detail. It )ill be remarked that amon! the special characteristics of cro)ds there are several -- such as impulsiveness' irritability' incapacity to reason' the absence of Cud!ment and of the critical spirit' the e#a!!eration of the sentiments' and others besides -- )hich are almost al)ays observed in bein!s belon!in! to inferior forms of evolution -- in )omen' sava!es' and children' for instance. 5o)ever' I merely indicate this analo!y in passin!= its demonstration is outside the scope of this )ork. It )ould' moreover' be useless for persons acBuainted )ith the psycholo!y of primitive bein!s' and )ould scarcely carry conviction to those in i!norance of this matter. I no) proceed to the successive consideration of the different characteristics that may be observed in the maCority of cro)ds.

-$8-

( 1. !)P$LS!*ENESS, )OB!L!T+, 'N# !""!T'B!L!T+ O, C"O-#S.

@hen studyin! the fundamental characteristics of a cro)d )e stated that it is !uided almost

e#clusively by unconscious motives. Its acts are far more under the influence of the spinal cord than of the brain. In this respect a cro)d is closely akin to Buite primitive bein!s. The acts performed may be perfect so far as their e#ecution is concerned' but as they are not directed by the brain' the individual conducts himself accordin! as the e#citin! causes to )hich he is submitted may happen to decide. A cro)d is at the mercy of all e#ternal e#citin! causes' and reflects their incessant variations. It is the slave of the impulses )hich it receives. The isolated individual may be submitted to the same e#citin! causes as the man in a cro)d' but as his brain sho)s him the inadvisability of yieldin! to them' he refrains from yieldin!. This truth may be physiolo!ically e#pressed by sayin! that the isolated individual possesses the capacity of dominatin! his refle# actions' )hile a cro)d is devoid of this capacity. The varyin! impulses to )hich cro)ds obey may be' accordin! to their e#citin! causes' !enerous or cruel' heroic or co)ardly' but they )ill al)ays be so imperious that the interest of the individual' even the interest of self-preservation'

-$4)ill not dominate them. The e#citin! causes that may act on cro)ds bein! so varied' and cro)ds al)ays obeyin! them' cro)ds are in conseBuence e#tremely mobile. This e#plains ho) it is that )e see them pass in a moment from the most bloodthirsty ferocity to the most e#treme !enerosity and heroism. A cro)d may easily enact the part of an e#ecutioner' but not less easily that of a martyr. It is cro)ds that have furnished the torrents of blood reBuisite for the triumph of every belief. It is not necessary to !o back to the heroic a!es to see )hat cro)ds are capable of in this latter direction. They are never sparin! of their life in an insurrection' and not lon! since a !eneral' -ote: J2K becomin! suddenly popular' mi!ht easily have found a hundred thousand men ready to sacrifice their lives for his cause had he demanded it. Any display of premeditation by cro)ds is in conseBuence out of the Buestion. They may be animated in succession by the most contrary sentiments' but they )ill al)ays be under the influence of the e#citin! causes of the moment. They are like the leaves )hich a tempest )hirls up and scatters in every direction and then allo)s to fall. @hen studyin! later on certain revolutionary cro)ds )e shall !ive some e#amples of the variability of their sentiments. J2K -ote: 6eneral 7oulan!er.

-%5This mobility of cro)ds renders them very difficult to !overn' especially )hen a measure of public authority has fallen into their hands. ;id not the necessities of everyday life constitute a sort of invisible re!ulator of e#istence' it )ould scarcely be possible for democracies to last. 4till' thou!h the )ishes of cro)ds are frenIied they are not durable. Cro)ds are as incapable of )illin! as of thinkin! for any len!th of time. A cro)d is not merely impulsive and mobile. "ike a sava!e' it is not prepared to admit that

anythin! can come bet)een its desire and the realisation of its desire. It is the less capable of understandin! such an intervention' in conseBuence of the feelin! of irresistible po)er !iven it by its numerical stren!th. The notion of impossibility disappears for the individual in a cro)d. An isolated individual kno)s )ell enou!h that alone he cannot set fire to a palace or loot a shop' and should he be tempted to do so' he )ill easily resist the temptation. 1akin! part of a cro)d' he is conscious of the po)er !iven him by number' and it is sufficient to su!!est to him ideas of murder or pilla!e for him to yield immediately to temptation. An une#pected obstacle )ill be destroyed )ith frenIied ra!e. ;id the human or!anism allo) of the perpetuity of furious passion' it mi!ht be said that the normal condition of a cro)d baulked in its )ishes is Cust such a state of furious passion.

-%$The fundamental characteristics of the race' )hich constitute the unvaryin! source from )hich all our sentiments sprin!' al)ays e#ert an influence on the irritability of cro)ds' their impulsiveness and their mobility' as on all the popular sentiments )e shall have to study. All cro)ds are doubtless al)ays irritable and impulsive' but )ith !reat variations of de!ree. .or instance' the difference bet)een a "atin and an An!lo-4a#on cro)d is strikin!. The most recent facts in .rench history thro) a vivid li!ht on this point. The mere publication' t)enty-five years a!o' of a tele!ram' relatin! an insult supposed to have been offered an ambassador' )as sufficient to determine an e#plosion of fury' )hence follo)ed immediately a terrible )ar. 4ome years later the tele!raphic announcement of an insi!nificant reverse at "an!son provoked a fresh e#plosion )hich brou!ht about the instantaneous overthro) of the !overnment. At the same moment a much more serious reverse under!one by the En!lish e#pedition to Khartoum produced only a sli!ht emotion in En!land' and no ministry )as overturned. Cro)ds are every)here distin!uished by feminine characteristics' but "atin cro)ds are the most feminine of all. @hoever trusts in them may rapidly attain a lofty destiny' but to do so is to be perpetually skirtin! the brink of a Tarpeian rock' )ith the certainty of one day bein! precipitated from it.

-%%-

( .. T&E S$GGEST!B!L!T+ 'N# C"E#$L!T+ O, C"O-#S.

@hen definin! cro)ds' )e said that one of their !eneral characteristics )as an e#cessive su!!estibility' and )e have sho)n to )hat an e#tent su!!estions are conta!ious in every human a!!lomeration= a fact )hich e#plains the rapid turnin! of the sentiments of a cro)d in a definite direction. 5o)ever indifferent it may be supposed' a cro)d' as a rule' is in a state of e#pectant attention' )hich renders su!!estion easy. The first su!!estion formulated )hich arises implants itself immediately by a process of conta!ion in the brains of all assembled' and the identical bent of the sentiments of the cro)d is immediately an accomplished fact. As is the case )ith all persons under the influence of su!!estion' the idea )hich has entered the brain tends to transform itself into an act. @hether the act is that of settin! fire to a palace' or involves self-sacrifice' a cro)d lends itself to it )ith eBual facility. All )ill depend on the nature of the e#citin! cause' and no lon!er' as in the case of the isolated individual' on the relations e#istin!

bet)een the act su!!ested and the sum total of the reasons )hich may be ur!ed a!ainst its realisation. In conseBuence' a cro)d perpetually hoverin! on the borderland of unconsciousness' readily yieldin! to all su!!estions' havin! all the violence

-%.of feelin! peculiar to bein!s )ho cannot appeal to the influence of reason' deprived of all critical faculty' cannot be other)ise than e#cessively credulous. The improbable does not e#ist for a cro)d' and it is necessary to bear this circumstance )ell in mind to understand the facility )ith )hich are created and propa!ated the most improbable le!ends and stories. -ote: J$K J$K -ote: Eersons )ho )ent throu!h the sie!e of Earis sa) numerous e#amples of this credulity of cro)ds. A candle ali!ht in an upper story )as immediately looked upon as a si!nal !iven the besie!ers' althou!h it )as evident' after a moment of reflection' that it )as utterly impossible to catch si!ht of the li!ht of the candle at a distance of several miles. The creation of the le!ends )hich so easily obtain circulation in cro)ds is not solely the conseBuence of their e#treme credulity. It is also the result of the prodi!ious perversions that events under!o in the ima!ination of a thron!. The simplest event that comes under the observation of a cro)d is soon totally transformed. A cro)d thinks in ima!es' and the ima!e itself immediately calls up a series of other ima!es' havin! no lo!ical connection )ith the first. @e can easily conceive this state by thinkin! of the fantastic succession of ideas to )hich )e are sometimes led by callin! up in our minds any fact. ?ur reason sho)s us the incoherence there is in these ima!es' but a cro)d is almost blind

-%/to this truth' and confuses )ith the real event )hat the deformin! action of its ima!ination has superimposed thereon. A cro)d scarcely distin!uishes bet)een the subCective and the obCective. It accepts as real the ima!es evoked in its mind' thou!h they most often have only a very distant relation )ith the observed fact. The )ays in )hich a cro)d perverts any event of )hich it is a )itness ou!ht' it )ould seem' to be innumerable and unlike each other' since the individuals composin! the !atherin! are of very different temperaments. 7ut this is not the case. As the result of conta!ion the perversions are of the same kind' and take the same shape in the case of all the assembled individuals. The first perversion of the truth effected by one of the individuals of the !atherin! is the startin!point of the conta!ious su!!estion. 7efore 4t. 6eor!e appeared on the )alls of Gerusalem to all the Crusaders he )as certainly perceived in the first instance by one of those present. 7y dint of su!!estion and conta!ion the miracle si!nalised by a sin!le person )as immediately accepted by all.

4uch is al)ays the mechanism of the collective hallucinations so freBuent in history -hallucinations )hich seem to have all the reco!nised characteristics of authenticity' since they are phenomena observed by thousands of persons.

-%0To combat )hat precedes' the mental Buality of the individuals composin! a cro)d must not be brou!ht into consideration. This Buality is )ithout importance. .rom the moment that they form part of a cro)d the learned man and the i!noramus are eBually incapable of observation. This thesis may seem parado#ical. To demonstrate it beyond doubt it )ould be necessary to investi!ate a !reat number of historical facts' and several volumes )ould be insufficient for the purpose. 4till' as I do not )ish to leave the reader under the impression of unproved assertions' I shall !ive him some e#amples taken at haIard from the immense number of those that mi!ht be Buoted. The follo)in! fact is one of the most typical' because chosen from amon! collective hallucinations of )hich a cro)d is the victim' in )hich are to be found individuals of every kind' from the most i!norant to the most hi!hly educated. It is related incidentally by Gulian .eli#' a naval lieutenant' in his book on L4ea Currents'L and has been previously cited by the Revue S,ienti9ue! The fri!ate' the "e&&e Pou&e' )as cruisin! in the open sea for the purpose of findin! the cruiser Le "er,e'u' from )hich she had been separated by a violent storm. It )as broad dayli!ht and in full sunshine. 4uddenly the )atch si!nalled a disabled

-%2vessel= the cre) looked in the direction si!nalled' and every one' officers and sailors' clearly perceived a raft covered )ith men to)ed by boats )hich )ere displayin! si!nals of distress. 2et this )as nothin! more than a collective hallucination. Admiral ;esfosses lo)ered a boat to !o to the rescue of the )recked sailors. ?n nearin! the obCect si!hted' the sailors and officers on board the boat sa) Lmasses of men in motion' stretchin! out their hands' and heard the dull and confused noise of a !reat number of voices.L @hen the obCect )as reached those in the boat found themselves simply and solely in the presence of a fe) branches of trees covered )ith leaves that had been s)ept out from the nei!hbourin! coast. 7efore evidence so palpable the hallucination vanished. The mechanism of a collective hallucination of the kind )e have e#plained is clearly seen at )ork in this e#ample. ?n the one hand )e have a cro)d in a state of e#pectant attention' on the other a su!!estion made by the )atch si!nallin! a disabled vessel at sea' a su!!estion )hich' by a process of conta!ion' )as accepted by all those present' both officers and sailors. It is not necessary that a cro)d should be numerous for the faculty of seein! )hat is takin! place before its eyes to be destroyed and for the real facts to be replaced by hallucinations unre

-%3-

lated to them. As soon as a fe) individuals are !athered to!ether they constitute a cro)d' and' thou!h they should be distin!uished men of learnin!' they assume all the characteristics of cro)ds )ith re!ard to matters outside their speciality. The faculty of observation and the critical spirit possessed by each of them individually at once disappears. An in!enious psycholo!ist' 1r. ;avey' supplies us )ith a very curious e#ample in point' recently cited in the Ann'&es -es S,ien,es Ps+,hi9ues' and deservin! of relation here. 1r. ;avey' havin! convoked a !atherin! of distin!uished observers' amon! them one of the most prominent of En!lish scientific men' 1r. @allace' e#ecuted in their presence' and after havin! allo)ed them to e#amine the obCects and to place seals )here they )ished' all the re!ulation spiritualistic phenomena' the materialisation of spirits' )ritin! on slates' Hc. 5avin! subseBuently obtained from these distin!uished observers )ritten reports admittin! that the phenomena observed could only have been obtained by supernatural means' he revealed to them that they )ere the result of very simple tricks. LThe most astonishin! feature of 1onsieur ;aveyDs investi!ation'L )rites the author of this account' Lis not the marvellousness of the tricks themselves' but the e#treme )eakness of the reports made )ith respect to them by the non

-%8initiated )itnesses. It is clear' then'L he says' Lthat )itnesses even in number may !ive circumstantial relations )hich are completely erroneous' but )hose result is th't6 i) their -es,riptions 're ',,epte- 's ex',t' the phenomena they describe are ine#plicable by trickery. The methods invented by 1r. ;avey )ere so simple that one is astonished that he should have had the boldness to employ them= but he had such a po)er over the mind of the cro)d that he could persuade it that it sa) )hat it did not see.L 5ere' as al)ays' )e have the po)er of the hypnotiser over the hypnotised. 1oreover' )hen this po)er is seen in action on minds of a superior order and previously invited to be suspicious' it is understandable ho) easy it is to deceive ordinary cro)ds. Analo!ous e#amples are innumerable. As I )rite these lines the papers are full of the story of t)o little !irls found dro)ned in the 4eine. These children' to be!in )ith' )ere reco!nised in the most unmistakable manner by half a doIen )itnesses. All the affirmations )ere in such entire concordance that no doubt remained in the mind of the :u1e -;instru,tion! 5e had the certificate of death dra)n up' but Cust as the burial of the children )as to have been proceeded )ith' a mere chance brou!ht about the discovery that the supposed victims )ere alive' and had' moreover' but a remote resemblance to the dro)ned

-%4!irls. As in several of the e#amples previously cited' the affirmation of the first )itness' himself a victim of illusion' had sufficed to influence the other )itnesses. In parallel cases the startin!-point of the su!!estion is al)ays the illusion produced in an individual by more or less va!ue reminiscences' conta!ion follo)in! as the result of the affirmation of this initial illusion. If the first observer be very impressionable' it )ill often be sufficient that the corpse he believes he reco!nises should present -- apart from all real resemblance -- some peculiarity' a scar' or some detail of toilet )hich may evoke the idea of another person. The idea evoked may then become the nucleus of a sort of crystallisation )hich invades the understandin! and paralyses all critical faculty. @hat the observer then sees is no lon!er the obCect itself' but the

ima!e-evoked in his mind. In this )ay are to be e#plained erroneous reco!nitions of the dead bodies of children by their o)n mother' as occurred in the follo)in! case' already old' but )hich has been recently recalled by the ne)spapers. In it are to be traced precisely the t)o kinds of su!!estion of )hich I have Cust pointed out the mechanism. LThe child )as reco!nised by another child' )ho )as mistaken. The series of un)arranted reco!nitions then be!an.

-.5LAn e#traordinary thin! occurred. The day after a schoolboy had reco!nised the corpse a )oman e#claimed' N6ood 5eavens' it is my childOD L4he )as taken up to the corpse= she e#amined the clothin!' and noted a scar on the forehead. NIt is certainly'D she said' Nmy son )ho disappeared last Guly. 5e has been stolen from me and murdered.D LThe )oman )as ,on,ier1e in the >ue du .our= her name )as Chavandret. 5er brother-in-la) )as summoned' and )hen Buestioned he said' NThat is the little .ilibert.D 4everal persons livin! in the street reco!nised the child found at "a illette as .ilibert Chavandret' amon! them bein! the boyDs schoolmaster' )ho based his opinion on a medal )orn by the lad. L-evertheless' the nei!hbours' the brother-in-la)' the schoolmaster' and the mother )ere mistaken. 4i# )eeks later the identity of the child )as established. The boy' belon!in! to 7ordeau#' had been murdered there and brou!ht by a carryin! company to Earis.L -ote: J:K J:K -ote: L;E,&'ir' April 2*' *3+,. It )ill be remarked that these reco!nitions are most often made by )omen and children -- that is to say' by precisely the most impressionable persons. They sho) us at the same time )hat is the

-.$)orth in la) courts of such )itnesses. As far as children' more especially' are concerned' their statements ou!ht never to be invoked. 1a!istrates are in the habit of repeatin! that children do not lie. ;id they possess a psycholo!ical culture a little less rudimentary than is the case they )ould kno) that' on the contrary' children invariably lie= the lie is doubtless innocent' but it is none the less a lie. It )ould be better to decide the fate of an accused person by the toss of a coin than' as has been so often done' by the evidence of a child. To return to the faculty of observation possessed by cro)ds' our conclusion is that their collective observations are as erroneous as possible' and that most often they merely represent the illusion of an individual )ho' by a process of conta!ion' has su!!estioned his fello)s. .acts provin! that the most utter mistrust of the evidence of cro)ds is advisable mi!ht be multiplied to any e#tent. Thousands of men )ere present t)enty-five years a!o at the celebrated cavalry char!e durin! the battle of 4edan' and yet it is impossible' in the face of the most contradictory ocular testimony' to

decide by )hom it )as commanded. The En!lish !eneral' "ord @olseley' has proved in a recent book that up to no) the !ravest errors of fact have been committed )ith re!ard to the most important incidents of the battle of @aterloo --

-.%facts that hundreds of )itnesses had nevertheless attested. -ote: J,K J,K -ote: ;o )e kno) in the case of one sin!le battle e#actly ho) it took placeF I am very doubtful on the point. @e kno) )ho )ere the conBuerors and the conBuered' but this is probably all. @hat 1. ;D5arcourt has said )ith respect to the battle of 4olferino' )hich he )itnessed and in )hich he )as personally en!a!ed' may be applied to all battles -- LThe !enerals /informed' of course' by the evidence of hundreds of )itnesses0 for)ard their official reports= the orderly officers modify these documents and dra) up a definite narrative= the chief of the staff raises obCections and re)rites the )hole on a fresh basis. It is carried to the 1arshal' )ho e#claims' N2ou are entirely in error'D and he substitutes a fresh edition. 4carcely anythin! remains of the ori!inal report.L 1. ;D5arcourt relates this fact as proof of the impossibility of establishin! the truth in connection )ith the most strikin!' the best observed events. 4uch facts sho) us )hat is the value of the testimony of cro)ds. Treatises on lo!ic include the unanimity of numerous )itnesses in the cate!ory of the stron!est proofs that can be invoked in support of the e#actness of a fact. 2et )hat )e kno) of the psycholo!y of cro)ds sho)s that treatises on lo!ic need on this point to be re)ritten. The events )ith re!ard to )hich there e#ists the most doubt are certainly those )hich have been observed by the !reatest number of persons. To say that a fact has been simultaneously verified by thousands of )itnesses is to say' as a rule' that the real fact is very different from the accepted account of it.

-..It clearly results from )hat precedes that )orks of history must be considered as )orks of pure ima!ination. They are fanciful accounts of ill-observed facts' accompanied by e#planations the result of reflection. To )rite such books is the most absolute )aste of time. 5ad not the past left us its literary' artistic' and monumental )orks' )e should kno) absolutely nothin! in reality )ith re!ard to by!one times. Are )e in possession of a sin!le )ord of truth concernin! the lives of the !reat men )ho have played preponderatin! parts in the history of humanity -- men such as 5ercules' 7uddha' or 1ahometF In all probability )e are not. In point of fact' moreover' their real lives are of sli!ht importance to us. ?ur interest is to kno) )hat our !reat men )ere as they are presented by popular le!end. It is le!endary heroes' and not for a moment real heroes' )ho have impressed the minds of cro)ds. Unfortunately' le!ends -- even althou!h they have been definitely put on record by books -- have in themselves no stability. The ima!ination of the cro)d continually transforms them as the result of the lapse of time and especially in conseBuence of racial causes. There is a !reat !ulf fi#ed bet)een the san!uinary Gehovah of the ?ld Testament and the 6od of "ove of 4ainte ThPrQse' and the

7uddha )orshipped in China has no traits in common )ith that venerated in India.

-./It is not even necessary that heroes should be separated from us by centuries for their le!end to be transformed by the ima!ination of the cro)d. The transformation occasionally takes place )ithin a fe) years. In our o)n day )e have seen the le!end of one of the !reatest heroes of history modified several times in less than fifty years. Under the 7ourbons -apoleon became a sort of idyllic and liberal philanthropist' a friend of the humble )ho' accordin! to the poets' )as destined to be lon! remembered in the cotta!e. Thirty years after)ards this easy-!oin! hero had become a san!uinary despot' )ho' after havin! usurped po)er and destroyed liberty' caused the slau!hter of three million men solely to satisfy his ambition. At present )e are )itnessin! a fresh transformation of the le!end. @hen it has under!one the influence of some doIens of centuries the learned men of the future' face to face )ith these contradictory accounts' )ill perhaps doubt the very e#istence of the hero' as some of them no) doubt that of 7uddha' and )ill see in him nothin! more than a solar myth or a development of the le!end of 5ercules. They )ill doubtless console themselves easily for this uncertainty' for' better initiated than )e are to-day in the characteristics and psycholo!y of cro)ds' they )ill kno) that history is scarcely capable of preservin! the memory of anythin! e#cept myths.

-.0-

( /. T&E E0'GGE"'T!ON 'N# !NGEN$O$SNESS O, T&E SENT!)ENTS O, C"O-#S.

@hether the feelin!s e#hibited by a cro)d be !ood or bad' they present the double character of bein! very simple and very e#a!!erated. ?n this point' as on so many others' an individual in a cro)d resembles primitive bein!s. Inaccessible to fine distinctions' he sees thin!s as a )hole' and is blind to their intermediate phases. The e#a!!eration of the sentiments of a cro)d is hei!htened by the fact that any feelin! )hen once it is e#hibited communicatin! itself very Buickly by a process of su!!estion and conta!ion' the evident approbation of )hich it is the obCect considerably increases its force. The simplicity and e#a!!eration of the sentiments of cro)ds have for result that a thron! kno)s neither doubt nor uncertainty. "ike )omen' it !oes at once to e#tremes. A suspicion transforms itself as soon as announced into incontrovertible evidence. A commencement of antipathy or disapprobation' )hich in the case of an isolated individual )ould not !ain stren!th' becomes at once furious hatred in the case of an individual in a cro)d. The violence of the feelin!s of cro)ds is also increased' especially in hetero!eneous cro)ds' by the absence of all sense of responsibility. The

-.2-

certainty of impunity' a certainty the stron!er as the cro)d is more numerous' and the notion of a considerable momentary force due to number' make possible in the case of cro)ds sentiments and acts impossible for the isolated individual. In cro)ds the foolish' i!norant' and envious persons are freed from the sense of their insi!nificance and po)erlessness' and are possessed instead by the notion of brutal and temporary but immense stren!th. Unfortunately' this tendency of cro)ds to)ards e#a!!eration is often brou!ht to bear upon bad sentiments. These sentiments are atavistic residuum of the instincts of the primitive man' )hich the fear of punishment obli!es the isolated and responsible individual to curb. Thus it is that cro)ds are so easily led into the )orst e#cesses. 4till this does not mean that cro)ds' skilfully influenced' are not capable of heroism and devotion and of evincin! the loftiest virtues= they are even more capable of sho)in! these Bualities than the isolated individual. @e shall soon have occasion to revert to this point )hen )e come to study the morality of cro)ds. 6iven to e#a!!eration in its feelin!s' a cro)d is only impressed by e#cessive sentiments. An orator )ishin! to move a cro)d must make an abusive use of violent affirmations. To e#a!!erate' to affirm' to resort to repetitions' and never to attempt to prove anythin! by reasonin! are methods of

-.3ar!ument )ell kno)n to speakers at public meetin!s. 1oreover' a cro)d e#acts a like e#a!!eration in the sentiments of its heroes. Their apparent Bualities and virtues must al)ays be amplified. It has been Custly remarked that on the sta!e a cro)d demands from the hero of the piece a de!ree of coura!e' morality' and virtue that is never to be found in real life. Ruite ri!htly importance has been laid on the special standpoint from )hich matters are vie)ed in the theatre. 4uch a standpoint e#ists no doubt' but its rules for the most part have nothin! to do )ith common sense and lo!ic. The art of appealin! to cro)ds is no doubt of an inferior order' but it demands Buite special aptitudes. It is often impossible on readin! plays to e#plain their success. 1ana!ers of theatres )hen acceptin! pieces are themselves' as a rule' very uncertain of their success' because to Cud!e the matter it )ould be necessary that they should be able to transform themselves into a cro)d. -ote: J%K J%K -ote: It is understandable for this reason )hy it sometimes happens that pieces refused by all theatrical mana!ers obtain a prodi!ious success )hen by a stroke of chance they are put on the sta!e. The recent success of .rancois CoppPeDs play LEour la CouronneL is )ell kno)n' and yet' in spite of the name of its author' it )as refused durin! ten years by the mana!ers of the principal Earisian theatres. LCharleyDs Aunt'L refused at every theatre' and finally sta!ed at the e#pense of a stockbroker' has had t)o hundred representations in .rance' and more than a thousand in "ondon. @ithout the e#planation !iven above of the impossibility for theatrical mana!ers to mentally substitute

themselves for a cro)d' such mistakes in Cud!ment on the part of competent individuals' )ho are most interested not to commit such !rave blunders' )ould be ine#plicable. This is a subCect that I cannot deal )ith here' but it mi!ht )orthily tempt the pen of a )riter acBuainted )ith theatrical matters' and at the same time a subtle psycholo!ist -- of such a )riter' for instance' as 1. .rancisBue 4arcey.

-.85ere' once more' )ere )e able to embark on more e#tensive e#planations' )e should sho) the preponderatin! influence of racial considerations. A play )hich provokes the enthusiasm of the cro)d in one country has sometimes no success in another' or has only a partial and conventional success' because it does not put in operation influences capable of )orkin! on an altered public. I need not add that the tendency to e#a!!eration in cro)ds is only present in the case of sentiments and not at all in the matter of intelli!ence. I have already sho)n that' by the mere fact that an individual forms part of a cro)d' his intellectual standard is immediately and considerably lo)ered. A learned ma!istrate' 1. Tarde' has also verified this fact in his researches on the crimes of cro)ds. It is only' then' )ith respect to sentiment that cro)ds can rise to a very hi!h or' on the contrary' descend to a very lo) level.

-.4-

( 1. T&E !NTOLE"'NCE, #!CT'TO"!'LNESS 'N# CONSE"*'T!S) O, C"O-#S.

Cro)ds are only co!nisant of simple and e#treme sentiments= the opinions' ideas' and beliefs su!!ested to them are accepted or reCected as a )hole' and considered as absolute truths or as not less absolute errors. This is al)ays the case )ith beliefs induced by a process of su!!estion instead of en!endered by reasonin!. Every one is a)are of the intolerance that accompanies reli!ious beliefs' and of the despotic empire they e#ercise on menDs minds. 7ein! in doubt as to )hat constitutes truth or error' and havin!' on the other hand' a clear notion of its stren!th' a cro)d is as disposed to !ive authoritative effect to its inspirations as it is intolerant. An individual may accept contradiction and discussion= a cro)d )ill never do so. At public meetin!s the sli!htest contradiction on the part of an orator is immediately received )ith ho)ls of fury and violent invective' soon follo)ed by blo)s' and e#pulsion should the orator stick to his point. @ithout the restrainin! presence of the representatives of authority the contradictor' indeed' )ould often be done to death. ;ictatorialness and intolerance are common to all cate!ories of cro)ds' but they are met )ith in a varyin! de!ree of intensity. 5ere' once more' reappears that fundamental notion of race )hich

-/5dominates all the feelin!s and all the thou!hts of men. It is more especially in "atin cro)ds that authoritativeness and intolerance are found developed in the hi!hest measure. In fact' their development is such in cro)ds of "atin ori!in that they have entirely destroyed that sentiment of the independence of the individual so po)erful in the An!lo-4a#on. "atin cro)ds are only concerned )ith the collective independence of the sect to )hich they belon!' and the characteristic feature of their conception of independence is the need they e#perience of brin!in! those )ho are in disa!reement )ith themselves into immediate and violent subCection to their beliefs. Amon! the "atin races the Gacobins of every epoch' from those of the InBuisition do)n)ards' have never been able to attain to a different conception of liberty. Authoritativeness and intolerance are sentiments of )hich cro)ds have a very clear notion' )hich they easily conceive and )hich they entertain as readily as they put them in practice )hen once they are imposed upon them. Cro)ds e#hibit a docile respect for force' and are but sli!htly impressed by kindness' )hich for them is scarcely other than a form of )eakness. Their sympathies have never been besto)ed on easy-!oin! masters' but on tyrants )ho vi!orously oppressed them. It is to these latter that they al)ays erect the loftiest statues.

-/$It is true that they )illin!ly trample on the despot )hom they have stripped of his po)er' but it is because' havin! lost his stren!th' he has resumed his place amon! the feeble' )ho are to be despised because they are not to be feared. The type of hero dear to cro)ds )ill al)ays have the semblance of a Caesar. 5is insi!nia attracts them' his authority overa)es them' and his s)ord instils them )ith fear. A cro)d is al)ays ready to revolt a!ainst a feeble' and to bo) do)n servilely before a stron! authority. 4hould the stren!th of an authority be intermittent' the cro)d' al)ays obedient to its e#treme sentiments' passes alternately from anarchy to servitude' and from servitude to anarchy. 5o)ever' to believe in the predominance amon! cro)ds of revolutionary instincts )ould be to entirely misconstrue their psycholo!y. It is merely their tendency to violence that deceives us on this point. Their rebellious and destructive outbursts are al)ays very transitory. Cro)ds are too much !overned by unconscious considerations' and too much subCect in conseBuence to secular hereditary influences not to be e#tremely conservative. Abandoned to themselves' they soon )eary of disorder' and instinctively turn to servitude. It )as the proudest and most untractable of the Gacobins )ho acclaimed 7onaparte )ith

-/%!reatest ener!y )hen he suppressed all liberty and made his hand of iron severely felt. It is difficult to understand history' and popular revolutions in particular' if one does not take sufficiently into account the profoundly conservative instincts of cro)ds. They may be desirous' it is true' of chan!in! the names of their institutions' and to obtain these chan!es they accomplish at times even violent revolutions' but the essence of these institutions is too much the e#pression of

the hereditary needs of the race for them not invariably to abide by it. Their incessant mobility only e#erts its influence on Buite superficial matters. In fact they possess conservative instincts as indestructible as those of all primitive bein!s. Their fetish like respect for all traditions is absolute= their unconscious horror of all novelty capable of chan!in! the essential conditions of their e#istence is very deeply rooted. 5ad democracies possessed the po)er they )ield to-day at the time of the invention of mechanical looms or of the introduction of steam-po)er and of rail)ays' the realisation of these inventions )ould have been impossible' or )ould have been achieved at the cost of revolutions and repeated massacres. It is fortunate for the pro!ress of civilisation that the po)er of cro)ds only be!an to e#ist )hen the !reat discoveries of science and industry had already been effected.

-/.-

( 2. T&E )O"'L!T+ O, C"O-#S.

Takin! the )ord LmoralityL to mean constant respect for certain social conventions' and the permanent repression of selfish impulses' it is Buite evident that cro)ds are too impulsive and too mobile to be moral. If' ho)ever' )e include in the term morality the transitory display of certain Bualities such as abne!ation' self-sacrifice' disinterestedness' devotion' and the need of eBuity' )e may say' on the contrary' that cro)ds may e#hibit at times a very lofty morality. The fe) psycholo!ists )ho have studied cro)ds have only considered them from the point of vie) of their criminal acts' and noticin! ho) freBuent these acts are' they have come to the conclusion that the moral standard of cro)ds is very lo). ;oubtless this is often the case= but )hyF 4imply because our sava!e' destructive instincts are the inheritance left dormant in all of us from the primitive a!es. In the life of the isolated individual it )ould be dan!erous for him to !ratify these instincts' )hile his absorption in an irresponsible cro)d' in )hich in conseBuence he is assured of impunity' !ives him entire liberty to follo) them. 7ein! unable' in the ordinary course of events' to e#ercise these destructive instincts on our fello)men' )e confine ourselves to e#ercisin! them on animals. The passion' so )idespread' for the chase and the acts of ferocity

-//of cro)ds proceed from one and the same source. A cro)d )hich slo)ly slau!hters a defenceless victim displays a very co)ardly ferocity= but for the philosopher this ferocity is very closely related to that of the huntsmen )ho !ather in doIens for the pleasure of takin! part in the pursuit and killin! of a luckless sta! by their hounds. A cro)d may be !uilty of murder' incendiarism' and every kind of crime' but it is also capable of very lofty acts of devotion' sacrifice' and disinterestedness' of acts much loftier indeed than those of )hich the isolated individual is capable. Appeals to sentiments of !lory' honour' and patriotism are particularly likely to influence the individual formin! part of a cro)d' and often to the e#tent of obtainin! from him the sacrifice of his life. 5istory is rich in e#amples analo!ous to those furnished by the Crusaders and the volunteers of *9+$. Collectivities alone are capable of !reat

disinterestedness and !reat devotion. 5o) numerous are the cro)ds that have heroically faced death for beliefs' ideas' and phrases that they scarcely understoodO The cro)ds that !o on strike do so far more in obedience to an order than to obtain an increase of the slender salary )ith )hich they make shift. Eersonal interest is very rarely a po)erful motive force )ith cro)ds' )hile it is almost the e#clusive motive of the conduct of the isolated individual. It is assuredly

-/0not self-interest that has !uided cro)ds in so many )ars' incomprehensible as a rule to their intelli!ence -- )ars in )hich they have allo)ed themselves to be massacred as easily as the larks hypnotised by the mirror of the hunter. Even in the case of absolute scoundrels it often happens that the mere fact of their bein! in a cro)d endo)s them for the moment )ith very strict principles of morality. Taine calls attention to the fact that the perpetrators of the 4eptember massacres deposited on the table of the committees the pocket-books and Ce)els they had found on their victims' and )ith )hich they could easily have been able to make a)ay. The ho)lin!' s)armin!' ra!!ed cro)d )hich invaded the Tuileries durin! the revolution of *3:3 did not lay hands on any of the obCects that e#cited its astonishment' and one of )hich )ould have meant bread for many days. This moralisation of the individual by the cro)d is not certainly a constant rule' but it is a rule freBuently observed. It is even observed in circumstances much less !rave than those I have Cust cited. I have remarked that in the theatre a cro)d e#acts from the hero of the piece e#a!!erated virtues' and it is a commonplace observation that an assembly' even thou!h composed of inferior elements' sho)s itself as a rule very prudish. The debauchee' the souteneur' the

-/2rou!h often break out into murmurs at a sli!htly risky scene or e#pression' thou!h they be very harmless in comparison )ith their customary conversation. If' then' cro)ds often abandon themselves to lo) instincts' they also set the e#ample at times of acts of lofty morality. If disinterestedness' resi!nation' and absolute devotion to a real or chimerical ideal are moral virtues' it may be said that cro)ds often possess these virtues to a de!ree rarely attained by the )isest philosophers. ;oubtless they practice them unconsciously' but that is of small import. @e should not complain too much that cro)ds are more especially !uided by unconscious considerations and are not !iven to reasonin!. 5ad they' in certain cases' reasoned and consulted their immediate interests' it is possible that no civilisation )ould have !ro)n up on our planet and humanity )ould have had no history.

-/3-

C&'PTE" !!!. THE DEAS' REASO! !" POWER' A!D MA" !AT O! OF CROWDS.
M *. The i-e's o) ,ro(-s! .undamental and accessory ideas -- 5o) contradictory ideas may e#ist simultaneously -- The transformation that must be under!one by lofty ideas before they are accessible to cro)ds -- The social influence of ideas is independent of the de!ree of truth they may contain. M 2. The re'sonin1 po(er o) ,ro(-s! Cro)ds are not to be influenced by reasonin! -- The reasonin! of cro)ds is al)ays of a very inferior order -- There is only the appearance of analo!y or succession in the ideas they associate. M $. The i*'1in'tion o) ,ro(-s! 4tren!th of the ima!ination of cro)ds -- Cro)ds think in ima!es' and these ima!es succeed each other )ithout any connectin! link -- Cro)ds are especially impressed by the marvellous -- "e!ends and the marvellous are the real pillars of civilisation -- The popular ima!ination has al)ays been the basis of the po)er of statesmen -- The manner in )hich facts capable of strikin! the ima!ination of cro)ds present themselves for observation.

( 1. T&E !#E'S O, C"O-#S.

@5E- studyin! in a precedin! )ork the part played by ideas in the evolution of nations' )e sho)ed that every civilisation is the outcome of a small number of fundamental ideas that are very

-/8rarely rene)ed. @e sho)ed ho) these ideas are implanted in the minds of cro)ds' )ith )hat difficulty the process is effected' and the po)er possessed by the ideas in Buestion )hen once it has been accomplished. .inally )e sa) that !reat historical perturbations are the result' as a rule' of chan!es in these fundamental ideas. 5avin! treated this subCect at sufficient len!th' I shall not return to it no)' but shall confine myself to sayin! a fe) )ords on the subCect of such ideas as are accessible to cro)ds' and of the forms under )hich they conceive them. They may be divided into t)o classes. In one )e shall place accidental and passin! ideas created by the influences of the moment: infatuation for an individual or a doctrine' for instance. In the other )ill be classed the fundamental ideas' to )hich the environment' the la)s of heredity and public opinion !ive a very !reat stability= such ideas are the reli!ious beliefs of the past and the social and democratic ideas of to-day. These fundamental ideas resemble the volume of the )ater of a stream slo)ly pursuin! its course= the transitory ideas are like the small )aves' for ever chan!in!' )hich a!itate its surface' and are more visible than the pro!ress of the stream itself althou!h )ithout real importance. At the present day the !reat fundamental ideas )hich )ere the mainstay of our fathers are

-/4totterin! more and more. They have lost all solidity' and at the same time the institutions restin!

upon them are severely shaken. Every day there are formed a !reat many of those transitory minor ideas of )hich I have Cust been speakin!= but very fe) of them to all appearance seem endo)ed )ith vitality and destined to acBuire a preponderatin! influence. @hatever be the ideas su!!ested to cro)ds they can only e#ercise effective influence on condition that they assume a very absolute' uncompromisin!' and simple shape. They present themselves then in the !uise of ima!es' and are only accessible to the masses under this form. These ima!elike ideas are not connected by any lo!ical bond of analo!y or succession' and may take each otherDs place like the slides of a ma!ic-lantern )hich the operator )ithdra)s from the !roove in )hich they )ere placed one above the other. This e#plains ho) it is that the most contradictory ideas may be seen to be simultaneously current in cro)ds. Accordin! to the chances of the moment' a cro)d )ill come under the influence of one of the various ideas stored up in its understandin!' and is capable' in conseBuence' of committin! the most dissimilar acts. Its complete lack of the critical spirit does not allo) of its perceivin! these contradictions. This phenomenon is not peculiar to cro)ds. It

-05is to be observed in many isolated individuals' not only amon! primitive bein!s' but in the case of all those -- the fervent sectaries of a reli!ious faith' for instance -- )ho by one side or another of their intelli!ence are akin to primitive bein!s. I have observed its presence to a curious e#tent in the case of educated 5indoos brou!ht up at our European universities and havin! taken their de!ree. A number of @estern ideas had been superposed on their unchan!eable and fundamental hereditary or social ideas. Accordin! to the chances of the moment' the one or the other set of ideas sho)ed themselves each )ith their special accompaniment of acts or utterances' the same individual presentin! in this )ay the most fla!rant contradictions. These contradictions are more apparent than real' for it is only hereditary ideas that have sufficient influence over the isolated individual to become motives of conduct. It is only )hen' as the result of the intermin!lin! of different races' a man is placed bet)een different hereditary tendencies that his acts from one moment to another may be really entirely contradictory. It )ould be useless to insist here on these phenomena' althou!h their psycholo!ical importance is capital. I am of opinion that at least ten years of travel and observation )ould be necessary to arrive at a comprehension of them.

-0$Ideas bein! only accessible to cro)ds after havin! assumed a very simple shape must often under!o the most thorou!h!oin! transformations to become popular. It is especially )hen )e are dealin! )ith some)hat lofty philosophic or scientific ideas that )e see ho) far-reachin! are the modifications they reBuire in order to lo)er them to the level of the intelli!ence of cro)ds. These modifications are dependent on the nature of the cro)ds' or of the race to )hich the cro)ds belon!' but their tendency is al)ays belittlin! and in the direction of simplification. This e#plains the fact that' from the social point of vie)' there is in reality scarcely any such thin! as a hierarchy of ideas -- that is to say' as ideas of !reater or less elevation. 5o)ever !reat or true an idea may have been to be!in )ith' it is deprived of almost all that )hich constituted its elevation and its !reatness by the mere fact that it has come )ithin the intellectual ran!e of cro)ds and e#erts an influence upon them.

1oreover' from the social point of vie) the hierarchical value of an idea' its intrinsic )orth' is )ithout importance. The necessary point to consider is the effects it produces. The Christian ideas of the 1iddle A!es' the democratic ideas of the last century' or the social ideas of to-day are assuredly not very elevated. Ehilosophically considered' they can only be re!arded as some)hat

-0%sorry errors' and yet their po)er has been and )ill be immense' and they )ill count for a lon! time to come amon! the most essential factors that determine the conduct of 4tates. Even )hen an idea has under!one the transformations )hich render it accessible to cro)ds' it only e#erts influence )hen' by various processes )hich )e shall e#amine else)here' it has entered the domain of the unconscious' )hen indeed it has become a sentiment' for )hich much time is reBuired. .or it must not be supposed that merely because the Custness of an idea has been proved it can be productive of effective action even on cultivated minds. This fact may be Buickly appreciated by notin! ho) sli!ht is the influence of the clearest demonstration on the maCority of men. Evidence' if it be very plain' may be accepted by an educated person' but the convert )ill be Buickly brou!ht back by his unconscious self to his ori!inal conceptions. 4ee him a!ain after the lapse of a fe) days and he )ill put for)ard afresh his old ar!uments in e#actly the same terms. 5e is in reality under the influence of anterior ideas' that have become sentiments' and it is such ideas alone that influence the more recondite motives of our acts and utterances. It cannot be other)ise in the case of cro)ds. @hen by various processes an idea has ended

-0.by penetratin! into the minds of cro)ds' it possesses an irresistible po)er' and brin!s about a series of effects' opposition to )hich is bootless. The philosophical ideas )hich resulted in the .rench >evolution took nearly a century to implant themselves in the mind of the cro)d. Their irresistible force' )hen once they had taken root' is kno)n. The strivin! of an entire nation to)ards the conBuest of social eBuality' and the realisation of abstract ri!hts and ideal liberties' caused the totterin! of all thrones and profoundly disturbed the @estern )orld. ;urin! t)enty years the nations )ere en!a!ed in internecine conflict' and Europe )itnessed hecatombs that )ould have terrified 6hen!is Khan and Tamerlane. The )orld had never seen on such a scale )hat may result from the promul!ation of an idea. A lon! time is necessary for ideas to establish themselves in the minds of cro)ds' but Cust as lon! a time is needed for them to be eradicated. .or this reason cro)ds' as far as ideas are concerned' are al)ays several !enerations behind learned men and philosophers. All statesmen are )ell a)are today of the admi#ture of error contained in the fundamental ideas I referred to a short )hile back' but as the influence of these ideas is still very po)erful they are obli!ed to !overn in accordance )ith principles in the truth of )hich they have ceased to believe.

-0/-

( .. T&E "E'SON!NG PO-E" O, C"O-#S.

It cannot absolutely be said that cro)ds do not reason and are not to be influenced by reasonin!. 5o)ever' the ar!uments they employ and those )hich are capable of influencin! them are' from a lo!ical point of vie)' of such an inferior kind that it is only by )ay of analo!y that they can be described as reasonin!. The inferior reasonin! of cro)ds is based' Cust as is reasonin! of a hi!h order' on the association of ideas' but bet)een the ideas associated by cro)ds there are only apparent bonds of analo!y or succession. The mode of reasonin! of cro)ds resembles that of the EsBuimau# )ho' kno)in! from e#perience that ice' a transparent body' melts in the mouth' concludes that !lass' also a transparent body' should also melt in the mouth= or that of the sava!e )ho ima!ines that by eatin! the heart of a coura!eous foe he acBuires his bravery= or of the )orkman )ho' havin! been e#ploited by one employer of labour' immediately concludes that all employers e#ploit their men. The characteristics of the reasonin! of cro)ds are the association of dissimilar thin!s possessin! a merely apparent connection bet)een each other' and the immediate !eneralisation of particular cases. It is ar!uments of this kind that are al)ays presented to cro)ds by those )ho kno) ho) to mana!e them. They are the only ar!uments

-00by )hich cro)ds are to be influenced. A chain of lo!ical ar!umentation is totally incomprehensible to cro)ds' and for this reason it is permissible to say that they do not reason or that they reason falsely and are not to be influenced by reasonin!. Astonishment is felt at times on readin! certain speeches at their )eakness' and yet they had an enormous influence on the cro)ds )hich listened to them' but it is for!otten that they )ere intended to persuade collectivities and not to be read by philosophers. An orator in intimate communication )ith a cro)d can evoke ima!es by )hich it )ill be seduced. If he is successful his obCect has been attained' and t)enty volumes of haran!ues -al)ays the outcome of reflection -- are not )orth the fe) phrases )hich appealed to the brains it )as reBuired to convince. It )ould be superfluous to add that the po)erlessness of cro)ds to reason ari!ht prevents them displayin! any trace of the critical spirit' prevents them' that is' from bein! capable of discernin! truth from error' or of formin! a precise Cud!ment on any matter. Gud!ments accepted by cro)ds are merely Cud!ments forced upon them and never Cud!ments adopted after discussion. In re!ard to this matter the individuals )ho do not rise above the level of a cro)d are numerous. The ease )ith )hich certain opinions obtain !eneral acceptance results more especially from the impossibility

-02e#perienced by the maCority of men of formin! an opinion peculiar to themselves and based on reasonin! of their o)n.

( /. T&E !)'G!N'T!ON O, C"O-#S.

Gust as is the case )ith respect to persons in )hom the reasonin! po)er is absent' the fi!urative ima!ination of cro)ds is very po)erful' very active and very susceptible of bein! keenly impressed. The ima!es evoked in their mind by a persona!e' an event' an accident' are almost as lifelike as the reality. Cro)ds are to some e#tent in the position of the sleeper )hose reason' suspended for the time bein!' allo)s the arousin! in his mind of ima!es of e#treme intensity )hich )ould Buickly be dissipated could they be submitted to the action of reflection. Cro)ds' bein! incapable both of reflection and of reasonin!' are devoid of the notion of improbability= and it is to be noted that in a !eneral )ay it is the most improbable thin!s that are the most strikin!. This is )hy it happens that it is al)ays the marvellous and le!endary side of events that more specially strike cro)ds. @hen a civilisation is analysed it is seen that' in reality' it is the marvellous and the le!endary that are its true supports. Appearances have al)ays played a much more important part than reality in history' )here the unreal is al)ays of !reater moment than the real.

-03Cro)ds bein! only capable of thinkin! in ima!es are only to be impressed by ima!es. It is only ima!es that terrify or attract them and become motives of action. .or this reason theatrical representations' in )hich the ima!e is sho)n in its most clearly visible shape' al)ays have an enormous influence on cro)ds. 7read and spectacular sho)s constituted for the plebeians of ancient >ome the ideal of happiness' and they asked for nothin! more. Throu!hout the successive a!es this ideal has scarcely varied. -othin! has a !reater effect on the ima!ination of cro)ds of every cate!ory than theatrical representations. The entire audience e#periences at the same time the same emotions' and if these emotions are not at once transformed into acts' it is because the most unconscious spectator cannot i!nore that he is the victim of illusions' and that he has lau!hed or )ept over ima!inary adventures. 4ometimes' ho)ever' the sentiments su!!ested by the ima!es are so stron! that they tend' like habitual su!!estions' to transform themselves into acts. The story has often been told of the mana!er of a popular theatre )ho' in conseBuence of his only playin! sombre dramas' )as obli!ed to have the actor )ho took the part of the traitor protected on his leavin! the theatre' to defend him a!ainst the violence of the spectators' indi!nant at the crimes' ima!inary

-08thou!h they )ere' )hich the traitor had committed. @e have here' in my opinion' one of the most remarkable indications of the mental state of cro)ds' and especially of the facility )ith )hich they are su!!estioned. The unreal has almost as much influence on them as the real. They have an evident tendency not to distin!uish bet)een the t)o. The po)er of conBuerors and the stren!th of 4tates is based on the popular ima!ination. It is more particularly by )orkin! upon this ima!ination that cro)ds are led. All !reat historical facts' the rise of 7uddhism' of Christianity' of Islamism' the >eformation' the .rench >evolution' and' in our o)n time' the threatenin! invasion of 4ocialism are the direct or indirect conseBuences of stron! impressions produced on the ima!ination of the cro)d.

1oreover' all the !reat statesmen of every a!e and every country' includin! the most absolute despots' have re!arded the popular ima!ination as the basis of their po)er' and they have never attempted to !overn in opposition to it LIt )as by becomin! a Catholic'L said -apoleon to the Council of 4tate' Lthat I terminated the endPen )ar. 7y becomin! a 1ussulman that I obtained a footin! in E!ypt. 7y becomin! an Ultramontane that I )on over the Italian priests' and had I to !overn a nation of Ge)s I )ould rebuild 4olomonDs

-04temple.L -ever perhaps since Ale#ander and CSsar has any !reat man better understood ho) the ima!ination of the cro)d should be impressed. 5is constant preoccupation )as to strike it. 5e bore it in mind in his victories' in his haran!ues' in his speeches' in all his acts. ?n his deathbed it )as still in his thou!hts. 5o) is the ima!ination of cro)ds to be impressedF @e shall soon see. "et us confine ourselves for the moment to sayin! that the feat is never to be achieved by attemptin! to )ork upon the intelli!ence or reasonin! faculty' that is to say' by )ay of demonstration. It )as not by means of cunnin! rhetoric that Antony succeeded in makin! the populace rise a!ainst the murderers of CSsar= it )as by readin! his )ill to the multitude and pointin! to his corpse. @hatever strikes the ima!ination of cro)ds presents itself under the shape of a startlin! and very clear ima!e' freed from all accessory e#planation' or merely havin! as accompaniment a fe) marvellous or mysterious facts: e#amples in point are a !reat victory' a !reat miracle' a !reat crime' or a !reat hope. Thin!s must be laid before the cro)d as a )hole' and their !enesis must never be indicated. A hundred petty crimes or petty accidents )ill not strike the ima!ination of cro)ds in the least' )hereas a sin!le !reat crime or a sin!le !reat accident )ill profoundly impress them' even thou!h the

-25results be infinitely less disastrous than those of the hundred small accidents put to!ether. The epidemic of influenIa' )hich caused the death but a fe) years a!o of five thousand persons in Earis alone' made very little impression on the popular ima!ination. The reason )as that this veritable hecatomb )as not embodied in any visible ima!e' but )as only learnt from statistical information furnished )eekly. An accident )hich should have caused the death of only five hundred instead of five thousand persons' but on the same day and in public' as the outcome of an accident appealin! stron!ly to the eye' by the fall' for instance' of the Eiffel To)er' )ould have produced' on the contrary' an immense impression on the ima!ination of the cro)d. The probable loss of a transatlantic steamer that )as supposed' in the absence of ne)s' to have !one do)n in mid-ocean profoundly impressed the ima!ination of the cro)d for a )hole )eek. 2et official statistics sho) that 3,& sailin! vessels and 2&$ steamers )ere lost in the year *3+: alone. The cro)d' ho)ever' )as never for a moment concerned by these successive losses' much more important thou!h they )ere as far as re!ards the destruction of life and property' than the loss of the Atlantic liner in Buestion could possibly have been. It is not' then' the facts in themselves that strike the popular ima!ination' but the )ay in )hich

-2$they take place and are brou!ht under notice. It is necessary that by their condensation' if I may thus e#press myself' they should produce a startlin! ima!e )hich fills and besets the mind. To kno) the art of impressin! the ima!ination of cro)ds is to kno) at the same time the art of !overnin! them.

-2%-

C&'PTE" !*. A RE# " O&S SHAPE ASS&MED (% A## THE CO!) CT O!S OF CROWDS.
@hat is meant by the reli!ious sentiment -- It is independent of the )orship of a divinity -- Its characteristics -- The stren!th of convictions assumin! a reli!ious shape -- arious e#amples -Eopular !ods have never disappeared -- -e) forms under )hich they are revived -- >eli!ious forms of atheism -- Importance of these notions from the historical point of vie) -- The >eformation' 4aint 7artholome)' the Terror' and all analo!ous events are the result of the reli!ious sentiments of cro)ds and not of the )ill of isolated individuals. @E have sho)n that cro)ds do not reason' that they accept or reCect ideas as a )hole' that they tolerate neither discussion nor contradiction' and that the su!!estions brou!ht to bear on them invade the entire field of their understandin! and tend at once to transform themselves into acts. @e have sho)n that cro)ds suitably influenced are ready to sacrifice themselves for the ideal )ith )hich they have been inspired. @e have also seen that they only entertain violent and e#treme sentiments'

-2.that in their case sympathy Buickly becomes adoration' and antipathy almost as soon as it is aroused is transformed into hatred. These !eneral indications furnish us already )ith a presentiment of the nature of the convictions of cro)ds. @hen these convictions are closely e#amined' )hether at epochs marked by fervent reli!ious faith' or by !reat political upheavals such as those of the last century' it is apparent that they al)ays assume a peculiar form )hich I cannot better define than by !ivin! it the name of a reli!ious sentiment. This sentiment has very simple characteristics' such as )orship of a bein! supposed superior' fear of the po)er )ith )hich the bein! is credited' blind submission to its commands' inability to discuss its do!mas' the desire to spread them' and a tendency to consider as enemies all by )hom they are not accepted. @hether such a sentiment apply to an invisible 6od' to a )ooden or stone idol' to a hero or to a political conception' provided that it presents the precedin! characteristics' its

essence al)ays remains reli!ious. The supernatural and the miraculous are found to be present to the same e#tent. Cro)ds unconsciously accord a mysterious po)er to the political formula or the victorious leader that for the moment arouses their enthusiasm.

-2/A person is not reli!ious solely )hen he )orships a divinity' but )hen he puts all the resources of his mind' the complete submission of his )ill' and the )hole-souled ardour of fanaticism at the service of a cause or an individual )ho becomes the !oal and !uide of his thou!hts and actions. Intolerance and fanaticism are the necessary accompaniments of the reli!ious sentiment. They are inevitably displayed by those )ho believe themselves in the possession of the secret of earthly or eternal happiness. These t)o characteristics are to be found in all men !rouped to!ether )hen they are inspired by a conviction of any kind. The Gacobins of the >ei!n of Terror )ere at bottom as reli!ious as the Catholics of the InBuisition' and their cruel ardour proceeded from the same source. The convictions of cro)ds assume those characteristics of blind submission' fierce intolerance' and the need of violent propa!anda )hich are inherent in the reli!ious sentiment' and it is for this reason that it may be said that all their beliefs have a reli!ious form. The hero acclaimed by a cro)d is a veritable !od for that cro)d. -apoleon )as such a !od for fifteen years' and a divinity never had more fervent )orshippers or sent men to their death )ith !reater ease. The Christian and Ea!an 6ods never e#ercised a more absolute empire over the minds that had fallen under their s)ay.

-20All founders of reli!ious or political creeds have established them solely because they )ere successful in inspirin! cro)ds )ith those fanatical sentiments )hich have as result that men find their happiness in )orship and obedience and are ready to lay do)n their lives for their idol. This has been the case at all epochs. .ustel de Coulan!es' in his e#cellent )ork on >oman 6aul' Custly remarks that the >oman Empire )as in no )ise maintained by force' but by the reli!ious admiration it inspired. LIt )ould be )ithout a parallel in the history of the )orld'L he observes ri!htly' Lthat a form of !overnment held in popular detestation should have lasted for five centuries. . . . It )ould be ine#plicable that the thirty le!ions of the Empire should have constrained a hundred million men to obedience.L The reason of their obedience )as that the Emperor' )ho personified the !reatness of >ome' )as )orshipped like a divinity by unanimous consent. There )ere altars in honour of the Emperor in the smallest to)nships of his realm. L.rom one end of the Empire to the other a ne) reli!ion )as seen to arise in those days )hich had for its divinities the emperors themselves. 4ome years before the Christian era the )hole of 6aul' represented by si#ty cities' built in common a temple near the to)n of "yons in honour of Au!ustus. . . . Its priests' elected by the united 6allic cities' )ere the principal persona!es

-22in their country. . . . It is impossible to attribute all this to fear and servility. @hole nations are not servile' and especially for three centuries. It )as not the courtiers )ho )orshipped the prince' it )as

>ome' and it )as not >ome merely' but it )as 6aul' it )as 4pain' it )as 6reece and Asia.L To-day the maCority of the !reat men )ho have s)ayed menDs minds no lon!er have altars' but they have statues' or their portraits are in the hands of their admirers' and the cult of )hich they are the obCect is not notably different from that accorded to their predecessors. An understandin! of the philosophy of history is only to be !ot by a thorou!h appreciation of this fundamental point of the psycholo!y of cro)ds. The cro)d demands a !od before everythin! else. It must not be supposed that these are the superstitions of a by!one a!e )hich reason has definitely banished. 4entiment has never been vanBuished in its eternal conflict )ith reason. Cro)ds )ill hear no more of the )ords divinity and reli!ion' in )hose name they )ere so lon! enslaved= but they have never possessed so many fetishes as in the last hundred years' and the old divinities have never had so many statues and altars raised in their honour. Those )ho in recent years have studied the popular movement kno)n under the name of 7oulan!ism have been able to see )ith )hat ease

-23the reli!ious instincts of cro)ds are ready to revive. There )as not a country inn that did not possess the heroDs portrait. 5e )as credited )ith the po)er of remedyin! all inCustices and all evils' and thousands of men )ould have !iven their lives for him. 6reat mi!ht have been his place in history had his character been at all on a level )ith his le!endary reputation. It is thus a very useless commonplace to assert that a reli!ion is necessary for the masses' because all political' divine' and social creeds only take root amon! them on the condition of al)ays assumin! the reli!ious shape -- a shape )hich obviates the dan!er of discussion. @ere it possible to induce the masses to adopt atheism' this belief )ould e#hibit all the intolerant ardour of a reli!ious sentiment' and in its e#terior forms )ould soon become a cult. The evolution of the small Eositivist sect furnishes us a curious proof in point. @hat happened to the -ihilist )hose story is related by that profound thinker ;ostoTe)sky has Buickly happened to the Eositivists. Illumined one day by the li!ht of reason he broke the ima!es of divinities and saints that adorned the altar of a chapel' e#tin!uished the candles' and' )ithout losin! a moment' replaced the destroyed obCects by the )orks of atheistic philosophers such as 7Uchner and 1oleschott' after )hich he piously reli!hted the candles. The obCect of his reli!ious beliefs had

-28been transformed' but can it be truthfully said that his reli!ious sentiments had chan!edF Certain historical events -- and they are precisely the most important -- I a!ain repeat' are not to be understood unless one has attained to an appreciation of the reli!ious form )hich the convictions of cro)ds al)ays assume in the lon! run. There are social phenomena that need to be studied far more from the point of vie) of the psycholo!ist than from that of the naturalist. The !reat historian Taine has only studied the >evolution as a naturalist' and on this account the real !enesis of events has often escaped him. 5e has perfectly observed the facts' but from )ant of havin! studied the psycholo!y of cro)ds he has not al)ays been able to trace their causes. The facts havin! appalled him by their bloodthirsty' anarchic' and ferocious side' he has scarcely seen in the heroes of the !reat drama anythin! more than a horde of epileptic sava!es abandonin! themselves )ithout

restraint to their instincts. The violence of the >evolution' its massacres' its need of propa!anda' its declarations of )ar upon all thin!s' are only to be properly e#plained by reflectin! that the >evolution )as merely the establishment of a ne) reli!ious belief in the mind of the masses. The >eformation' the massacre of 4aint 7artholome)' the .rench reli!ious )ars' the InBuisition' the >ei!n of Terror are phenomena of an identical kind' brou!ht about by

-24cro)ds animated by those reli!ious sentiments )hich necessarily lead those imbued )ith them to pitilessly e#tirpate by fire and s)ord )hoever is opposed to the establishment of the ne) faith. The methods of the InBuisition are those of all )hose convictions are !enuine and sturdy. Their convictions )ould not deserve these epithets did they resort to other methods. Upheavals analo!ous to those I have Cust cited are only possible )hen it is the soul of the masses that brin!s them about. The most absolute despots could not cause them. @hen historians tell us that the massacre of 4aint 7artholome) )as the )ork of a kin!' they sho) themselves as i!norant of the psycholo!y of cro)ds as of that of soverei!ns. 1anifestations of this order can only proceed from the soul of cro)ds. The most absolute po)er of the most despotic monarch can scarcely do more than hasten or retard the moment of their apparition. The massacre of 4aint 7artholome) or the reli!ious )ars )ere no more the )ork of kin!s than the >ei!n of Terror )as the )ork of >obespierre' ;anton' or 4aint Gust. At the bottom of such events is al)ays to be found the )orkin! of the soul of the masses' and never the po)er of potentates.

-35-

BOO% !!. THE OP ! O!S A!D (E# EFS OF CROWDS.

C&'PTE" !. REMOTE FACTORS OF THE OP ! O!S A!D (E# EFS OF CROWDS.

Ereparatory factors of the beliefs of cro)ds -- The ori!in of the beliefs of cro)ds is the conseBuence of a preliminary process of elaboration -- 4tudy of the different factors of these beliefs. M *. R',e! The predominatin! influence it e#ercises -- It represents the su!!estions of ancestors. M 2. Tr'-itions! They are the synthesis of the soul of the race -- 4ocial importance of traditions -- 5o)' after havin! been necessary they become harmful -- Cro)ds are the most obstinate maintainers of traditional ideas. M $. Ti*e! It prepares in succession the establishment of beliefs and then their destruction. It is by the aid of this factor that order may proceed from chaos. M :. Po&iti,'& 'nSo,i'& Institutions! Erroneous idea of their part -- Their influence e#tremely )eak -- They are effects' not causes -- -ations are incapable of choosin! )hat appear to them the best institutions -Institutions are labels )hich shelter the most dissimilar thin!s under the same title -- 5o)

institutions may come to be created -- Certain institutions theoretically bad' such as centralisation obli!atory for certain nations. M ,. Institutions 'n-

<3$< e-u,'tion! .alsity of prevalent ideas as to the influence of instruction on cro)ds -- 4tatistical indications -- ;emoralisin! effect of "atin system of education -- Eart instruction mi!ht play -E#amples furnished by various peoples. 5A I-6 studied the mental constitution of cro)ds and become acBuainted )ith their modes of feelin!' thinkin!' and reasonin!' )e shall no) proceed to e#amine ho) their opinions and beliefs arise and become established. The factors )hich determine these opinions and beliefs are of t)o kinds: remote factors and immediate factors. The remote factors are those )hich render cro)ds capable of adoptin! certain convictions and absolutely refractory to the acceptance of others. These factors prepare the !round in )hich are suddenly seen to !erminate certain ne) ideas )hose force and conseBuences are a cause of astonishment' thou!h they are only spontaneous in appearance. The outburst and puttin! in practice of certain ideas amon! cro)ds present at times a startlin! suddenness. This is only a superficial effect' behind )hich must be sou!ht a preliminary and preparatory action of lon! duration. The immediate factors are those )hich' comin! on the top of this lon!' preparatory )orkin!' in )hose absence they )ould remain )ithout effect' serve as the source of active persuasion on cro)ds= that is' they are the factors )hich cause the idea to take

-3%shape and set it loose )ith all its conseBuences. The resolutions by )hich collectivities are suddenly carried a)ay arise out of these immediate factors= it is due to them that a riot breaks out or a strike is decided upon' and to them that enormous maCorities invest one man )ith po)er to overthro) a !overnment. The successive action of these t)o kinds of factors is to be traced in all !reat historical events. The .rench >evolution -- to cite but one of the most strikin! of such events -- had amon! its remote factors the )ritin!s of the philosophers' the e#actions of the nobility' and the pro!ress of scientific thou!ht. The mind of the masses' thus prepared' )as then easily roused by such immediate factors as the speeches of orators' and the resistance of the court party to insi!nificant reforms. Amon! the remote factors there are some of a !eneral nature' )hich are found to underlie all the beliefs and opinions of cro)ds. They are race' traditions' time' institutions' and education. @e no) proceed to study the influence of these different factors.

( 1. "'CE.
This factor' race' must be placed in the first rank' for in itself it far surpasses in importance all the others. @e have sufficiently studied it in another )ork= it is therefore needless to deal )ith it a!ain.

-3.@e sho)ed' in a previous volume' )hat an historical race is' and ho)' its character once formed' it possesses' as the result of the la)s of heredity such po)er that its beliefs' institutions' and arts -- in a )ord' all the elements of its civilisation -- are merely the out)ard e#pression of its !enius. @e sho)ed that the po)er of the race is such that no element can pass from one people to another )ithout under!oin! the most profound transformations. -ote: J9K J9K -ote: The novelty of this proposition bein! still considerable and history bein! Buite unintelli!ible )ithout it' I devoted four chapters to its demonstration in my last book /LThe Esycholo!ical "a)s of the Evolution of EeoplesL0. .rom it the reader )ill see that' in spite of fallacious appearances' neither lan!ua!e' reli!ion' arts' or' in a )ord' any element of civilisation' can pass' intact' from one people to another. Environment' circumstances' and events represent the social su!!estions of the moment. They may have a considerable influence' but this influence is al)ays momentary if it be contrary to the su!!estions of the race= that is' to those )hich are inherited by a nation from the entire series of its ancestors. @e shall have occasion in several of the chapters of this )ork to touch a!ain upon racial influence' and to sho) that this influence is so !reat that it dominates the characteristics peculiar to the !enius of cro)ds. It follo)s from this fact that the cro)ds of different countries offer very considerable differences of beliefs and conduct and are not to be influenced in the same manner.

-3/-

( .. T"'#!T!ONS.
Traditions represent the ideas' the needs' and the sentiments of the past. They are the synthesis of the race' and )ei!h upon us )ith immense force. The biolo!ical sciences have been transformed since embryolo!y has sho)n the immense influence of the past on the evolution of livin! bein!s= and the historical sciences )ill not under!o a less chan!e )hen this conception has become more )idespread. As yet it is not sufficiently !eneral' and many statesmen are still no further advanced than the theorists of the last century' )ho believed that a society could break off )ith its past and be entirely recast on lines su!!ested solely by the li!ht of reason. A people is an or!anism created by the past' and' like every other or!anism' it can only be modified by slo) hereditary accumulations. It is tradition that !uides men' and more especially so )hen they are in a cro)d. The chan!es they

can effect in their traditions )ith any ease' merely bear' as I have often repeated' upon names and out)ard forms. This circumstance is not to be re!retted. -either a national !enius nor civilisation )ould be possible )ithout traditions. In conseBuence manDs t)o !reat concerns since he has e#isted have been to create a net)ork of traditions )hich he after)ards endeavours to destroy )hen their beneficial effects

-30have )orn themselves out. Civilisation is impossible )ithout traditions' and pro!ress impossible )ithout the destruction of those traditions. The difficulty' and it is an immense difficulty' is to find a proper eBuilibrium bet)een stability and variability. 4hould a people allo) its customs to become too firmly rooted' it can no lon!er chan!e' and becomes' like China' incapable of improvement. iolent revolutions are in this case of no avail= for )hat happens is that either the broken fra!ments of the chain are pieced to!ether a!ain and the past resumes its empire )ithout chan!e' or the fra!ments remain apart and decadence soon succeeds anarchy. The ideal for a people is in conseBuence to preserve the institutions of the past' merely chan!in! them insensibly and little by little. This ideal is difficult to realise. The >omans in ancient and the En!lish in modern times are almost alone in havin! realised it. It is precisely cro)ds that clin! the most tenaciously to traditional ideas and oppose their bein! chan!ed )ith the most obstinacy. This is notably the case )ith the cate!ory of cro)ds constitutin! castes. I have already insisted upon the conservative spirit of cro)ds' and sho)n that the most violent rebellions merely end in a chan!in! of )ords and terms. At the end of the last century' in the presence of destroyed churches' of priests

-32e#pelled the country or !uillotined' it mi!ht have been thou!ht that the old reli!ious ideas had lost all their stren!th' and yet a fe) years had barely lapsed before the abolished system of public )orship had to be re-established in deference to universal demands. -ote: J3K J3K -ote: The report of the e#-Conventionist' .ourcroy' Buoted by Taine' is very clear on this point. L@hat is every)here seen )ith respect to the keepin! of 4unday and attendance at the churches proves that the maCority of .renchmen desire to return to their old usa!es and that it is no lon!er opportune to resist this natural tendency. . . . The !reat maCority of men stand in need of reli!ion' public )orship' and priests. It is 'n error o) so*e *o-ern phi&osophers6 b+ (hi,h I *+se&) h've been &e- '('+' to believe in the possibility of instruction bein! so !eneral as to destroy reli!ious preCudices' )hich for a !reat number of unfortunate persons are a source of consolation. . . . The mass of the people' then' must be allo)ed its priests' its altars' and its public )orship.L 7lotted out for a moment' the old traditions had resumed their s)ay.

-o e#ample could better display the po)er of tradition on the mind of cro)ds. The most redoubtable idols do not d)ell in temples' nor the most despotic tyrants in palaces= both the one and the other can be broken in an instant. 7ut the invisible masters that rei!n in our innermost selves are safe from every effort at revolt' and only yield to the slo) )earin! a)ay of centuries.

-33-

( /. T!)E.
In social as in biolo!ical problems time is one of the most ener!etic factors. It is the sole real creator and the sole !reat destroyer. It is time that has made mountains )ith !rains of sand and raised the obscure cell of !eolo!ical eras to human di!nity. The action of centuries is sufficient to transform any !iven phenomenon. It has been Custly observed that an ant )ith enou!h time at its disposal could level 1ount 7lanc. A bein! possessed of the ma!ical force of varyin! time at his )ill )ould have the po)er attributed by believers to 6od. In this place' ho)ever' )e have only to concern ourselves )ith the influence of time on the !enesis of the opinions of cro)ds. Its action from this point of vie) is still immense. ;ependent upon it are the !reat forces such as race' )hich cannot form themselves )ithout it. It causes the birth' the !ro)th' and the death of all beliefs. It is by the aid of time that they acBuire their stren!th and also by its aid that they lose it. It is time in particular that prepares the opinions and beliefs of cro)ds' or at least the soil on )hich they )ill !erminate. This is )hy certain ideas are realisable at one epoch and not at another. It is time that accumulates that immense detritus of beliefs and thou!hts on )hich the ideas of a !iven period sprin! up. They do not !ro) at haIard

-38and by chance= the roots of each of them strike do)n into a lon! past. @hen they blossom it is time that has prepared their bloomin!= and to arrive at a notion of their !enesis it is al)ays back in the past that it is necessary to search. They are the dau!hters of the past and the mothers of the future' but throu!hout the slaves of time. Time' in conseBuence' is our veritable master' and it suffices to leave it free to act to see all thin!s transformed. At the present day )e are very uneasy )ith re!ard to the threatenin! aspirations of the masses and the destructions and upheavals foreboded thereby. Time' )ithout other aid' )ill see to the restoration of eBuilibrium. L-o form of !overnment'L 1. "avisse very properly )rites' L)as founded in a day. Eolitical and social or!anisations are )orks that demand centuries. The feudal system e#isted for centuries in a shapeless' chaotic state before it found its la)s= absolute monarchy also e#isted for centuries before arrivin! at re!ular methods of !overnment' and these periods of e#pectancy )ere e#tremely troubled.L

( 1. POL!T!C'L 'N# SOC!'L !NST!T$T!ONS.

The idea that institutions can remedy the defects of societies' that national pro!ress is the conseBuence of the improvement of institutions and !overnments' and that social chan!es can be effected by decrees -- this idea' I say' is still !ene

-34rally accepted. It )as the startin!-point of the .rench >evolution' and the social theories of the present day are based upon it. The most continuous e#perience has been unsuccessful in shakin! this !rave delusion. Ehilosophers and historians have endeavoured in vain to prove its absurdity' but yet they have had no difficulty in demonstratin! that institutions are the outcome of ideas' sentiments' and customs' and that ideas' sentiments' and customs are not to be recast by recastin! le!islative codes. A nation does not choose its institutions at )ill any more than it chooses the colour of its hair or its eyes. Institutions and !overnments are the product of the race. They are not the creators of an epoch' but are created by it. Eeoples are not !overned in accordance )ith their caprices of the moment' but as their character determines that they shall be !overned. Centuries are reBuired to form a political system and centuries needed to chan!e it. Institutions have no intrinsic virtue: in themselves they are neither !ood nor bad. Those )hich are !ood at a !iven moment for a !iven people may be harmful in the e#treme for another nation. 1oreover' it is in no )ay in the po)er of a people to really chan!e its institutions. Undoubtedly' at the cost of violent revolutions' it can chan!e their name' but in their essence they remain unmodified. The names are mere futile labels )ith

-85)hich an historian )ho !oes to the bottom of thin!s need scarcely concern himself. It is in this )ay' for instance' that En!land' -ote: J+K the most democratic country in the )orld' lives' nevertheless' under a monarchical r=1i*e' )hereas the countries in )hich the most oppressive despotism is rampant are the 4panish-American >epublics' in spite of their republican constitutions. The destinies of peoples are determined by their character and not by their !overnment. I have endeavoured to establish this vie) in my previous volume by settin! forth cate!orical e#amples. J+K -ote: The most advanced republicans' even of the United 4tates' reco!nise this fact. The American ma!aIine' The Foru*' recently !ave cate!orical e#pression to the opinion in terms )hich I reproduce here from the Revie( o) Revie(s for ;ecember' *3+:: -LIt should never be for!otten' even by the most ardent enemies of an aristocracy' that En!land is to-day the most democratic country of the universe' the country in )hich the ri!hts of the individual are most respected' and in )hich the individual possesses the most liberty.L To lose time in the manufacture of cut-and-dried constitutions is' in conseBuence' a puerile task'

the useless labour of an i!norant rhetorician. -ecessity and time undertake the char!e of elaboratin! constitutions )hen )e are )ise enou!h to allo) these t)o factors to act. This is the plan the An!lo4a#ons have adopted' as their !reat historian' 1acaulay' teaches us in a passa!e that the politicians of all "atin countries ou!ht to learn by

-8$heart. After havin! sho)n all the !ood that can be accomplished by la)s )hich appear from the point of vie) of pure reason a chaos of absurdities and contradictions' he compares the scores of constitutions that have been en!ulphed in the convulsions of the "atin peoples )ith that of En!land' and points out that the latter has only been very slo)ly chan!ed part by part' under the influence of immediate necessities and never of speculative reasonin!. LTo think nothin! of symmetry and much of convenience= never to remove an anomaly merely because it is an anomaly= never to innovate e#cept )hen some !rievance is felt= never to innovate e#cept so far as to !et rid of the !rievance= never to lay do)n any proposition of )ider e#tent than the particular case for )hich it is necessary to provide= these are the rules )hich have' from the a!e of Gohn to the a!e of ictoria' !enerally !uided the deliberations of our t)o hundred and fifty Earliaments.L It )ould be necessary to take one by one the la)s and institutions of each people to sho) to )hat e#tent they are the e#pression of the needs of each race and are incapable' for that reason' of bein! violently transformed. It is possible' for' instance' to indul!e in philosophical dissertations on the advanta!es and disadvanta!es of centralisation=

-8%but )hen )e see a people composed of very different races devote a thousand years of efforts to attainin! to this centralisation= )hen )e observe that a !reat revolution' havin! for obCect the destruction of all the institutions of the past' has been forced to respect this centralisation' and has even stren!thened it= under these circumstances )e should admit that it is the outcome of imperious needs' that it is a condition of the e#istence of the nation in Buestion' and )e should pity the poor mental ran!e of politicians )ho talk of destroyin! it. Could they by chance succeed in this attempt' their success )ould at once be the si!nal for a fri!htful civil )ar' -ote: J*&K )hich' moreover' )ould immediately brin! back a ne) system of centralisation much more oppressive than the old. J*&K -ote: If a comparison be made bet)een the profound reli!ious and political dissensions )hich separate the various parties in .rance' and are more especially the result of social Buestions' and the separatist tendencies )hich )ere manifested at the time of the >evolution' and be!an to a!ain display themselves to)ards the close of the .ranco-6erman )ar' it )ill be seen that the different races represented in .rance are still far from bein! completely blended. The vi!orous centralisation of the >evolution and the creation of artificial departments destined to brin! about the fusion of the ancient provinces )as certainly its most useful )ork. @ere it possible to brin! about the

decentralisation )hich is to-day preoccupyin! minds lackin! in foresi!ht' the achievement )ould promptly have for conseBuence the most san!uinary disorders. To overlook this fact is to leave out of account the entire history of .rance.

-8.The conclusion to be dra)n from )hat precedes is' that it is not in institutions that the means is to be sou!ht of profoundly influencin! the !enius of the masses. @hen )e see certain countries' such as the United 4tates' reach a hi!h de!ree of prosperity under democratic institutions' )hile others' such as the 4panish-American >epublics' are found e#istin! in a pitiable state of anarchy under absolutely similar institutions' )e should admit that these institutions are as forei!n to the !reatness of the one as to the decadence of the others. Eeoples are !overned by their character' and all institutions )hich are not intimately modelled on that character merely represent a borro)ed !arment' a transitory dis!uise. -o doubt san!uinary )ars and violent revolutions have been undertaken' and )ill continue to be undertaken' to impose institutions to )hich is attributed' as to the relics of saints' the supernatural po)er of creatin! )elfare. It may be said' then' in one sense' that institutions react on the mind of the cro)d inasmuch as they en!ender such upheavals. 7ut in reality it is not the institutions that react in this manner' since )e kno) that' )hether triumphant or vanBuished' they possess in themselves no virtue. It is illusions and )ords that have influenced the mind of the cro)d' and especially )ords -- )ords )hich are as po)erful as they are chimerical' and )hose astonishin! s)ay )e shall shortly demonstrate.

-8/-

( 2. !NST"$CT!ON 'N# E#$C'T!ON.

.oremost amon! the dominant ideas of the present epoch is to be found the notion that instruction is capable of considerably chan!in! men' and has for its unfailin! conseBuence to improve them and even to make them eBual. 7y the mere fact of its bein! constantly repeated' this assertion has ended by becomin! one of the most steadfast democratic do!mas. It )ould be as difficult no) to attack it as it )ould have been formerly to have attacked the do!mas of the Church. ?n this point' ho)ever' as on many others' democratic ideas are in profound disa!reement )ith the results of psycholo!y and e#perience. 1any eminent philosophers' amon! them 5erbert 4pencer' have had no difficulty in sho)in! that instruction neither renders a man more moral nor happier' that it chan!es neither his instincts nor his hereditary passions' and that at times -- for this to happen it need only be badly directed -- it is much more pernicious than useful. 4tatisticians have brou!ht confirmation of these vie)s by tellin! us that criminality increases )ith the !eneralisation of instruction' or at any rate of a certain kind of instruction' and that the )orst enemies of society' the anarchists' are recruited amon! the priIe-)inners of schools= )hile in a recent )ork a distin!uished ma!istrate' 1. Adolphe 6uillot' made

-80the observation that at present $'&&& educated criminals are met )ith for every *'&&& illiterate delinBuents' and that in fifty years the criminal percenta!e of the population has passed from 229 to ,,2 for every *&&'&&& inhabitants' an increase of *$$ per cent. 5e has also noted in common )ith his collea!ues that criminality is particularly on the increase amon! youn! persons' for )hom' as is kno)n' !ratuitous and obli!atory schoolin! has -- in .rance -- replaced apprenticeship. It is not assuredly -- and nobody has ever maintained this proposition -- that )ell-directed instruction may not !ive very useful practical results' if not in the sense of raisin! the standard of morality' at least in that of developin! professional capacity. Unfortunately the "atin peoples' especially in the last t)eny-five years' have based their systems of instruction on very erroneous principles' and in spite of the observations of the most eminent minds' such as 7rPal' .ustel de Coulan!es' Taine' and many others' they persist in their lamentable mistakes. I have myself sho)n' in a )ork published some time a!o' that the .rench system of education transforms the maCority of those )ho have under!one it into enemies of society' and recruits numerous disciples for the )orst forms of socialism. The primary dan!er of this system of education -- very properly Bualified as "atin -- consists in the

-82fact that it is based on the fundamental psycholo!ical error that the intelli!ence is developed by the learnin! by heart of te#t-books. Adoptin! this vie)' the endeavour has been made to enforce a kno)led!e of as many hand-books as possible. .rom the primary school till he leaves the university a youn! man does nothin! but acBuire books by heart )ithout his Cud!ment or personal initiative bein! ever called into play. Education consists for him in recitin! by heart and obeyin!. L"earnin! lessons' kno)in! by heart a !rammar or a compendium' repeatin! )ell and imitatin! )ell -- that'L )rites a former 1inister of Eublic Instruction' 1. Gules 4imon' Lis a ludicrous form of education )hose every effort is an act of faith tacitly admittin! the infallibility of the master' and )hose only results are a belittlin! of ourselves and a renderin! of us impotent.L @ere this education merely useless' one mi!ht confine oneDs self to e#pressin! compassion for the unhappy children )ho' instead of makin! needful studies at the primary school' are instructed in the !enealo!y of the sons of Clotaire' the conflicts bet)een -eustria and Austrasia' or Ioolo!ical classifications. 7ut the system presents a far more serious dan!er. It !ives those )ho have been submitted to it a violent dislike to the state of life in )hich they )ere born' and an intense

-83desire to escape from it. The )orkin! man no lon!er )ishes to remain a )orkin! man' or the peasant to continue a peasant' )hile the most humble members of the middle classes admit of no possible career for their sons e#cept that of 4tate-paid functionaries. Instead of preparin! men for life .rench schools solely prepare them to occupy public functions' in )hich success can be attained )ithout any necessity for self-direction or the e#hibition of the least !limmer of personal initiative.

At the bottom of the social ladder the system creates an army of proletarians discontented )ith their lot and al)ays ready to revolt' )hile at the summit it brin!s into bein! a frivolous bour!eoisie' at once sceptical and credulous' havin! a superstitious confidence in the 4tate' )hom it re!ards as a sort of Erovidence' but )ithout for!ettin! to display to)ards it a ceaseless hostility' al)ays layin! its o)n faults to the door of the 6overnment' and incapable of the least enterprise )ithout the intervention of the authorities. The 4tate' )hich manufactures by dint of te#tbooks all these persons possessin! diplomas' can only utilise a small number of them' and is forced to leave the others )ithout employment. It is obli!ed in conseBuence to resi!n itself to feedin! the first mentioned and to havin! the others as its enemies. .rom the top to the bottom of the social pyramid' from the humblest clerk to the

-88professor and the prefect' the immense mass of persons boastin! diplomas besie!e the professions. @hile a business man has the !reatest difficulty in findin! an a!ent to represent him in the colonies' thousands of candidates solicit the most modest official posts. There are 2&'&&& schoolmasters and mistresses )ithout employment in the department of the 4eine alone' all of them persons )ho' disdainin! the fields or the )orkshops' look to the 4tate for their livelihood. The number of the chosen bein! restricted' that of the discontented is perforce immense. The latter are ready for any revolution' )hoever be its chiefs and )hatever the !oal they aim at. The acBuisition of kno)led!e for )hich no use can be found is a sure method of drivin! a man to revolt. -ote: J**K J**K -ote: This phenomenon' moreover' is not peculiar to the "atin peoples. It is also to be observed in China' )hich is also a country in the hands of a solid hierarchy of mandarins or functionaries' and )here a function is obtained' as in .rance' by competitive e#amination' in )hich the only test is the imperturbable recitation of bulky manuals. The army of educated persons )ithout employment is considered in China at the present day as a veritable national calamity. It is the same in India )here' since the En!lish have opened schools' not for educatin! purposes' as is the case in En!land itself' but simply to furnish the indi!enous inhabitants )ith instruction' there has been formed a special class of educated persons' the 7aboos' )ho' )hen they do not obtain employment' become the irreconcilable enemies of the En!lish rule. In the case of all the 7aboos' )hether provided )ith employment or not' the first effect of their instruction has been to lo)er their standard of morality. This is a fact on )hich I have insisted at len!th in my book' LThe Civilisations of IndiaL -- a fact' too' )hich has been observed by all authors )ho have visited the !reat peninsula. It is evidently too late to retrace our steps. E#perience alone' that supreme educator of peoples' )ill be at pains to sho) us our mistake. It alone )ill be po)erful enou!h to prove the necessity of replacin! our odious te#t-books and our pitiable e#aminations by industrial instruction capable of inducin! our youn! men to return to the fields' to the )orkshop' and to the colonial enterprise )hich they avoid to-day at all costs. The professional instruction )hich all enli!htened minds are no) demandin! )as the instruction received in the past by our forefathers. It is still in vi!our at the present day amon! the nations )ho rule the )orld by their force of )ill' their initiative' and their spirit of enterprise. In a series of remarkable pa!es' )hose principal passa!es I reproduce further on' a !reat thinker' 1. Taine' has clearly sho)n that our former system of education )as appro#imately that in vo!ue to-day in

En!land and America' and in a remarkable parallel bet)een the "atin and An!lo-4a#on systems he has plainly pointed out the conseBuences of the t)o methods. ?ne mi!ht consent' perhaps' at a pinch' to

-45continue to accept all the disadvanta!es of our classical education' althou!h it produced nothin! but discontented men' and men unfitted for their station in life' did the superficial acBuisition of so much kno)led!e' the faultless repeatin! by heart of so many te#t-books' raise the level of intelli!ence. 7ut does it really raise this levelF Alas' noO The conditions of success in life are the possession of Cud!ment' e#perience' initiative' and character -- Bualities )hich are not besto)ed by books. 7ooks are dictionaries' )hich it is useful to consult' but of )hich it is perfectly useless to have len!thy portions in oneDs head. 5o) is it possible for professional instruction to develop the intelli!ence in a measure Buite beyond the reach of classical instructionF This has been )ell sho)n by 1. Taine. LIdeas' he says' are only formed in their natural and normal surroundin!s= the promotion of the !ro)th is effected by the innumerable impressions appealin! to the senses )hich a youn! man receives daily in the )orkshop' the mine' the la) court' the study' the builderDs yard' the hospital= at the si!ht of tools' materials' and operations= in the presence of customers' )orkers' and labour' of )ork )ell or ill done' costly or lucrative. In such a )ay are obtained those triflin! perceptions of detail of the eyes' the ear'

-4$the hands' and even the sense of smell' )hich' picked up involuntarily' and silently elaborated' take shape )ithin the learner' and su!!est to him sooner or' later this or that ne) combination' simplification' economy' improvement' or invention. The youn! .renchman is deprived' and precisely at the a!e )hen they are most fruitful' of all these precious contacts' of all these indispensable elements of assimilation. .or seven or ei!ht years on end he is shut up in a school' and is cut off from that direct personal e#perience )hich )ould !ive him a keen and e#act notion of men and thin!s and of the various )ays of handlin! them.L L . . . At least nine out of ten have )asted their time and pains durin! several years of their life -tellin!' important' even decisive years. Amon! such are to be counted' first of all' the half or t)othirds of those )ho present themselves for e#amination -- I refer to those )ho are reCected= and then amon! those )ho are successful' )ho obtain a de!ree' a certificate' a diploma' there is still a half or t)o-thirds -- I refer to the over)orked. Too much has been demanded of them by e#actin! that on a !iven day' on a chair or before a board' they should' for t)o hours in succession' and )ith respect to a !roup of sciences' be livin! repertories of all human kno)

-4%-

led!e. In point of fact they )ere that' or nearly so' for t)o hours on that particular day' but a month later they are so no lon!er. They could not !o throu!h the e#amination a!ain. Their too numerous and too burdensome acBuisitions slip incessantly from their mind' and are not replaced. Their mental vi!our has declined' their fertile capacity for !ro)th has dried up' the fully-developed man appears' and he is often a used up man. 4ettled do)n' married' resi!ned to turnin! in a circle' and indefinitely in the same circle' he shuts himself up in his confined function' )hich he fulfils adeBuately' but nothin! more. 4uch is the avera!e yield: assuredly the receipts do not balance the e#penditure. In En!land or America' )here' as in .rance previous to *93+' the contrary proceedin! is adopted' the outcome obtained is eBual or superior.L The illustrious psycholo!ist subseBuently sho)s us the difference bet)een our system and that of the An!lo-4a#ons. The latter do not possess our innumerable special schools. @ith them instruction is not based on book-learnin!' but on obCect lessons. The en!ineer' for e#ample' is trained in a )orkshop' and never at a school= a method )hich allo)s of each individual reachin! the level his intelli!ence permits of. 5e becomes a )orkman or a foreman if he can !et no further' an

-4.en!ineer if his aptitudes take him as far. This manner of proceedin! is much more democratic and of much !reater benefit to society than that of makin! the )hole career of an individual depend on an e#amination' lastin! a fe) hours' and under!one at the a!e of nineteen or t)enty. LIn the hospital' the mine' the factory' in the architectDs or the la)yerDs office' the student' )ho makes a start )hile very youn!' !oes throu!h his apprenticeship' sta!e by sta!e' much as does )ith us a la) clerk in his office' or an artist in his studio. Ereviously' and before makin! a practical be!innin!' he has had an opportunity of follo)in! some !eneral and summary course of instruction' so as to have a frame)ork ready prepared in )hich to store the observations he is shortly to make. .urthermore he is able' as a rule' to avail himself of sundry technical courses )hich he can follo) in his leisure hours' so as to co-ordinate step by step the daily e#perience he is !atherin!. Under such a system the practical capabilities increase and develop of themselves in e#act proportion to the faculties of the student' and in the direction reBuisite for his future task and the special )ork for )hich from no) on)ards he desires to fit himself. 7y this means in En!land or the United 4tates a youn! man is Buickly in a position to develop his capacity to

-4/the utmost. At t)enty-five years of a!e' and much sooner if the material and the parts are there' he is not merely a useful performer' he is capable also of spontaneous enterprise= he is not only a part of a machine' but also a motor. In .rance' )here the contrary system prevails -- in .rance' )hich )ith each succeedin! !eneration is fallin! more and more into line )ith China -- the sum total of the )asted forces is enormous.L The !reat philosopher arrives at the follo)in! conclusion )ith respect to the !ro)in! incon!ruity bet)een our "atin system of education and the reBuirements of practical life: -LIn the three sta!es of instruction' those of childhood' adolescence and youth' the theoretical and peda!o!ic preparation by books on the school benches has len!thened out and become overchar!ed in vie) of the e#amination' the de!ree' the diploma' and the certificate' and solely in this vie)' and

by the )orst methods' by the application of an unnatural and anti-social r=1i*e' by the e#cessive postponement of the practical apprenticeship' by our boardin!-school system' by artificial trainin! and mechanical crammin!' by over)ork' )ithout thou!ht for the time that is to follo)' for the adult a!e and the functions of the man' )ithout re!ard for the real )orld on

-40)hich the youn! man )ill shortly be thro)n' for the society in )hich )e move and to )hich he must be adapted or be tau!ht to resi!n himself in advance' for the stru!!le in )hich humanity is en!a!ed' and in )hich to defend himself and to keep his footin! he ou!ht previously to have been eBuipped' armed' trained' and hardened. This indispensable eBuipment' this acBuisition of more importance than any other' this sturdy common sense and nerve and )ill-po)er our schools do not procure the youn! .renchman= on the contrary' far from Bualifyin! him for his approachin! and definite state' they disBualify him. In conseBuence' his entry into the )orld and his first steps in the field of action are most often merely a succession of painful falls' )hose effect is that he lon! remains )ounded and bruised' and sometimes disabled for life. The test is severe and dan!erous. In the course of it the mental and moral eBuilibrium is affected' and runs the risk of not bein! reestablished. Too sudden and complete disillusion has supervened. The deceptions have been too !reat' the disappointments too keen.L -ote: J*2K J*2K -ote: Taine' L"e >e!ime moderne'L vol. ii.' *3+:. These pa!es are almost the last that Taine )rote. They resume admirably the results of the !reat philosopherDs lon! e#perience. Unfortunately they are in my opinion totally incomprehensible for such of our university professors )ho have not lived abroad. Education is the only means at our disposal of influencin! to some e#tent the mind of a nation' and it is profoundly saddenin! to have to think that there is scarcely any one in .rance )ho can arrive at understandin! that our present system of teachin! is a !rave cause of rapid decadence' )hich instead of elevatin! our youth' lo)ers and perverts it. A useful comparison may be made bet)een TaineDs pa!es and the observations on American education recently made by 1. Eaul 7our!et in his e#cellent book' L?utre-1er.L 5e' too' after havin! noted that our education merely produces narro)-minded bour!eois' lackin! in initiative and )ill-po)er' or anarchists -- Lthose t)o eBually harmful types of the civilised man' )ho de!enerates into impotent platitude or insane destructivenessL -- he too' I say' dra)s a comparison that cannot be the obCect of too much reflection bet)een our .rench &+,=es /public schools0' those factories of de!eneration' and the American schools' )hich prepare a man admirably for life. The !ulf e#istin! bet)een truly democratic nations and those )ho have democracy in their speeches' but in no )ise in their thou!hts' is clearly brou!ht out in this comparison.

-425ave )e di!ressed in )hat precedes from the psycholo!y of cro)dsF Assuredly not. If )e desire to understand the ideas and beliefs that are !erminatin! to-day in the masses' and )ill sprin! up to-

morro)' it is necessary to kno) ho) the !round has been prepared. The instruction !iven the youth of a country allo)s of a kno)led!e of )hat that country )ill one day be. The education accorded the present !eneration Custifies the most !loomy previsions. It is in part by instruction and education that the mind of the masses is improved or deteriorated. It )as necessary in conseBuence to sho) ho) this mind has been

-43fashioned by the system in vo!ue' and ho) the mass of the indifferent and the neutral has become pro!ressively an army of the discontented ready to obey all the su!!estions of utopians and rhetoricians. It is in the schoolroom that socialists and anarchists are found no)adays' and that the )ay is bein! paved for the approachin! period of decadence for the "atin peoples.

-48-

C&'PTE" !!. THE MMED ATE FACTORS OF THE OP ! O!S OF CROWDS.

M *. I*'1es6 (or-s 'n- )or*u&>! The ma!ical po)er of )ords and formulS -- The po)er of )ords bound up )ith the ima!es they evoke' and independent of their real sense -- These ima!es vary from a!e to a!e' and from race to race -- The )ear and tear of )ords -- E#amples of the considerable variations of sense of much-used )ords -- The political utility of baptiIin! old thin!s )ith ne) names )hen the )ords by )hich they )ere desi!nated produced an unfavourable impression on the masses -- variations of the sense of )ords in conseBuence of race differences -The different meanin!s of the )ord LdemocracyL in Europe and America. M 2. I&&usions! Their importance -- They are to be found at the root of all civilisations -- The social necessity of illusions -- Cro)ds al)ays prefer them to truths. M $. Experien,e! E#perience alone can fi# in the mind of cro)ds truths become necessary and destroy illusions !ro)n dan!erous -- E#perience is only effective on the condition that it be freBuently repeated -- The cost of the e#periences reBuisite to persuade cro)ds. M :. Re'son! The nullity of its influence on cro)ds -- Cro)ds only to be influenced by their unconscious sentiments -- The r7&e of lo!ic in history -- The secret causes of improbable events. @E have Cust investi!ated the remote and preparatory factors )hich !ive the mind of cro)ds

-44a special receptivity' and make possible therein the !ro)th of certain sentiments and certain ideas. It

no) remains for us to study the factors capable of actin! in a direct manner. @e shall see in a forthcomin! chapter ho) these factors should be put in force in order that they may produce their full effect. In the first part of this )ork )e studied the sentiments' ideas' and methods of reasonin! of collective bodies' and from the kno)led!e thus acBuired it )ould evidently be possible to deduce in a !eneral )ay the means of makin! an impression on their mind. @e already kno) )hat strikes the ima!ination of cro)ds' and are acBuainted )ith the po)er and conta!iousness of su!!estions' of those especially that are presented under the form of ima!es. 5o)ever' as su!!estions may proceed from very different sources' the factors capable of actin! on the minds of cro)ds may differ considerably. It is necessary' then' to study them separately. This is not a useless study. Cro)ds are some)hat like the sphin# of ancient fable: it is necessary to arrive at a solution of the problems offered by their psycholo!y or to resi!n ourselves to bein! devoured by them.

( 1. !)'GES, -O"#S, 'N# ,O")$L'S.

@hen studyin! the ima!ination of cro)ds )e sa) that it is particularly open to the impressions

-$55produced by ima!es. These ima!es do not al)ays lie ready to hand' but it is possible to evoke them by the Cudicious employment of )ords and formulas. 5andled )ith art' they possess in sober truth the mysterious po)er formerly attributed to them by the adepts of ma!ic. They cause the birth in the minds of cro)ds of the most formidable tempests' )hich in turn they are capable of stillin!. A pyramid far loftier than that of old Cheops could be raised merely )ith the bones of men )ho have been victims of the po)er of )ords and formulas. The po)er of )ords is bound up )ith the ima!es they evoke' and is Buite independent of their real si!nificance. @ords )hose sense is the most ill-defined are sometimes those that possess the most influence. 4uch' for e#ample' are the terms democracy' socialism' eBuality' liberty' Hc.' )hose meanin! is so va!ue that bulky volumes do not suffice to precisely fi# it. 2et it is certain that a truly ma!ical po)er is attached to those short syllables' as if they contained the solution of all problems. They synthesise the most diverse unconscious aspirations and the hope of their realisation. >eason and ar!uments are incapable of combattin! certain )ords and formulas. They are uttered )ith solemnity in the presence of cro)ds' and as soon as they have been pronounced an

-$5$e#pression of respect is visible on every countenance' and all heads are bo)ed. 7y many they are considered as natural forces' as supernatural po)ers. They evoke !randiose and va!ue ima!es in menDs minds' but this very va!ueness that )raps them in obscurity au!ments their mysterious po)er. They are the mysterious divinities hidden behind the tabernacle' )hich the devout only approach in fear and tremblin!. The ima!es evoked by )ords bein! independent of their sense' they vary from a!e to a!e and from people to people' the formulas remainin! identical. Certain transitory ima!es are attached to

certain )ords: the )ord is merely as it )ere the button of an electric bell that calls them up. All )ords and all formulas do not possess the po)er of evokin! ima!es' )hile there are some )hich have once had this po)er' but lose it in the course of use' and cease to )aken any response in the mind. They then become vain sounds' )hose principal utility is to relieve the person )ho employs them of the obli!ation of thinkin!. Armed )ith a small stock of formulas and commonplaces learnt )hile )e are youn!' )e possess all that is needed to traverse life )ithout the tirin! necessity of havin! to reflect on anythin! )hatever. If any particular lan!ua!e be studied' it is seen that the )ords of )hich it is composed chan!e

-$5%rather slo)ly in the course of a!es' )hile the ima!es these )ords evoke or the meanin! attached to them chan!es ceaselessly. This is the reason )hy' in another )ork' I have arrived at the conclusion that the absolute translation of a lan!ua!e' especially of a dead lan!ua!e' is totally impossible. @hat do )e do in reality )hen )e substitute a .rench for a "atin' 6reek' or 4anscrit e#pression' or even )hen )e endeavour to understand a book )ritten in our o)n ton!ue t)o or three centuries backF @e merely put the ima!es and ideas )ith )hich modern life has endo)ed our intelli!ence in the place of absolutely distinct notions and ima!es )hich ancient life had brou!ht into bein! in the mind of races submitted to conditions of e#istence havin! no analo!y )ith our o)n. @hen the men of the >evolution ima!ined they )ere copyin! the 6reeks and >omans' )hat )ere they doin! e#cept !ivin! to ancient )ords a sense the latter had never hadF @hat resemblance can possibly e#ist bet)een the institutions of the 6reeks and those desi!nated to-day by correspondin! )ordsF A republic at that epoch )as an essentially aristocratic institution' formed of a reunion of petty despots rulin! over a cro)d of slaves kept in the most absolute subCection. These communal aristocracies' based on slavery' could not have e#isted for a moment )ithout it. The )ord Lliberty'L a!ain' )hat si!nification could

-$5.it have in any )ay resemblin! that )e attribute to it to-day at a period )hen the possibility of the liberty of thou!ht )as not even suspected' and )hen there )as no !reater and more e#ceptional crime than that of discussin! the !ods' the la)s and the customs of the cityF @hat did such a )ord as LfatherlandL si!nify to an Athenian or 4partan unless it )ere the cult of Athens or 4parta' and in no )ise that of 6reece' composed of rival cities al)ays at )ar )ith each otherF @hat meanin! had the same )ord LfatherlandL amon! the ancient 6auls' divided into rival tribes and races' and possessin! different lan!ua!es and reli!ions' and )ho )ere easily vanBuished by Caesar because he al)ays found allies amon! themF It )as >ome that made a country of 6aul by endo)in! it )ith political and reli!ious unity. @ithout !oin! back so far' scarcely t)o centuries a!o' is it to be believed that this same notion of a fatherland )as conceived to have the same meanin! as at present by .rench princes like the !reat CondP' )ho allied themselves )ith the forei!ner a!ainst their soverei!nF And yet a!ain' the same )ord had it not a sense very different from the modern for the .rench royalist emi!rants' )ho thou!ht they obeyed the la)s of honour in fi!htin! a!ainst .rance' and )ho from their point of vie) did indeed obey them' since the feudal la) bound the vassal to the lord and not to the soil' so that

-$5/)here the soverei!n )as there )as the true fatherlandF -umerous are the )ords )hose meanin! has thus profoundly chan!ed from a!e to a!e -- )ords )hich )e can only arrive at understandin! in the sense in )hich they )ere formerly understood after a lon! effort. It has been said )ith truth that much study is necessary merely to arrive at conceivin! )hat )as si!nified to our !reat !randfathers by such )ords as the Lkin!L and the Lroyal family.L @hat' then' is likely to be the case )ith terms still more comple#F @ords' then' have only mobile and transitory si!nifications )hich chan!e from a!e to a!e and people to people= and )hen )e desire to e#ert an influence by their means on the cro)d )hat it is reBuisite to kno) is the meanin! !iven them by the cro)d at a !iven moment' and not the meanin! )hich they formerly had or may yet have for individuals of a different mental constitution. Thus' )hen cro)ds have come' as the result of political upheavals or chan!es of belief' to acBuire a profound antipathy for the ima!es evoked by certain )ords' the first duty of the true statesman is to chan!e the )ords )ithout' of course' layin! hands on the thin!s themselves' the latter bein! too intimately bound up )ith the inherited constitution to be transformed. The Cudicious TocBueville

-$50lon! a!o made the remark that the )ork of the consulate and the empire consisted more particularly in the clothin! )ith ne) )ords of the !reater part of the institutions of the past -- that is to say' in replacin! )ords evokin! disa!reeable ima!es in the ima!ination of the cro)d by other )ords of )hich the novelty prevented such evocations. The LtailleL or talla!e has become the land ta#= the L!abelle'L the ta# on salt= the Laids'L the indirect contributions and the consolidated duties= the ta# on trade companies and !uilds' the license' Hc. ?ne of the most essential functions of statesmen consists' then' in baptiIin! )ith popular or' at any rate' indifferent )ords thin!s the cro)d cannot endure under their old names. The po)er of )ords is so !reat that it suffices to desi!nate in )ell-chosen terms the most odious thin!s to make them acceptable to cro)ds. Taine Custly observes that it )as by invokin! liberty and fraternity -)ords very popular at the time -- that the Gacobins )ere able Lto install a despotism )orthy of ;ahomey' a tribunal similar to that of the InBuisition' and to accomplish human hecatombs akin to those of ancient 1e#ico.L The art of those )ho !overn' as is the case )ith the art of advocates' consists above all in the science of employin! )ords. ?ne of the !reatest difficulties of this art is' that in one and the same society the

-$52same )ords most often have very different meanin!s for the different social classes' )ho employ in appearance the same )ords' but never speak the same lan!ua!e. In the precedin! e#amples it is especially time that has been made to intervene as the principal factor in the chan!in! of the meanin! of )ords. If' ho)ever' )e also make race intervene' )e shall then see that' at the same period' amon! peoples eBually civilised but of different race' the same

)ords very often correspond to e#tremely dissimilar ideas. It is impossible to understand these differences )ithout havin! travelled much' and for this reason I shall not insist upon them. I shall confine myself to observin! that it is precisely the )ords most often employed by the masses )hich amon! different peoples possess the most different meanin!s. 4uch is the case' for instance' )ith the )ords LdemocracyL and LsocialismL in such freBuent use no)adays. In reality they correspond to Buite contrary ideas and ima!es in the "atin and An!lo-4a#on mind. .or the "atin peoples the )ord LdemocracyL si!nifies more especially the subordination of the )ill and the initiative of the individual to the )ill and the initiative of the community represented by the 4tate. It is the 4tate that is char!ed' to a !reater and !reater de!ree' )ith the direction of everythin!' the centralisation' the

-$53monopolisation' and the manufacture of everythin!. To the 4tate it is that all parties )ithout e#ception' radicals' socialists' or monarchists' constantly appeal. Amon! the An!lo-4a#ons and notably in America this same )ord LdemocracyL si!nifies' on the contrary' the intense development of the )ill of the individual' and as complete a subordination as possible of the 4tate' )hich' )ith the e#ception of the police' the army' and diplomatic relations' is not allo)ed the direction of anythin!' not even of public instruction. It is seen' then' that the same )ord )hich si!nifies for one people the subordination of the )ill and the initiative of the individual and the preponderance of the 4tate' si!nifies for another the e#cessive development of the )ill and the initiative of the individual and the complete subordination of the 4tate. -ote: J*$K J*$K -ote: In my book' LThe Esycholo!ical "a)s of the Evolution of Eeoples'L I have insisted at len!th on the differences )hich distin!uish the "atin democratic ideal from the An!lo-4a#on democratic ideal. Independently' and as the result of his travels' 1. Eaul 7our!et has arrived' in his Buite recent book' L?utre-1er'L at conclusions almost identical )ith mine.

( .. !LL$S!ONS.
.rom the da)n of civilisation on)ards cro)ds have al)ays under!one the influence of illusions. It is to the creators of illusions that they have raised more temples' statues' and altars than to

-$58any other class of men. @hether it be the reli!ious illusions of the past or the philosophic and social illusions of the present' these formidable soverei!n po)ers are al)ays found at the head of all the civilisations that have successively flourished on our planet. It is in their name that )ere built the temples of Chaldea and E!ypt and the reli!ious edifices of the 1iddle A!es' and that a vast upheaval shook the )hole of Europe a century a!o' and there is not one of our political' artistic' or

social conceptions that is free from their po)erful impress. ?ccasionally' at the cost of terrible disturbances' man overthro)s them' but he seems condemned to al)ays set them up a!ain. @ithout them he )ould never have emer!ed from his primitive barbarian state' and )ithout them a!ain he )ould soon return to it. ;oubtless they are futile shado)s= but these children of our dreams have forced the nations to create )hatever the arts may boast of splendour or civilisation of !reatness. LIf one destroyed in museums and libraries' if one hurled do)n on the fla!stones before the churches all the )orks and all the monuments of art that reli!ions have inspired' )hat )ould remain of the !reat dreams of humanityF To !ive to men that portion of hope and illusion )ithout )hich they cannot live' such is the reason for the e#istence of !ods' heroes' and poets. ;urin! fifty

-$54years science appeared to undertake this task. 7ut science has been compromised in hearts hun!erin! after the ideal' because it does not dare to be lavish enou!h of promises' because it cannot lie.L -ote: J*:K J*:K -ote: ;aniel "esueur. The philosophers of the last century devoted themselves )ith fervour to the destruction of the reli!ious' political' and social illusions on )hich our forefathers had lived for a lon! tale of centuries. 7y destroyin! them they have dried up the sprin!s of hope and resi!nation. 7ehind the immolated chimeras they came face to face )ith the blind and silent forces of nature' )hich are ine#orable to )eakness and i!nore pity. -ot)ithstandin! all its pro!ress' philosophy has been unable as yet to offer the masses any ideal that can charm them= but' as they must have their illusions at all cost' they turn instinctively' as the insect seeks the li!ht' to the rhetoricians )ho accord them )hat they )ant. -ot truth' but error has al)ays been the chief factor in the evolution of nations' and the reason )hy socialism is so po)erful to-day is that it constitutes the last illusion that is still vital. In spite of all scientific demonstrations it continues on the increase. Its principal stren!th lies in the fact that it is championed by minds sufficiently i!norant of thin!s as they are in reality to venture boldly to promise

-$$5mankind happiness. The social illusion rei!ns to-day upon all the heaped-up ruins of the past' and to it belon!s the future. The masses have never thirsted after truth. They turn aside from evidence that is not to their taste' preferrin! to deify error' if error seduce them. @hoever can supply them )ith illusions is easily their master= )hoever attempts to destroy their illusions is al)ays their victim.

( /. E0PE"!ENCE.
E#perience constitutes almost the only effective process by )hich a truth may be solidly established in the mind of the masses' and illusions !ro)n too dan!erous be destroyed. To this end' ho)ever' it is necessary that the e#perience should take place on a very lar!e scale' and be very freBuently repeated. The e#periences under!one by one !eneration are useless' as a rule' for the !eneration that follo)s' )hich is the reason )hy historical facts' cited )ith a vie) to demonstration' serve no purpose. Their only utility is to prove to )hat an e#tent e#periences need to be repeated from a!e to a!e to e#ert any influence' or to be successful in merely shakin! an erroneous opinion )hen it is solidly implanted in the mind of the masses. ?ur century and that )hich preceded it )ill doubtless be alluded to by historians as an era

-$$$of curious e#periments' )hich in no other a!e have been tried in such number. The most !i!antic of these e#periments )as the .rench >evolution. To find out that a society is not to be refashioned from top to bottom in accordance )ith the dictates of pure reason' it )as necessary that several millions of men should be massacred and that Europe should be profoundly disturbed for a period of t)enty years. To prove to us e#perimentally that dictators cost the nations )ho acclaim them dear' t)o ruinous e#periences have been reBuired in fifty years' and in spite of their clearness they do not seem to have been sufficiently convincin!. The first' nevertheless' cost three millions of men and an invasion' the second involved a loss of territory' and carried in its )ake the necessity for permanent armies. A third )as almost attempted not lon! since' and )ill assuredly be attempted one day. To brin! an entire nation to admit that the hu!e 6erman army )as not' as )as currently alle!ed thirty years a!o' a sort of harmless national !uard' -ote: J*,K the terrible )ar

-$$%)hich cost us so dear had to take place. To brin! about the reco!nition that Erotection ruins the nations )ho adopt it' at least t)enty years of disastrous e#perience )ill be needful. These e#amples mi!ht be indefinitely multiplied. J*,K -ote: The opinion of the cro)d )as formed in this case by those rou!h-and-ready associations of dissimilar thin!s' the mechanism of )hich I have previously e#plained. The .rench national !uard of that period' bein! composed of peaceable shopkeepers' utterly lackin! in discipline and Buite incapable of bein! taken seriously' )hatever bore a similar name' evoked the same conception and )as considered in conseBuence as harmless. The error of the cro)d )as shared at the time by its leaders' as happens so often in connection )ith opinions dealin! )ith !eneralisations. In a speech made in the Chamber on the $*st of ;ecember' *3%9' and Buoted in a book by 1. E. ?llivier that has appeared recently' a statesman )ho often follo)ed the opinion of the cro)d but )as never in advance of it -- I allude to 1. Thiers -- declared that Erussia only possessed a national !uard

analo!ous to that of .rance' and in conseBuence )ithout importance' in addition to a re!ular army about eBual to the .rench re!ular army= assertions about as accurate as the predictions of the same statesman as to the insi!nificant future reserved for rail)ays.

( 1. "E'SON.
In enumeratin! the factors capable of makin! an impression on the minds of cro)ds all mention of reason mi!ht be dispensed )ith' )ere it not necessary to point out the ne!ative value of its influence. @e have already sho)n that cro)ds are not to be influenced by reasonin!' and can only comprehend rou!h-and-ready associations of ideas. The orators )ho kno) ho) to make an impression upon them al)ays appeal in conseBuence to their sentiments and never to their reason. The la)s

-$$.of lo!ic have no action on cro)ds. -ote: J*%K To brin! home conviction to cro)ds it is necessary first of all to thorou!hly comprehend the sentiments by )hich they are animated' to pretend to share these sentiments' then to endeavour to modify them by callin! up' by means of rudimentary associations' certain eminently su!!estive notions' to be capable' if need be' of !oin! back to the point of vie) from )hich a start )as made' and' above all' to

-$$/divine from instant to instant the sentiments to )hich oneDs discourse is !ivin! birth. This necessity of ceaselessly varyin! oneDs lan!ua!e in accordance )ith the effect produced at the moment of speakin! deprives from the outset a prepared and studied haran!ue of all efficaciousness. In such a speech the orator follo)s his o)n line of thou!ht' not that of his hearers' and from this fact alone his influence is annihilated. J*%K -ote: 1y first observations )ith re!ard to the art of impressin! cro)ds and touchin! the sli!ht assistance to be derived in this connection from the rules of lo!ic date back to the sei!e of Earis' to the day )hen I sa) conducted to the "ouvre' )here the 6overnment )as then sittin!' 1arshal --- ' )hom a furious cro)d asserted they had surprised in the act of takin! the plans of the fortifications to sell them to the Erussians. A member of the 6overnment /6. E -- -- 0' a very celebrated orator' came out to haran!ue the cro)d' )hich )as demandin! the immediate e#ecution of the prisoner. I had e#pected that the speaker )ould point out the absurdity of the accusation by remarkin! that the accused 1arshal )as positively one of those )ho had constructed the fortifications' the plan of )hich' moreover' )as on sale at every booksellers. To my immense stupefaction -- I )as very youn! then -- the speech )as on Buite different lines. LGustice shall be

done'L e#claimed the orator' advancin! to)ards the prisoner' Land pitiless Custice. "et the 6overnment of the -ational ;efence conclude your inBuiry. In the meantime )e )ill keep the prisoner in custody.L At once calmed by this apparent concession' the cro)d broke up' and a Buarter of an hour later the 1arshal )as able to return home. 5e )ould infallibly have been torn in pieces had the speaker treated the infuriated cro)d to the lo!ical ar!uments that my e#treme youth induced me to consider as very convincin!. "o!ical minds' accustomed to be convinced by a chain of some)hat close reasonin!' cannot avoid havin! recourse to this mode of persuasion )hen addressin! cro)ds' and the inability of their ar!uments al)ays surprises them. LThe usual mathematical conseBuences based on the syllo!ism -that is' on associations of identities -- are imperative . . .L )rites a lo!ician. LThis imperativeness )ould enforce the assent even of an inor!anic mass )ere it capable of follo)in! associations of identities.L This is doubtless true' but a cro)d is no more capable than an inor!anic mass of follo)in! such associations' nor even of understandin! them. If the attempt be made to convince by reasonin! primitive minds -- sava!es or children' for instance -- the sli!ht value possessed by this method of ar!uin! )ill be understood. It is not even necessary to descend so lo) as primitive bein!s to obtain an insi!ht into the utter po)erlessness of reasonin! )hen it has to fi!ht

-$$0a!ainst sentiment. "et us merely call to mind ho) tenacious' for centuries lon!' have been reli!ious superstitions in contradiction )ith the simplest lo!ic. .or nearly t)o thousand years the most luminous !eniuses have bo)ed before their la)s' and modern times have to be reached for their veracity to be merely contested. The 1iddle A!es and the >enaissance possessed many enli!htened men' but not a sin!le man )ho attained by reasonin! to an appreciation of the childish side of his superstitions' or )ho promul!ated even a sli!ht doubt as to the misdeeds of the devil or the necessity of burnin! sorcerers. 4hould it be re!retted that cro)ds are never !uided by reasonF @e )ould not venture to affirm it. @ithout a doubt human reason )ould not have availed to spur humanity alon! the path of civilisation )ith the ardour and hardihood its illusions have done. These illusions' the offsprin! of those unconscious forces by )hich )e are led' )ere doubtless necessary. Every race carries in its mental constitution the la)s of its destiny' and it is' perhaps' these la)s that it obeys )ith a resistless impulse' even in the case of those of its impulses )hich apparently are the most unreasoned. It seems at times as if nations )ere submitted to secret forces analo!ous to those )hich compel the acorn to transform itself into an oak or a comet to follo) its orbit.

-$$2@hat little insi!ht )e can !et into these forces must be sou!ht for in the !eneral course of the evolution of a people' and not in the isolated facts from )hich this evolution appears at times to proceed. @ere these facts alone to be taken into consideration' history )ould seem to be the result of a series of improbable chances. It )as improbable that a 6alilean carpenter should become for t)o thousand years an all-po)erful 6od in )hose name the most important civilisations )ere founded= improbable' too' that a fe) bands of Arabs' emer!in! from their deserts' should conBuer the !reater part of the old 6raco->oman )orld' and establish an empire !reater than that of

Ale#ander= improbable' a!ain' that in Europe' at an advanced period of its development' and )hen authority throu!hout it had been systematically hierarchised' an obscure lieutenant of artillery should have succeeded in rei!nin! over a multitude of peoples and kin!s. "et us leave reason' then' to philosophers' and not insist too stron!ly on its intervention in the !overnin! of men. It is not by reason' but most often in spite of it' that are created those sentiments that are the mainsprin!s of all civilisation -- sentiments such as honour' self-sacrifice' reli!ious faith' patriotism' and the love of !lory.

-$$3-

C&'PTE" !!!. THE #EADERS OF CROWDS A!D THE R MEA!S OF PERS&AS O!.
M *. The &e'-ers o) ,ro(-s! The instinctive need of all bein!s formin! a cro)d to obey a leader -The psycholo!y of the leaders of cro)ds -- They alone can endo) cro)ds )ith faith and or!anise them -- The leaders forcibly despotic -- Classification of the leaders -- The part played by the )ill. M 2. The *e'ns o) ',tion o) the &e'-ers! Affirmation' repetition' conta!ion -- The respective part of these different factors -- The )ay in )hich conta!ion may spread from the lo)er to the upper classes in a society -- A popular opinion soon becomes a !eneral opinion. M $. Presti1e! ;efinition of presti!e and classification of its different kinds -- AcBuired presti!e and personal presti!e -arious e#amples -- The )ay in )hich presti!e is destroyed. @E are no) acBuainted )ith the mental constitution of cro)ds' and )e also kno) )hat are the motives capable of makin! an impression on their mind. It remains to investi!ate ho) these motives may be set in action' and by )hom they may usefully be turned to practical account.

-$$8-

( 1. T&E LE'#E"S O, C"O-#S.

As soon as a certain number of livin! bein!s are !athered to!ether' )hether they be animals or men' they place themselves instinctively under the authority of a chief. In the case of human cro)ds the chief is often nothin! more than a rin!leader or a!itator' but as such he plays a considerable part. 5is )ill is the nucleus around )hich the opinions of the cro)d are !rouped and attain to identity. 5e constitutes the first element to)ards the or!anisation of hetero!eneous cro)ds' and paves the )ay for their or!anisation in sects= in the meantime he directs them. A cro)d is a servile flock that is incapable of ever doin! )ithout a master. The leader has most often started as one of the led. 5e has himself been hypnotised by the idea'

)hose apostle he has since become. It has taken possession of him to such a de!ree that everythin! outside it vanishes' and that every contrary opinion appears to him an error or a superstition. An e#ample in point is >obespierre' hypnotised by the philosophical ideas of >ousseau' and employin! the methods of the InBuisition to propa!ate them. The leaders )e speak of are more freBuently men of action than thinkers. They are not !ifted )ith keen foresi!ht' nor could they be' as this Buality !enerally conduces to doubt and inactivity.

-$$4They are especially recruited from the ranks of those morbidly nervous' e#citable' half-deran!ed persons )ho are borderin! on madness. 5o)ever absurd may be the idea they uphold or the !oal they pursue' their convictions are so stron! that all reasonin! is lost upon them. Contempt and persecution do not affect them' or only serve to e#cite them the more. They sacrifice their personal interest' their family -- everythin!. The very instinct of self-preservation is entirely obliterated in them' and so much so that often the only recompense they solicit is that of martyrdom. The intensity of their faith !ives !reat po)er of su!!estion to their )ords. The multitude is al)ays ready to listen to the stron!-)illed man' )ho kno)s ho) to impose himself upon it. 1en !athered in a cro)d lose all force of )ill' and turn instinctively to the person )ho possesses the Buality they lack. -ations have never lacked leaders' but all of the latter have by no means been animated by those stron! convictions proper to apostles. These leaders are often subtle rhetoricians' seekin! only their o)n personal interest' and endeavourin! to persuade by flatterin! base instincts. The influence they can assert in this manner may be very !reat' but it is al)ays ephemeral. The men of ardent convictions )ho have stirred the soul of cro)ds' the Eeter the 5ermits' the "uthers' the 4avonarolas'

-$%5the men of the .rench >evolution' have only e#ercised their fascination after havin! been themselves fascinated first of all by a creed. They are then able to call up in the souls of their fello)s that formidable force kno)n as faith' )hich renders a man the absolute slave of his dream. The arousin! of faith -- )hether reli!ious' political' or social' )hether faith in a )ork' in a person' or an idea -- has al)ays been the function of the !reat leaders of cro)ds' and it is on this account that their influence is al)ays very !reat. ?f all the forces at the disposal of humanity' faith has al)ays been one of the most tremendous' and the !ospel ri!htly attributes to it the po)er of movin! mountains. To endo) a man )ith faith is to multiply his stren!th tenfold. The !reat events of history have been brou!ht about by obscure believers' )ho have had little beyond their faith in their favour. It is not by the aid of the learned or of philosophers' and still less of sceptics' that have been built up the !reat reli!ions )hich have s)ayed the )orld' or the vast empires )hich have spread from one hemisphere to the other. In the cases Cust cited' ho)ever' )e are dealin! )ith !reat leaders' and they are so fe) in number that history can easily reckon them up. They form the summit of a continuous series' )hich e#tends from these po)erful masters of men do)n to the )orkman )ho' in the smoky atmosphere of

-$%$an inn' slo)ly fascinates his comrades by ceaselessly drummin! into their ears a fe) set phrases' )hose purport he scarcely comprehends' but the application of )hich' accordin! to him' must surely brin! about the realisation of all dreams and of every hope. In every social sphere' from the hi!hest to the lo)est' as soon as a man ceases to be isolated he speedily falls under the influence of a leader. The maCority of men' especially amon! the masses' do not possess clear and reasoned ideas on any subCect )hatever outside their o)n speciality. The leader serves them as !uide. It is Cust possible that he may be replaced' thou!h very inefficiently' by the periodical publications )hich manufacture opinions for their readers and supply them )ith ready-made phrases )hich dispense them of the trouble of reasonin!. The leaders of cro)ds )ield a very despotic authority' and this despotism indeed is a condition of their obtainin! a follo)in!. It has often been remarked ho) easily they e#tort obedience' althou!h )ithout any means of backin! up their authority' from the most turbulent section of the )orkin! classes. They fi# the hours of labour and the rate of )a!es' and they decree strikes' )hich are be!un and ended at the hour they ordain. At the present day these leaders and a!itators

-$%%tend more and more to usurp the place of the public authorities in proportion as the latter allo) themselves to be called in Buestion and shorn of their stren!th. The tyranny of these ne) masters has for result that the cro)ds obey them much more docilely than they have obeyed any !overnment. If in conseBuence of some accident or other the leaders should be removed from the scene the cro)d returns to its ori!inal state of a collectivity )ithout cohesion or force of resistance. ;urin! the last strike of the Earisian omnibus employPs the arrest of the t)o leaders )ho )ere directin! it )as at once sufficient to brin! it to an end. It is the need not of liberty but of servitude that is al)ays predominant in the soul of cro)ds. They are so bent on obedience that they instinctively submit to )hoever declares himself their master. These rin!leaders and a!itators may be divided into t)o clearly defined classes. The one includes the men )ho are ener!etic and possess' but only intermittently' much stren!th of )ill' the other the men' far rarer than the precedin!' )hose stren!th of )ill is endurin!. The first mentioned are violent' brave' and audacious. They are more especially useful to direct a violent enterprise suddenly decided on' to carry the masses )ith them in spite of dan!er' and to transform into heroes the men )ho but yesterday )ere recruits.

-$%.1en of this kind )ere -ey and 1urat under the .irst Empire' and such a man in our o)n time )as 6aribaldi' a talentless but ener!etic adventurer )ho succeeded )ith a handful of men in layin! hands on the ancient kin!dom of -aples' defended thou!h it )as by a disciplined army. 4till' thou!h the ener!y of leaders of this class is a force to be reckoned )ith' it is transitory' and

scarcely outlasts the e#citin! cause that has brou!ht it into play. @hen they have returned to their ordinary course of life the heroes animated by ener!y of this description often evince' as )as the case )ith those I have Cust cited' the most astonishin! )eakness of character. They seem incapable of reflection and of conductin! themselves under the simplest circumstances' althou!h they had been able to lead others. These men are leaders )ho cannot e#ercise their function e#cept on the condition that they be led themselves and continually stimulated' that they have al)ays as their beacon a man or an idea' that they follo) a line of conduct clearly traced. The second cate!ory of leaders' that of men of endurin! stren!th of )ill' have' in spite of a less brilliant aspect' a much more considerable influence. In this cate!ory are to be found the true founders of reli!ions and !reat undertakin!s: 4t. Eaul' 1ahomet' Christopher Columbus' and de "esseps' for e#ample. @hether they be intelli!ent

-$%/or narro)-minded is of no importance: the )orld belon!s to them. The persistent )ill-force they possess is an immensely rare and immensely po)erful faculty to )hich everythin! yields. @hat a stron! and continuous )ill is capable of is not al)ays properly appreciated. -othin! resists it= neither nature' !ods' nor man. The most recent e#ample of )hat can be effected by a stron! and continuous )ill is afforded us by the illustrious man )ho separated the Eastern and @estern )orlds' and accomplished a task that durin! three thousand years had been attempted in vain by the !reatest soverei!ns. 5e failed later in an identical enterprise' but then had intervened old a!e' to )hich everythin!' even the )ill' succumbs. @hen it is desired to sho) )hat may be done by mere stren!th of )ill' all that is necessary is to relate in detail the history of the difficulties that had to be surmounted in connection )ith the cuttin! of the 4ueI Canal. An ocular )itness' ;r. CaIalis' has summed up in a fe) strikin! lines the entire story of this !reat )ork' recounted by its immortal author. L.rom day to day' episode by episode' he told the stupendous story of the canal. 5e told of all he had had to vanBuish' of the impossible he had made possible' of all the opposition he encountered' of the coalition a!ainst him' and the disappointments' the reverses' the defeats )hich had been unavailin!

-$%0to discoura!e or depress him. 5e recalled ho) En!land had combatted him' attackin! him )ithout cessation' ho) E!ypt and .rance had hesitated' ho) the .rench Consul had been foremost in his opposition to the early sta!es of the )ork' and the nature of the opposition he had met )ith' the attempt to force his )orkmen to desert from thirst by refusin! them fresh )ater= ho) the 1inister of 1arine and the en!ineers' all responsible men of e#perienced and scientific trainin!' had naturally all been hostile' )ere all certain on scientific !rounds that disaster )as at hand' had calculated its comin!' foretellin! it for such a day and hour as an eclipse is foretold.L The book )hich relates the lives of all these !reat leaders )ould not contain many names' but these names have been bound up )ith the most important events in the history of civilisation.

( .. T&E )E'NS O, 'CT!ON O, T&E LE'#E"S: ',,!")'T!ON, "EPET!T!ON, CONT'G!ON.

@hen it is )anted to stir up a cro)d for a short space of time' to induce it to commit an act of any nature -- to pilla!e a palace' or to die in defence of a stron!hold or a barricade' for instance -- the cro)d must be acted upon by rapid su!!estion' amon! )hich e#ample is the most po)erful in its effect. To attain this end' ho)ever' it is necessary that the cro)d should have been previously prepared by

-$%2certain circumstances' and' above all' that he )ho )ishes to )ork upon it should possess the Buality to be studied farther on' to )hich I !ive the name of presti!e. @hen' ho)ever' it is proposed to imbue the mind of a cro)d )ith ideas and beliefs -- )ith modern social theories' for instance -- the leaders have recourse to different e#pedients. The principal of them are three in number and clearly defined -- affirmation' repetition' and conta!ion. Their action is some)hat slo)' but its effects' once produced' are very lastin!. Affirmation pure and simple' kept free of all reasonin! and all proof' is one of the surest means of makin! an idea enter the mind of cro)ds. The conciser an affirmation is' the more destitute of every appearance of proof and demonstration' the more )ei!ht it carries. The reli!ious books and the le!al codes of all a!es have al)ays resorted to simple affirmation. 4tatesmen called upon to defend a political cause' and commercial men pushin! the sale of their products by means of advertisin! are acBuainted )ith the value of affirmation. Affirmation' ho)ever' has no real influence unless it be constantly repeated' and so far as possible in the same terms. It )as -apoleon' I believe' )ho said that there is only one fi!ure in rhetoric of serious importance' namely' repetition. The thin!

-$%3affirmed comes by repetition to fi# itself in the mind in such a )ay that it is accepted in the end as a demonstrated truth. The influence of repetition on cro)ds is comprehensible )hen the po)er is seen )hich it e#ercises on the most enli!htened minds. This po)er is due to the fact that the repeated statement is embedded in the lon! run in those profound re!ions of our unconscious selves in )hich the motives of our actions are for!ed. At the end of a certain time )e have for!otten )ho is the author of the repeated assertion' and )e finish by believin! it. To this circumstance is due the astonishin! po)er of advertisements. @hen )e have read a hundred' a thousand' times that VDs chocolate is the best' )e ima!ine )e have heard it said in many Buarters' and )e end by acBuirin! the certitude that such is the fact. @hen )e have read a thousand times that 2Ds flour has cured the most illustrious persons of the most obstinate maladies' )e are tempted at last to try it )hen sufferin! from an illness of a similar kind. If )e al)ays read in the same papers that A is an arrant scamp and 7 a most honest man )e finish by bein! convinced that this is the truth' unless' indeed' )e are !iven to readin! another paper of the contrary opinion' in )hich the t)o Bualifications are reversed. Affirmation and repetition are alone po)erful enou!h to combat each other.

-$%8@hen an affirmation has been sufficiently repeated and there is unanimity in this repetition -- as has occurred in the case of certain famous financial undertakin!s rich enou!h to purchase every assistance -- )hat is called a current of opinion is formed and the po)erful mechanism of conta!ion intervenes. Ideas' sentiments' emotions' and beliefs possess in cro)ds a conta!ious po)er as intense as that of microbes. This phenomenon is very natural' since it is observed even in animals )hen they are to!ether in number. 4hould a horse in a stable take to bitin! his man!er the other horses in the stable )ill imitate him. A panic that has seiIed on a fe) sheep )ill soon e#tend to the )hole flock. In the case of men collected in a cro)d all emotions are very rapidly conta!ious' )hich e#plains the suddenness of panics. 7rain disorders' like madness' are themselves conta!ious. The freBuency of madness amon! doctors )ho are specialists for the mad is notorious. Indeed' forms of madness have recently been cited -- a!oraphobia' for instance -- )hich are communicable from men to animals. .or individuals to succumb to conta!ion their simultaneous presence on the same spot is not indispensable. The action of conta!ion may be felt from a distance under the influence of events )hich !ive all minds an individual trend and the characteristics peculiar to cro)ds. This is especially

-$%4the case )hen menDs minds have been prepared to under!o the influence in Buestion by those remote factors of )hich I have made a study above. An e#ample in point is the revolutionary movement of *3:3' )hich' after breakin! out in Earis' spread rapidly over a !reat part of Europe and shook a number of thrones. Imitation' to )hich so much influence is attributed in social phenomena' is in reality a mere effect of conta!ion. 5avin! sho)n its influence else)here' I shall confine myself to reproducin! )hat I said on the subCect fifteen years a!o. 1y remarks have since been developed by other )riters in recent publications. L1an' like animals' has a natural tendency to imitation. Imitation is a necessity for him' provided al)ays that the imitation is Buite easy. It is this necessity that makes the influence of )hat is called fashion so po)erful. @hether in the matter of opinions' ideas' literary manifestations' or merely of dress' ho) many persons are bold enou!h to run counter to the fashionF It is by e#amples not by ar!uments that cro)ds are !uided. At every period there e#ists a small number of individualities )hich react upon the remainder and are imitated by the unconscious mass. It is needful ho)ever' that these individualities should not be in too pronounced disa!reement )ith received ideas. @ere they so' to imitate them )ould be too difficult

-$.5and their influence )ould be nil. .or this very reason men )ho are too superior to their epoch are !enerally )ithout influence upon it. The line of separation is too stron!ly marked. .or the same reason too Europeans' in spite of all the advanta!es of their civilisation' have so insi!nificant an

influence on Eastern people= they differ from them to too !reat an e#tent. LThe dual action of the past and of reciprocal imitation renders' in the lon! run' all the men of the same country and the same period so alike that even in the case of individuals )ho )ould seem destined to escape this double influence' such as philosophers' learned men' and men of letters' thou!ht and style have a family air )hich enables the a!e to )hich they belon! to be immediately reco!nised. It is not necessary to talk for lon! )ith an individual to attain to a thorou!h kno)led!e of )hat he reads' of his habitual occupations' and of the surroundin!s amid )hich he lives.L -ote: J*9K J*9K -ote: 6ustave le 7on' L"D5omme et les 4ociPtPs'L vol. ii. p. **%. *33*. Conta!ion is so po)erful that it forces upon individuals not only certain opinions' but certain modes of feelin! as )ell. Conta!ion is the cause of the contempt in )hich' at a !iven period' certain )orks are held -- the e#ample of LTannhaUserL may be cited -- )hich' a fe) years later' for the same

-$.$reason are admired by those )ho )ere foremost in criticisin! them. The opinions and beliefs of cro)ds are specially propa!ated by conta!ion' but never by reasonin!. The conceptions at present rife amon! the )orkin! classes have been acBuired at the public-house as the result of affirmation' repetition' and conta!ion' and indeed the mode of creation of the beliefs of cro)ds of every a!e has scarcely been different. >enan Custly institutes a comparison bet)een the first founders of Christianity and Lthe socialist )orkin! men spreadin! their ideas from publichouse to public-houseL= )hile oltaire had already observed in connection )ith the Christian reli!ion that Lfor more than a hundred years it )as only embraced by the vilest riff-raff.L It )ill be noted that in cases analo!ous to those I have Cust cited' conta!ion' after havin! been at )ork amon! the popular classes' has spread to the hi!her classes of society. This is )hat )e see happenin! at the present day )ith re!ard to the socialist doctrines )hich are be!innin! to be held by those )ho )ill yet be their first victims. Conta!ion is so po)erful a force that even the sentiment of personal interest disappears under its action. This is the e#planation of the fact that every opinion adopted by the populace al)ays ends in implantin! itself )ith !reat vi!our in the hi!hest

-$.%social strata' ho)ever obvious be the absurdity of the triumphant opinion. This reaction of the lo)er upon the hi!her social classes is the more curious' o)in! to the circumstance that the beliefs of the cro)d al)ays have their ori!in to a !reater or less e#tent in some hi!her idea' )hich has often remained )ithout influence in the sphere in )hich it )as evolved. "eaders and a!itators' subCu!ated by this hi!her idea' take hold of it' distort it and create a sect )hich distorts it afresh' and then propa!ates it amon!st the masses' )ho carry the process of deformation still further. 7ecome a popular truth the idea returns' as it )ere' to its source and e#erts an influence on the upper classes of

a nation. In the lon! run it is intelli!ence that shapes the destiny of the )orld' but very indirectly. The philosophers )ho evolve ideas have lon! since returned to dust' )hen' as the result of the process I have Cust described' the fruit of their reflection ends by triumphin!.

( /. P"EST!GE.
6reat po)er is !iven to ideas propa!ated by affirmation' repetition' and conta!ion by the circumstance that they acBuire in time that mysterious force kno)n as presti!e. @hatever has been a rulin! po)er in the )orld' )hether it be ideas or men' has in the main enforced its authority by means of that irresistible

-$..force e#pressed by the )ord Lpresti!e.L The term is one )hose meanin! is !rasped by everybody' but the )ord is employed in )ays too different for it to be easy to define it. Eresti!e may involve such sentiments as admiration or fear. ?ccasionally even these sentiments are its basis' but it can perfectly )ell e#ist )ithout them. The !reatest measure of presti!e is possessed by the dead' by bein!s' that is' of )hom )e do not stand in fear -- by Ale#ander' CSsar' 1ahomet' and 7uddha' for e#ample. ?n the other hand' there are fictive bein!s )hom )e do not admire -- the monstrous divinities of the subterranean temples of India' for instance -- but )ho strike us nevertheless as endo)ed )ith a !reat presti!e. Eresti!e in reality is a sort of domination e#ercised on our mind by an individual' a )ork' or an idea. This domination entirely paralyses our critical faculty' and fills our soul )ith astonishment and respect. The sentiment provoked is ine#plicable' like all sentiments' but it )ould appear to be of the same kind as the fascination to )hich a ma!netised person is subCected. Eresti!e is the mainsprin! of all authority. -either !ods' kin!s' nor )omen have ever rei!ned )ithout it. The various kinds of presti!e may be !rouped under t)o principal heads: acBuired presti!e and personal presti!e. AcBuired presti!e is that resultin!

-$./from name' fortune' and reputation. It may be independent of personal presti!e. Eersonal presti!e' on the contrary' is somethin! essentially peculiar to the individual= it may coe#ist )ith reputation' !lory' and fortune' or be stren!thened by them' but it is perfectly capable of e#istin! in their absence. AcBuired or artificial presti!e is much the most common. The mere fact that an individual occupies a certain position' possesses a certain fortune' or bears certain titles' endo)s him )ith presti!e' ho)ever sli!ht his o)n personal )orth. A soldier in uniform' a Cud!e in his robes' al)ays enCoys presti!e. Eascal has very properly noted the necessity for Cud!es of robes and )i!s. @ithout them they )ould be stripped of half their authority. The most unbendin! socialist is al)ays some)hat impressed by the si!ht of a prince or a marBuis= and the assumption of such titles makes the robbin! of tradesmen an easy matter. -ote: J*3K

J*3K -ote: The influence of titles' decorations' and uniforms on cro)ds is to be traced in all countries' even in those in )hich the sentiment of personal independence is the most stron!ly developed. I Buote in this connection a curious passa!e from a recent book of travel' on the presti!e enCoyed in En!land by !reat persons. LI had observed' under various circumstances' the peculiar sort of into#ication produced in the most reasonable En!lishmen by the contact or si!ht of an En!lish peer. LErovided his fortune enables him to keep up his rank' he is sure of their affection in advance' and brou!ht into contact )ith him they are so enchanted as to put up )ith anythin! at his hands. They may be seen to redden )ith pleasure at his approach' and if he speaks to them their suppressed Coy increases their redness' and causes their eyes to !leam )ith unusual brilliance. >espect for nobility is in their blood' so to speak' as )ith 4paniards the love of dancin!' )ith 6ermans that of music' and )ith .renchmen the likin! for revolutions. Their passion for horses and 4hakespeare is less violent' the satisfaction and pride they derive from these sources a less inte!ral part of their bein!. There is a considerable sale for books dealin! )ith the peera!e' and !o )here one )ill they are to be found' like the 7ible' in all hands.L

-$.0The presti!e of )hich I have Cust spoken is e#ercised by persons= side by side )ith it may be placed that e#ercised by opinions' literary and artistic )orks' Hc. Eresti!e of the latter kind is most often merely the result of accumulated repetitions. 5istory' literary and artistic history especially' bein! nothin! more than the repetition of identical Cud!ments' )hich nobody endeavours to verify' every one ends by repeatin! )hat he learnt at school' till there come to be names and thin!s )hich nobody )ould venture to meddle )ith. .or a modern reader the perusal of 5omer results incontestably in immense boredom= but )ho )ould venture to say soF The Earthenon' in its present state' is a )retched ruin' utterly destitute of interest' but it is endo)ed )ith such presti!e that it does not appear to us as it really is' but )ith all its accompaniment of historic memories. The special characteristic of presti!e is to prevent us seein!

-$.2thin!s as they are and to entirely paralyse our Cud!ment. Cro)ds al)ays' and individuals as a rule' stand in need of ready-made opinions on all subCects. The popularity of these opinions is independent of the measure of truth or error they contain' and is solely re!ulated by their presti!e. I no) come to personal presti!e. Its nature is very different from that of artificial or acBuired presti!e' )ith )hich I have Cust been concerned. It is a faculty independent of all titles' of all authority' and possessed by a small number of persons )hom it enables to e#ercise a veritably ma!netic fascination on those around them' althou!h they are socially their eBuals' and lack all ordinary means of domination. They force the acceptance of their ideas and sentiments on those about them' and they are obeyed as is the tamer of )ild beasts by the animal that could easily

devour him. The !reat leaders of cro)ds' such as 7uddha' Gesus' 1ahomet' Goan of Arc' and -apoleon' have possessed this form of presti!e in a hi!h de!ree' and to this endo)ment is more particularly due the position they attained. 6ods' heroes' and do!mas )in their )ay in the )orld of their o)n in)ard stren!th. They are not to be discussed: they disappear' indeed' as soon as discussed. The !reat persona!es I have Cust cited )ere in

-$.3possession of their po)er of fascination lon! before they became illustrious' and )ould never have become so )ithout it. It is evident' for instance' that -apoleon at the Ienith of his !lory enCoyed an immense presti!e by the mere fact of his po)er' but he )as already endo)ed in part )ith this presti!e )hen he )as )ithout po)er and completely unkno)n. @hen' an obscure !eneral' he )as sent' thanks to influential protection' to command the army of Italy' he found himself amon! rou!h !enerals )ho )ere of a mind to !ive a hostile reception to the youn! intruder dispatched them by the ;irectory. .rom the very be!innin!' from the first intervie)' )ithout the aid of speeches' !estures' or threats' at the first si!ht of the man )ho )as to become !reat they )ere vanBuished. Taine furnishes a curious account of this intervie) taken from contemporary memoirs. LThe !enerals of division' amon!st others Au!ereau' a sort of s)ashbuckler' uncouth and heroic' proud of his hei!ht and his bravery' arrive at the staff Buarters very badly disposed to)ards the little upstart dispatched them from Earis. ?n the stren!th of the description of him that has been !iven them' Au!ereau is inclined to be insolent and insubordinate= a favourite of 7arras' a !eneral )ho o)es his rank to the events of endPmiaire )ho has )on his !rade by street-fi!htin!' )ho is

-$.8looked upon as bearish' because he is al)ays thinkin! in solitude' of poor aspect' and )ith the reputation of a mathematician and dreamer. They are introduced' and 7onaparte keeps them )aitin!. At last he appears' !irt )ith his s)ord= he puts on his hat' e#plains the measures he has taken' !ives his orders' and dismisses them. Au!ereau has remained silent= it is only )hen he is outside that he re!ains his self-possession and is able to deliver himself of his customary oaths. 5e admits )ith 1assPna that this little devil of a !eneral has inspired him )ith a)e= he cannot understand the ascendency by )hich from the very first he has felt himself over)helmed.L 7ecome a !reat man' his presti!e increased in proportion as his !lory !re)' and came to be at least eBual to that of a divinity in the eyes of those devoted to him. 6eneral andamme' a rou!h' typical soldier of the >evolution' even more brutal and ener!etic than Au!ereau' said of him to 1arshal dDArnano in *3*,' as on one occasion they mounted to!ether the stairs of the Tuileries: LThat devil of a man e#ercises a fascination on me that I cannot e#plain even to myself' and in such a de!ree that' thou!h I fear neither 6od nor devil' )hen I am in his presence I am ready to tremble like a child' and he could make me !o throu!h the eye of a needle to thro) myself into the fire.L

-$.4-

-apoleon e#ercised a like fascination on all )ho came into contact )ith him. -ote: J*+K J*+K -ote: Thorou!hly conscious of his presti!e' -apoleon )as a)are that he added to it by treatin! rather )orse than stable lads the !reat persona!es around him' and amon! )hom fi!ured some of those celebrated men of the Convention of )hom Europe had stood in dread. The !ossip of the period abounds in illustrations of this fact. ?ne day' in the midst of a Council of 4tate' -apoleon !rossly insults 7eu!not' treatin! him as one mi!ht an unmannerly valet. The effect produced' he !oes up to him and says' L@ell' stupid' have you found your head a!ainFL @hereupon 7eu!not' tall as a drummaCor' bo)s very lo)' and the little man raisin! his hand' takes the tall one by the ear' Lan into#icatin! si!n of favour'L )rites 7eu!not' Lthe familiar !esture of the master )ho )a#es !racious.L 4uch e#amples !ive a clear idea of the de!ree of base platitude that presti!e can provoke. They enable us to understand the immense contempt of the !reat despot for the men surroundin! him -- men )hom he merely looked upon as Lfood for po)der.L ;avoust used to say' talkin! of 1aretDs devotion and of his o)n: L5ad the Emperor said to us' NIt is important in the interest of my policy that Earis should be destroyed )ithout a sin!le person leavin! it or escapin!'D 1aret I am sure )ould have kept the secret' but he could not have abstained from compromisin! himself by seein! that his family !ot clear of the city. ?n the other hand' I' for fear of lettin! the truth leak out' )ould have let my )ife and children stay.L It is necessary to bear in mind the astoundin! po)er e#erted by fascination of this order to

-$/5understand that marvellous return from the Isle of Elba' that li!htnin!-like conBuest of .rance by an isolated man confronted by all the or!anised forces of a !reat country that mi!ht have been supposed )eary of his tyranny. 5e had merely to cast a look at the !enerals sent to lay hands on him' and )ho had s)orn to accomplish their mission. All of them submitted )ithout discussion. L-apoleon'L )rites the En!lish 6eneral @olseley' Llands in .rance almost alone' a fu!itive from the small island of Elba )hich )as his kin!dom' and succeeded in a fe) )eeks' )ithout bloodshed' in upsettin! all or!anised authority in .rance under its le!itimate kin!= is it possible for the personal ascendency of a man to affirm itself in a more astonishin! mannerF 7ut from the be!innin! to the end of this campai!n' )hich )as his last' ho) remarkable too is the ascendency he e#ercised over the Allies' obli!in! them to follo) his initiative' and ho) near he came to crushin! themOL 5is presti!e outlived him and continued to !ro). It is his presti!e that made an emperor of his obscure nephe). 5o) po)erful is his memory still is seen in the resurrection of his le!end in pro!ress at the present day. Ill-treat men as you )ill' massacre them by millions' be the cause of invasion upon invasion' all is permitted you if you possess

-$/$-

presti!e in a sufficient de!ree and the talent necessary to uphold it. I have invoked' no doubt' in this case a Buite e#ceptional e#ample of presti!e' but one it )as useful to cite to make clear the !enesis of !reat reli!ions' !reat doctrines' and !reat empires. @ere it not for the po)er e#erted on the cro)d by presti!e' such !ro)ths )ould be incomprehensible. Eresti!e' ho)ever' is not based solely on personal ascendency' military !lory' and reli!ious terror= it may have a more modest ori!in and still be considerable. ?ur century furnishes several e#amples. ?ne of the most strikin! ones that posterity )ill recall from a!e to a!e )ill be supplied by the history of the illustrious man )ho modified the face of the !lobe and the commercial relations of the nations by separatin! t)o continents. 5e succeeded in his enterprise o)in! to his immense stren!th of )ill' but also o)in! to the fascination he e#ercised on those surroundin! him. To overcome the unanimous opposition he met )ith' he had only to sho) himself. 5e )ould speak briefly' and in face of the charm he e#erted his opponents became his friends. The En!lish in particular strenuously opposed his scheme= he had only to put in an appearance in En!land to rally all suffra!es. In later years' )hen he passed 4outhampton' the bells )ere run! on his passa!e= and at the present day a movement

-$/%is on foot in En!land to raise a statue in his honour. L5avin! vanBuished )hatever there is to vanBuish' men and thin!s' marshes' rocks' and sandy )astes'L he had ceased to believe in obstacles' and )ished to be!in 4ueI over a!ain at Eanama. 5e be!an a!ain )ith the same methods as of old= but he had a!ed' and' besides' the faith that moves mountains does not move them if they are too lofty. The mountains resisted' and the catastrophe that ensued destroyed the !litterin! aureole of !lory that enveloped the hero. 5is life teaches ho) presti!e can !ro) and ho) it can vanish. After rivallin! in !reatness the most famous heroes of history' he )as lo)ered by the ma!istrates of his country to the ranks of the vilest criminals. @hen he died his coffin' unattended' traversed an indifferent cro)d. .orei!n soverei!ns are alone in renderin! homa!e to his memory as to that of one of the !reatest men that history has kno)n. -ote: J2&K J2&K -ote: An Austrian paper' the Neue Freie Presse' of ienna' has indul!ed on the subCect of the destiny of de "esseps in reflections marked by a most Cudicious psycholo!ical insi!ht. I therefore reproduce them here: -LAfter the condemnation of .erdinand de "esseps one has no lon!er the ri!ht to be astonished at the sad end of Christopher Columbus. If .erdinand de "esseps )ere a ro!ue every noble illusion is a crime. AntiBuity )ould have cro)ned the memory of de "esseps )ith an aureole of !lory' and )ould have made him drink from the bo)l of nectar in the midst of ?lympus' for he has altered the face of the earth and accomplished )orks )hich make the creation more perfect. The Eresident of the Court of Appeal has immortalised himself by condemnin! .erdinand de "esseps' for the nations )ill al)ays demand the name of the man )ho )as not afraid to debase his century by investin! )ith the convictDs cap an a!ed man' )hose life redounded to the !lory of his contemporaries. L"et there be no more talk in the future of infle#ible Custice' there )here rei!ns a bureaucratic hatred of audacious feats. The nations have need of audacious men )ho believe in themselves and overcome every obstacle )ithout concern for their personal safety. 6enius cannot he prudent= by

dint of prudence it could never enlar!e the sphere of human activity L. . . .erdinand de "esseps has kno)n the into#ication of triumph and the bitterness of disappointment -- 4ueI and Eanama. At this point the heart revolts at the morality of success. @hen de "esseps had succeeded in Coinin! t)o seas princes and nations rendered him their homa!e= today' )hen he meets )ith failure amon! the rocks of the Cordilleras' he is nothin! but a vul!ar ro!ue. . . . In this result )e see a )ar bet)een the classes of society' the discontent of bureaucrats and employPs' )ho take their reven!e )ith the aid of the criminal code on those )ho )ould raise themselves above their fello)s. . . . 1odern le!islators are filled )ith embarrassment )hen confronted by the lofty ideas due to human !enius= the public comprehends such ideas still less' and it is easy for an advocate-!eneral to prove that 4tanley is a murderer and de "esseps a deceiver.L

-$/.4till' the various e#amples that have Cust been cited represent e#treme cases. To fi# in detail the psycholo!y of presti!e' it )ould be necessary to place them at the e#tremity of a series' )hich )ould ran!e from the founders of reli!ions and empires to the private individual )ho endeavours

-$//to daIIle his nei!hbours by a ne) coat or a decoration. 7et)een the e#treme limits of this series )ould find a place all the forms of presti!e resultin! from the different elements composin! a civilisation -- sciences' arts' literature' Hc. -- and it )ould be seen that presti!e constitutes the fundamental element of persuasion. Consciously or not' the bein!' the idea' or the thin! possessin! presti!e is immediately imitated in conseBuence of conta!ion' and forces an entire !eneration to adopt certain modes of feelin! and of !ivin! e#pression to its thou!ht. This imitation' moreover' is' as a rule' unconscious' )hich accounts for the fact that it is perfect. The modern painters )ho copy the pale colourin! and the stiff attitudes of some of the Erimitives are scarcely alive to the source of their inspiration. They believe in their o)n sincerity' )hereas' if an eminent master had not revived this form of art' people )ould have continued blind to all but its naTve and inferior sides. Those artists )ho' after the manner of another illustrious master' inundate their canvasses )ith violet shades do not see in nature more violet than )as detected there fifty years a!o= but they are influenced' Lsu!!estioned'L by the personal and special impressions of a painter )ho' in spite of this eccentricity' )as successful in acBuirin! !reat presti!e. 4imilar e#amples mi!ht be brou!ht for)ard in connection )ith all the elements of civilisation.

-$/0It is seen from )hat precedes that a number of factors may be concerned in the !enesis of presti!e= amon! them success )as al)ays one of the most important. Every successful man' every idea that forces itself into reco!nition' ceases' ipso )',to' to be called in Buestion. The proof that success is one of the principal steppin!-stones to presti!e is that the disappearance of the one is

almost al)ays follo)ed by the disappearance of the other. The hero )hom the cro)d acclaimed yesterday is insulted to-day should he have been overtaken by failure. The re-action' indeed' )ill be the stron!er in proportion as the presti!e has been !reat. The cro)d in this case considers the fallen hero as an eBual' and takes its reven!e for havin! bo)ed to a superiority )hose e#istence it no lon!er admits. @hile >obespierre )as causin! the e#ecution of his collea!ues and of a !reat number of his contemporaries' he possessed an immense presti!e. @hen the transposition of a fe) votes deprived him of po)er' he immediately lost his presti!e' and the cro)d follo)ed him to the !uillotine )ith the self-same imprecations )ith )hich shortly before it had pursued his victims. 7elievers al)ays break the statues of their former !ods )ith every symptom of fury. Eresti!e lost by )ant of success disappears in a brief space of time. It can also be )orn a)ay' but more slo)ly by bein! subCected to discussion.

-$/2This latter po)er' ho)ever' is e#ceedin!ly sure. .rom the moment presti!e is called in Buestion it ceases to be presti!e. The !ods and men )ho have kept their presti!e for lon! have never tolerated discussion. .or the cro)d to admire' it must be kept at a distance.

-$/3-

C&'PTE" !*. # M TAT O!S OF THE )AR A( # T% OF THE (E# EFS A!D OP ! O!S OF CROWDS.
*. Fixe- "e&ie)s! The invariability of certain !eneral beliefs -- They shape the course of a civilisation -- The difficulty of uprootin! them -- In )hat respect intolerance is a virtue in a people -- The philosophic absurdity of a belief cannot interfere )ith its spreadin!. M 2. The Ch'n1e'b&e Opinions o) Cro(-s! The e#treme mobility of opinions )hich do not arise from !eneral beliefs -Apparent variations of ideas and beliefs in less than a century -- The real limits of these variations -The matters effected by the variation -- The disappearance at present in pro!ress of !eneral beliefs' and the e#treme diffusion of the ne)spaper press' have for result that opinions are no)adays more and more chan!eable -- @hy the opinions of cro)ds tend on the maCority of subCects to)ards indifference -- 6overnments no) po)erless to direct opinion as they formerly did -- ?pinions prevented to-day from bein! tyrannical on account of their e#ceedin! diver!ency.

( 1. ,!0E# BEL!E,S.
A C"?4E parallel e#ists bet)een the anatomical and psycholo!ical characteristics of livin! bein!s.

-$/8In these anatomical characteristics certain invariable' or sli!htly variable' elements are met )ith' to chan!e )hich the lapse is necessary of !eolo!ical a!es. 4ide by side )ith these fi#ed' indestructible features are to be found others e#tremely chan!eable' )hich the art of the breeder or horticulturist may easily modify' and at times to such an e#tent as to conceal the fundamental characteristics from an observer at all inattentive. The same phenomenon is observed in the case of moral characteristics. Alon!side the unalterable psycholo!ical elements of a race' mobile and chan!eable elements are to be encountered. .or this reason' in studyin! the beliefs and opinions of a people' the presence is al)ays detected of a fi#ed !round)ork on )hich are en!rafted opinions as chan!in! as the surface sand on a rock. The opinions and beliefs of cro)ds may be divided' then' into t)o very distinct classes. ?n the one hand )e have !reat permanent beliefs' )hich endure for several centuries' and on )hich an entire civilisation may rest. 4uch' for instance' in the past )ere feudalism' Christianity' and Erotestantism= and such' in our o)n time' are the nationalist principle and contemporary democratic and social ideas. In the second place' there are the transitory' chan!in! opinions' the outcome' as a rule' of !eneral conceptions' of )hich every a!e sees the birth and disappearance= e#amples in

-$/4point are the theories )hich mould literature and the arts -- those' for instance' )hich produced romanticism' naturalism' mysticism' Hc. ?pinions of this order are as superficial' as a rule' as fashion' and as chan!eable. They may be compared to the ripples )hich ceaselessly arise and vanish on the surface of a deep lake. The !reat !eneralised beliefs are very restricted in number. Their rise and fall form the culminatin! points of the history of every historic race. They constitute the real frame)ork of civilisation. It is easy to imbue the mind of cro)ds )ith a passin! opinion' but very difficult to implant therein a lastin! belief. 5o)ever' a belief of this latter description once established' it is eBually difficult to uproot it. It is usually only to be chan!ed at the cost of violent revolutions. Even revolutions can only avail )hen the belief has almost entirely lost its s)ay over menDs minds. In that case revolutions serve to finally s)eep a)ay )hat had already been almost cast aside' thou!h the force of habit prevented its complete abandonment. The be!innin! of a revolution is in reality the end of a belief. The precise moment at )hich a !reat belief is doomed is easily reco!nisable= it is the moment )hen its value be!ins to be called in Buestion. Every !eneral belief bein! little else than a fiction'

-$05it can only survive on the condition that it be not subCected to e#amination. 7ut even )hen a belief is severely shaken' the institutions to )hich it has !iven rise retain their stren!th and disappear but slo)ly. .inally' )hen the belief has completely lost its force' all that

rested upon it is soon involved in ruin. As yet a nation has never been able to chan!e its beliefs )ithout bein! condemned at the same time to transform all the elements of its civilisation. The nation continues this process of transformation until it has ali!hted on and accepted a ne) !eneral belief: until this Cuncture it is perforce in a state of anarchy. 6eneral beliefs are the indispensable pillars of civilisations= they determine the trend of ideas. They alone are capable of inspirin! faith and creatin! a sense of duty. -ations have al)ays been conscious of the utility of acBuirin! !eneral beliefs' and have instinctively understood that their disappearance )ould be the si!nal for their o)n decline. In the case of the >omans' the fanatical cult of >ome )as the belief that made them masters of the )orld' and )hen the belief had died out >ome )as doomed to die. As for the barbarians )ho destroyed the >oman civilisation' it )as only )hen they had acBuired certain commonly accepted beliefs that they attained a measure of cohesion and emer!ed from anarchy.

-$0$Elainly it is not for nothin! that nations have al)ays displayed intolerance in the defence of their opinions. This intolerance' open as it is to criticism from the philosophic standpoint' represents in the life of a people the most necessary of virtues. It )as to found or uphold !eneral beliefs that so many victims )ere sent to the stake in the 1iddle A!es and that so many inventors and innovators have died in despair even if they have escaped martyrdom. It is in defence' too' of such beliefs that the )orld has been so often the scene of the direst disorder' and that so many millions of men have died on the battlefield' and )ill yet die there. There are !reat difficulties in the )ay of establishin! a !eneral belief' but )hen it is definitely implanted its po)er is for a lon! time to come invincible' and ho)ever false it be philosophically it imposes itself upon the most luminous intelli!ence. 5ave not the European peoples re!arded as incontrovertible for more than fifteen centuries reli!ious le!ends )hich' closely e#amined' are as barbarous -ote: J2*K as those of 1olochF The fri!htful absurdity of the le!end of a 6od )ho reven!es himself for the disobedience of one of his

-$0%creatures by inflictin! horrible tortures on his son remained unperceived durin! many centuries. 4uch potent !eniuses as a 6alileo' a -e)ton' and a "eibnitI never supposed for an instant that the truth of such do!mas could be called in Buestion. -othin! can be more typical than this fact of the hypnotisin! effect of !eneral beliefs' but at the same time nothin! can mark more decisively the humiliatin! limitations of our intelli!ence. J2*K -ote: 7arbarous' philosophically speakin!' I mean. In practice they have created an entirely ne) civilisation' and for fifteen centuries have !iven mankind a !limpse of those enchanted realms of !enerous dreams and of hope )hich he )ill kno) no more. As soon as a ne) do!ma is implanted in the mind of cro)ds it becomes the source of inspiration

)hence are evolved its institutions' arts' and mode of e#istence. The s)ay it e#erts over menDs minds under these circumstances is absolute. 1en of action have no thou!ht beyond realisin! the accepted belief' le!islators beyond applyin! it' )hile philosophers' artists' and men of letters are solely preoccupied )ith its e#pression under various shapes. .rom the fundamental belief transient accessory ideas may arise' but they al)ays bear the impress of the belief from )hich they have sprun!. The E!yptian civilisation' the European civilisation of the 1iddle A!es' the 1ussulman civilisation of the Arabs are all the outcome of a small number of reli!ious beliefs )hich have left their mark on the least important elements of these civilisations and allo) of their immediate reco!nition. Thus it is that' thanks to !eneral beliefs' the men

-$0.of every a!e are enveloped in a net)ork of traditions' opinions' and customs )hich render them all alike' and from )hose yoke they cannot e#tricate themselves. 1en are !uided in their conduct above all by their beliefs and by the customs that are the conseBuence of those beliefs. These beliefs and customs re!ulate the smallest acts of our e#istence' and the most independent spirit cannot escape their influence. The tyranny e#ercised unconsciously on menDs minds is the only real tyranny' because it cannot be fou!ht a!ainst. Tiberius' 6hen!is Khan' and -apoleon )ere assuredly redoubtable tyrants' but from the depth of their !raves 1oses' 7uddha' Gesus' and 1ahomet have e#erted on the human soul a far profounder despotism. A conspiracy may overthro) a tyrant' but )hat can it avail a!ainst a firmly established beliefF In its violent stru!!le )ith >oman Catholicism it is the .rench >evolution that has been vanBuished' and this in spite of the fact that the sympathy of the cro)d )as apparently on its side' and in spite of recourse to destructive measures as pitiless as those of the InBuisition. The only real tyrants that humanity has kno)n have al)ays been the memories of its dead or the illusions it has for!ed itself. The philosophic absurdity that often marks !eneral beliefs has never been an obstacle to their triumph. Indeed the triumph of such beliefs

-$0/)ould seem impossible unless on the condition that they offer some mysterious absurdity. In conseBuence' the evident )eakness of the socialist beliefs of to-day )ill not prevent them triumphin! amon! the masses. Their real inferiority to all reli!ious beliefs is solely the result of this consideration' that the ideal of happiness offered by the latter bein! realisable only in a future life' it )as beyond the po)er of anybody to contest it. The socialist ideal of happiness bein! intended to be realised on earth' the vanity of its promises )ill at once appear as soon as the first efforts to)ards their realisation are made' and simultaneously the ne) belief )ill entirely lose its presti!e. Its stren!th' in conseBuence' )ill only increase until the day )hen' havin! triumphed' its practical realisation shall commence. .or this reason' )hile the ne) reli!ion e#erts to be!in )ith' like all those that have preceded it' a destructive influence' it )ill be unable' in the future' to play a creative part.

( .. T&E C&'NGE'BLE OP!N!ONS O, C"O-#S.

Above the substratum of fi#ed beliefs' )hose po)er )e have Cust demonstrated' is found an overlyin! !ro)th of opinions' ideas' and thou!hts )hich are incessantly sprin!in! up and dyin! out. 4ome of them e#ist but for a day' and the more important scarcely outlive a !eneration. @e have

-$00already noted that the chan!es )hich supervene in opinions of this order are at times far more superficial than real' and that they are al)ays affected by racial considerations. @hen e#aminin!' for instance' the political institutions of .rance )e sho)ed that parties to all appearance utterly distinct -- royalists' radicals' imperialists' socialists' Hc. -- have an ideal absolutely identical' and that this ideal is solely dependent on the mental structure of the .rench race' since a Buite contrary ideal is found under analo!ous names amon! other races. -either the name !iven to opinions nor deceptive adaptations alter the essence of thin!s. The men of the 6reat >evolution' saturated )ith "atin literature' )ho /their eyes fi#ed on the >oman >epublic0' adopted its la)s' its fasces' and its to!as' did not become >omans because they )ere under the empire of a po)erful historical su!!estion. The task of the philosopher is to investi!ate )hat it is )hich subsists of ancient beliefs beneath their apparent chan!es' and to identify amid the movin! flu# of opinions the part determined by !eneral beliefs and the !enius of the race. In the absence of this philosophic test it mi!ht be supposed that cro)ds chan!e their political or reli!ious beliefs freBuently and at )ill. All history' )hether political' reli!ious' artistic' or literary' seems to prove that such is the case.

-$02As an e#ample' let us take a very short period of .rench history' merely that from *9+& to *32&' a period of thirty yearsD duration' that of a !eneration. In the course of it )e see the cro)d at first monarchical become very revolutionary' then very imperialist' and a!ain very monarchical. In the matter of reli!ion it !ravitates in the same lapse of time from Catholicism to atheism' then to)ards deism' and then returns to the most pronounced forms of Catholicism. These chan!es take place not only amon!st the masses' but also amon!st those )ho direct them. @e observe )ith astonishment the prominent men of the Convention' the s)orn enemies of kin!s' men )ho )ould have neither !ods nor masters' become the humble servants of -apoleon' and after)ards' under "ouis V III.' piously carry candles in reli!ious processions. -umerous' too' are the chan!es in the opinions of the cro)d in the course of the follo)in! seventy years. The LEerfidious AlbionL of the openin! of the century is the ally of .rance under -apoleonDs heir= >ussia' t)ice invaded by .rance' )hich looked on )ith satisfaction at .rench reverses' becomes its friend. In literature' art' and philosophy the successive evolutions of opinion are more rapid still. >omanticism' naturalism' mysticism' Hc.' sprin! up and die out in turn. The artist and the )riter

-$03-

applauded yesterday are treated on the morro) )ith profound contempt. @hen' ho)ever' )e analyse all these chan!es in appearance so far reachin!' )hat do )e findF All those that are in opposition )ith the !eneral beliefs and sentiments of the race are of transient duration' and the diverted stream soon resumes its course. The opinions )hich are not linked to any !eneral belief or sentiment of the race' and )hich in conseBuence cannot possess stability' are at the mercy of every chance' or' if the e#pression be preferred' of every chan!e in the surroundin! circumstances. .ormed by su!!estion and conta!ion' they are al)ays momentary= they crop up and disappear as rapidly on occasion as the sandhills formed by the )ind on the sea-coast. At the present day the chan!eable opinions of cro)ds are !reater in number than they ever )ere' and for three different reasons. The first is that as the old beliefs are losin! their influence to a !reater and !reater e#tent' they are ceasin! to shape the ephemeral opinions of the moment as they did in the past. The )eakenin! of !eneral beliefs clears the !round for a crop of haphaIard opinions )ithout a past or a future. The second reason is that the po)er of cro)ds bein! on the increase' and this po)er bein! less and less counterbalanced' the e#treme mobility of

-$08ideas' )hich )e have seen to be a peculiarity of cro)ds' can manifest itself )ithout let or hindrance. .inally' the third reason is the recent development of the ne)spaper press' by )hose a!ency the most contrary opinions are bein! continually brou!ht before the attention of cro)ds. The su!!estions that mi!ht result from each individual opinion are soon destroyed by su!!estions of an opposite character. The conseBuence is that no opinion succeeds in becomin! )idespread' and that the e#istence of all of them is ephemeral. An opinion no)adays dies out before it has found a sufficiently )ide acceptance to become !eneral. A phenomenon Buite ne) in the )orldDs history' and most characteristic of the present a!e' has resulted from these different causes= I allude to the po)erlessness of !overnments to direct opinion. In the past' and in no very distant past' the action of !overnments and the influence of a fe) )riters and a very small number of ne)spapers constituted the real reflectors of public opinion. Today the )riters have lost all influence' and the ne)spapers only reflect opinion. As for statesmen' far from directin! opinion' their only endeavour is to follo) it. They have a dread of opinion' )hich amounts at times to terror' and causes them to adopt an utterly unstable line of conduct. The opinion of cro)ds tends' then' more and

-$04more to become the supreme !uidin! principle in politics. It !oes so far to-day as to force on alliances' as has been seen recently in the case of the .ranco->ussian alliance' )hich is solely the outcome of a popular movement. A curious symptom of the present time is to observe popes' kin!s' and emperors consent to be intervie)ed as a means of submittin! their vie)s on a !iven subCect to the Cud!ment of cro)ds. .ormerly it mi!ht have been correct to say that politics )ere not a matter of sentiment. Can the same be said today' )hen politics are more and more s)ayed by the

impulse of chan!eable cro)ds' )ho are uninfluenced by reason and can only be !uided by sentimentF As to the press' )hich formerly directed opinion' it has had' like !overnments' to humble itself before the po)er of cro)ds. It )ields' no doubt' a considerable influence' but only because it is e#clusively the reflection of the opinions of cro)ds and of their incessant variations. 7ecome a mere a!ency for the supply of information' the press has renounced all endeavour to enforce an idea or a doctrine. It follo)s all the chan!es of public thou!ht' obli!ed to do so by the necessities of competition under pain of losin! its readers. The old staid and influential or!ans of the past' such as the Constitutionne&' the D=b'ts' or the Si=,&e' )hich )ere accepted as oracles by

-$25the precedin! !eneration' have disappeared or have become typical modern papers' in )hich a ma#imum of ne)s is sand)iched in bet)een li!ht articles' society !ossip' and financial puffs. There can be no Buestion to-day of a paper rich enou!h to allo) its contributors to air their personal opinions' and such opinions )ould be of sli!ht )ei!ht )ith readers )ho only ask to be kept informed or to be amused' and )ho suspect every affirmation of bein! prompted by motives of speculation. Even the critics have ceased to be able to assure the success of a book or a play. They are capable of doin! harm' but not of doin! a service. The papers are so conscious of the uselessness of everythin! in the shape of criticism or personal opinion' that they have reached the point of suppressin! literary criticism' confinin! themselves to citin! the title of a book' and appendin! a LpuffL of t)o or three lines. -ote: J22K In t)enty yearsD time the same fate )ill probably have overtaken theatrical criticism. J22K -ote: These remarks refer to the .rench ne)spaper press. -- Note o) the Tr'ns&'tor! The close )atchin! of the course of opinion has become to-day the principal preoccupation of the press and of !overnments. The effect produced by an event' a le!islative proposal' a speech' is )ithout intermission )hat they reBuire to kno)' and the task is not easy' for nothin! is more mobile

-$2$and chan!eable than the thou!ht of cro)ds' and nothin! more freBuent than to see them e#ecrate today )hat they applauded yesterday. This total absence of any sort of direction of opinion' and at the same time the destruction of !eneral beliefs' have had for final result an e#treme diver!ency of convictions of every order' and a !ro)in! indifference on the part of cro)ds to everythin! that does not plainly touch their immediate interests. Ruestions of doctrine' such as socialism' only recruit champions boastin! !enuine convictions amon! the Buite illiterate classes' amon! the )orkers in mines and factories' for instance. 1embers of the lo)er middle class' and )orkin! men possessin! some de!ree of instruction' have either become utterly sceptical or e#tremely unstable in their opinions. The evolution )hich has been effected in this direction in the last t)enty-five years is strikin!.

;urin! the precedin! period' comparatively near us thou!h it is' opinions still had a certain !eneral trend= they had their ori!in in the acceptance of some fundamental belief. 7y the mere fact that an individual )as a monarchist he possessed inevitably certain clearly defined ideas in history as )ell as in science' )hile by the mere fact that he )as a republican' his ideas )ere Buite contrary. A monarchist )as )ell a)are that men are not descended from monkeys' and a republican )as

-$2%not less )ell a)are that such is in truth their descent. It )as the duty of the monarchist to speak )ith horror' and of the republican to speak )ith veneration' of the !reat >evolution. There )ere certain names' such as those of >obespierre and 1arat' that had to be uttered )ith an air of reli!ious devotion' and other names' such as those of CSsar' Au!ustus' or -apoleon' that ou!ht never to be mentioned unaccompanied by a torrent of invective. Even in the .rench 4orbonne this in!enuous fashion of conceivin! history )as !eneral. -ote: J2$K J2$K -ote: There are pa!es in the books of the .rench official professors of history that are very curious from this point of vie). They prove too ho) little the critical spirit is developed by the system of university education in vo!ue in .rance. I cite as an e#ample the follo)in! e#tracts from the L.rench >evolutionL of 1. >ambaud' professor of history at the 4orbonne: LThe takin! of the 7astille )as a culminatin! event in the history not only of .rance' but of all Europe= and inau!urated a ne) epoch in the history of the )orldOL @ith respect to >obespierre' )e learn )ith stupefaction that Lhis dictatorship )as based more especially on opinion' persuasion' and moral authority= it )as a sort of pontificate in the hands of a virtuous manOL /pp. +* and 22&.0 At the present day' as the result of discussion and analysis' all opinions are losin! their presti!e= their distinctive features are rapidly )orn a)ay' and fe) survive capable of arousin! our enthusiasm. The man of modern times is more and more a prey to indifference.

-$2.The !eneral )earin! a)ay of opinions should not be too !reatly deplored. That it is a symptom of decadence in the life of a people cannot be contested. It is certain that men of immense' of almost supernatural insi!ht' that apostles' leaders of cro)ds -- men' in a )ord' of !enuine and stron! convictions -- e#ert a far !reater force than men )ho deny' )ho criticise' or )ho are indifferent' but it must not be for!otten that' !iven the po)er possessed at present by cro)ds' )ere a sin!le opinion to acBuire sufficient presti!e to enforce its !eneral acceptance' it )ould soon be endo)ed )ith so tyrannical a stren!th that everythin! )ould have to bend before it' and the era of free discussion )ould be closed for a lon! time. Cro)ds are occasionally easy-!oin! masters' as )ere 5elio!abalus and Tiberius' but they are also violently capricious. A civilisation' )hen the moment has come for cro)ds to acBuire a hi!h hand over it' is at the mercy of too many chances to endure for lon!. Could anythin! postpone for a )hile the hour of its ruin' it )ould be precisely the e#treme instability of

the opinions of cro)ds and their !ro)in! indifference )ith respect to all !eneral beliefs.

-$2/-

BOO% !!!. THE C#ASS F CAT O! A!D DESCR PT O! OF THE D FFERE!T * !DS OF CROWDS.

C&'PTE" !. THE C#ASS F CAT O! OF CROWDS.

The !eneral divisions of cro)ds -- Their classification. M *. Hetero1eneous ,ro(-s! ;ifferent varieties of them -- The influence of race -- The spirit of the cro)d is )eak in proportion as the spirit of the race is stron! -- The spirit of the race represents the civilised state and the spirit of the cro)d the barbarian state. M 2. Ho*o1eneous ,ro(-s! Their different varieties -- 4ects' castes' and classes. @E have sketched in this )ork the !eneral characteristics common to psycholo!ical cro)ds. It remains to point out the particular characteristics )hich accompany those of a !eneral order in the different cate!ories of collectivities' )hen they are transformed into a cro)d under the influences of the proper e#citin! causes.

-$20@e )ill' first of all' set forth in a fe) )ords a classification of cro)ds. ?ur startin!-point )ill be the simple multitude. Its most inferior form is met )ith )hen the multitude is composed of individuals belon!in! to different races. In this case its only common bond of union is the )ill' more or less respected of a chief. The barbarians of very diverse ori!in )ho durin! several centuries invaded the >oman Empire' may be cited as a specimen of multitudes of this kind. ?n a hi!her level than these multitudes composed of different races are those )hich under certain influences have acBuired common characteristics' and have ended by formin! a sin!le race. They present at times characteristics peculiar to cro)ds' but these characteristics are overruled to a !reater or less e#tent by racial considerations. These t)o kinds of multitudes may' under certain influences investi!ated in this )ork' be transformed into or!anised or psycholo!ical cro)ds. @e shall break up these or!anised cro)ds into the follo)in! divisions: -- *. Anonymous cro)ds /street cro)ds' for e#ample0. A. 5etero!eneous cro)ds. 2. Cro)ds not anonymous

/Curies' parliamentary assemblies' Hc.0.

-$22*. 4ects /political sects' reli!ious sects' Hc.0. 2. Castes /the military caste' 7. 5omo!eneous the priestly caste' the cro)ds. )orkin! caste' Hc.0. $. Classes /the middle classes' the peasant classes' Hc.0. @e )ill point out briefly the distin!uishin! characteristics of these different cate!ories of cro)ds.

( 1. &ETE"OGENEO$S C"O-#S.
It is these collectivities )hose characteristics have been studied in this volume. They are composed of individuals of any description' of any profession' and any de!ree of intelli!ence. @e are no) a)are that by the mere fact that men form part of a cro)d en!a!ed in action' their collective psycholo!y differs essentially from their individual psycholo!y' and their intelli!ence is affected by this differentiation. @e have seen that intelli!ence is )ithout influence in collectivities' they bein! solely under the s)ay of unconscious sentiments. A fundamental factor' that of race' allo)s of a tolerably thorou!h differentiation of the various hetero!eneous cro)ds. @e have often referred already to the part played by race' and have sho)n it to be the

-$23most po)erful of the factors capable of determinin! menDs actions. Its action is also to be traced in the character of cro)ds. A cro)d composed of individuals assembled at haphaIard' but all of them En!lishmen or Chinamen' )ill differ )idely from another cro)d also composed of individuals of any and every description' but of other races -- >ussians' .renchmen' or 4paniards' for e#ample. The )ide diver!encies )hich their inherited mental constitution creates in menDs modes of feelin! and thinkin! at once come into prominence )hen' )hich rarely happens' circumstances !ather to!ether in the same cro)d and in fairly eBual proportions individuals of different nationality' and this occurs' ho)ever identical in appearance be the interests )hich provoked the !atherin!. The efforts made by the socialists to assemble in !reat con!resses the representatives of the )orkin!class populations of different countries' have al)ays ended in the most pronounced discord. A "atin cro)d' ho)ever revolutionary or ho)ever conservative it be supposed' )ill invariably appeal to the intervention of the 4tate to realise its demands. It is al)ays distin!uished by a marked tendency to)ards centralisation and by a leanin!' more or less pronounced' in favour of a dictatorship. An En!lish or an American cro)d' on the contrary' sets no store

-$28on the 4tate' and only appeals to private initiative. A .rench cro)d lays particular )ei!ht on eBuality and an En!lish cro)d on liberty. These differences of race e#plain ho) it is that there are almost as many different forms of socialism and democracy as there are nations. The !enius of the race' then' e#erts a paramount influence upon the dispositions of a cro)d. It is the po)erful underlyin! force that limits its chan!es of humour. It should be considered as an essential la) that the in)erior ,h'r',teristi,s o) ,ro(-s 're the &ess ',,entu'te- in proportion 's the spirit o) the r',e is stron1! The cro)d state and the domination of cro)ds is eBuivalent to the barbarian state' or to a return to it. It is by the acBuisition of a solidly constituted collective spirit that the race frees itself to a !reater and !reater e#tent from the unreflectin! po)er of cro)ds' and emer!es from the barbarian state. The only important classification to be made of hetero!eneous cro)ds' apart from that based on racial considerations' is to separate them into anonymous cro)ds' such as street cro)ds' and cro)ds not anonymous -- deliberative assemblies and Curies' for e#ample. The sentiment of responsibility absent from cro)ds of the first description and developed in those of the second often !ives a very different tendency to their respective acts.

-$24-

( .. &O)OGENEO$S C"O-#S.
5omo!eneous cro)ds include: *. 4ects= 2. Castes= $. Classes. The se,t represents the first step in the process of or!anisation of homo!eneous cro)ds. A sect includes individuals differin! !reatly as to their education' their professions' and the class of society to )hich they belon!' and )ith their common beliefs as the connectin! link. E#amples in point are reli!ious and political sects. The ,'ste represents the hi!hest de!ree of or!anisation of )hich the cro)d is susceptible. @hile the sect includes individuals of very different professions' de!rees of education and social surroundin!' )ho are only linked to!ether by the beliefs they hold in common' the caste is composed of individuals of the same profession' and in conseBuence similarly educated and of much the same social status. E#amples in point are the military and priestly castes. The ,&'ss is formed of individuals of diverse ori!in' linked to!ether not by a community of beliefs' as are the members of a sect' or by common professional occupations' as are the members of a caste' but by certain interests and certain habits of life and education almost identical. The middle class and the a!ricultural class are e#amples. 7ein! only concerned in this )ork )ith

-$35-

hetero!eneous cro)ds' and reservin! the study of homo!eneous cro)ds /sects' castes' and classes0 for another volume' I shall not insist here on the characteristics of cro)ds of this latter kind. I shall conclude this study of hetero!eneous cro)ds by the e#amination of a fe) typical and distinct cate!ories of cro)ds.

-$3$-

C&'PTE" !!. CROWDS TERMED CR M !A# CROWDS.

Cro)ds termed criminal cro)ds -- A cro)d may be le!ally yet not psycholo!ically criminal -- The absolute unconsciousness of the acts of cro)ds -- arious e#amples -- Esycholo!y of the authors of the 4eptember massacres -- Their reasonin!' their sensibility' their ferocity' and their morality. ?@I-6 to the fact that cro)ds' after a period of e#citement' enter upon a purely automatic and unconscious state' in )hich they are !uided by su!!estion' it seems difficult to Bualify them in any case as criminal. I only retain this erroneous Bualification because it has been definitely brou!ht into vo!ue by recent psycholo!ical investi!ations. Certain acts of cro)ds are assuredly criminal' if considered merely in themselves' but criminal in that case in the same )ay as the act of a ti!er devourin! a 5indoo' after allo)in! its youn! to maul him for their amusement. The usual motive of the crimes of cro)ds is a

-$3%po)erful su!!estion' and the individuals )ho take part in such crimes are after)ards convinced that they have acted in obedience to duty' )hich is far from bein! the case )ith the ordinary criminal. The history of the crimes committed by cro)ds illustrates )hat precedes. The murder of 1. de "aunay' the !overnor of the 7astille' may be cited as a typical e#ample. After the takin! of the fortress the !overnor' surrounded by a very e#cited cro)d' )as dealt blo)s from every direction. It )as proposed to han! him' to cut off his head' to tie him to a horseDs tail. @hile stru!!lin!' he accidently kicked one of those present. 4ome one proposed' and his su!!estion )as at once received )ith acclamation by the cro)d' that the individual )ho had been kicked should cut the !overnorDs throat. LThe individual in Buestion' a cook out of )ork' )hose chief reason for bein! at the 7astille )as idle curiosity as to )hat )as !oin! on' esteems' that since such is the !eneral opinion' the action is patriotic and even believes he deserves a medal for havin! destroyed a monster. @ith a s)ord that is lent him he strikes the bared neck' but the )eapon bein! some)hat blunt and not cuttin!' he takes from his pocket a small black-handled knife and /in his capacity of cook he )ould be e#perienced in cuttin! up meat0 successfully effects the operation.L

-$3.The )orkin! of the process indicated above is clearly seen in this e#ample. @e have obedience to a su!!estion' )hich is all the stron!er because of its collective ori!in' and the murdererDs conviction that he has committed a very meritorious act' a conviction the more natural seein! that he enCoys the unanimous approval of his fello)-citiIens. An act of this kind may be considered crime le!ally but not psycholo!ically. The !eneral characteristics of criminal cro)ds are precisely the same as those )e have met )ith in all cro)ds: openness to su!!estion' credulity' mobility' the e#a!!eration of the sentiments !ood or bad' the manifestation of certain forms of morality' Hc. @e shall find all these characteristics present in a cro)d )hich has left behind it in .rench history the most sinister memories -- the cro)d )hich perpetrated the 4eptember massacres. In point of fact it offers much similarity )ith the cro)d that committed the 4aint 7artholome) massacres. I borro) the details from the narration of 1. Taine' )ho took them from contemporary sources. It is not kno)n e#actly )ho !ave the order or made the su!!estion to empty the prisons by massacrin! the prisoners. @hether it )as ;anton' as is probable' or another does not matter= the one interestin! fact for us is the po)erful su!!estion

-$3/received by the cro)d char!ed )ith the massacre. The cro)d of murderers numbered some three hundred persons' and )as a perfectly typical hetero!eneous cro)d. @ith the e#ception of a very small number of professional scoundrels' it )as composed in the main of shopkeepers and artisans of every trade: bootmakers' locksmiths' hairdressers' masons' clerks' messen!ers' Hc. Under the influence of the su!!estion received they are perfectly convinced' as )as the cook referred to above' that they are accomplishin! a patriotic duty. They fill a double office' bein! at once Cud!e and e#ecutioner' but they do not for a moment re!ard themselves as criminals. ;eeply conscious of the importance of their duty' they be!in by formin! a sort of tribunal' and in connection )ith this act the in!enuousness of cro)ds and their rudimentary conception of Custice are seen immediately. In consideration of the lar!e number of the accused' it is decided that' to be!in )ith' the nobles' priests' officers' and members of the kin!Ds household -- in a )ord' all the individuals )hose mere profession is proof of their !uilt in the eyes of a !ood patriot -- shall be slau!htered in a body' there bein! no need for a special decision in their case. The remainder shall be Cud!ed on their personal appearance and their reputation. In this )ay the rudimentary conscience of the

-$30cro)d is satisfied. It )ill no) be able to proceed le!ally )ith the massacre' and to !ive free scope to those instincts of ferocity )hose !enesis I have set forth else)here' they bein! instincts )hich collectivities al)ays have it in them to develop to a hi!h de!ree. These instincts' ho)ever -- as is re!ularly the case in cro)ds -- )ill not prevent the manifestation of other and contrary sentiments'

such as a tenderheartedness often as e#treme as the ferocity. LThey have the e#pansive sympathy and prompt sensibility of the Earisian )orkin! man. At the Abbaye' one of the federates' learnin! that the prisoners had been left )ithout )ater for t)enty-si# hours' )as bent on puttin! the !aoler to death' and )ould have done so but for the prayers of the prisoners themselves. @hen a prisoner is acBuitted /by the improvised tribunal0 every one' !uards and slau!hterers included' embraces him )ith transports of Coy and applauds frantically'L after )hich the )holesale massacre is recommenced. ;urin! its pro!ress a pleasant !aiety never ceases to rei!n. There is dancin! and sin!in! around the corpses' and benches are arran!ed Lfor the ladies'L deli!hted to )itness the killin! of aristocrats. The e#hibition continues' moreover' of a special description of Custice. A slau!hterer at the Abbaye havin! complained that the ladies placed at a little distance sa)

-$32badly' and that only a fe) of those present had the pleasure of strikin! the aristocrats' the Custice of the observation is admitted' and it is decided that the victims shall be made to pass slo)ly bet)een t)o ro)s of slau!hterers' )ho shall be under the obli!ation to strike )ith the back of the s)ord only so as to prolon! the a!ony. At the prison de la .orce the victims are stripped stark naked and literally LcarvedL for half an hour' after )hich' )hen every one has had a !ood vie)' they are finished off by a blo) that lays bare their entrails. The slau!hterers' too' have their scruples and e#hibit that moral sense )hose e#istence in cro)ds )e have already pointed out. They refuse to appropriate the money and Ce)els of the victims' takin! them to the table of the committees. Those rudimentary forms of reasonin!' characteristic of the mind of cro)ds' are al)ays to be traced in all their acts. Thus' after the slau!hter of the *'2&& or *',&& enemies of the nation' some one makes the remark' and his su!!estion is at once adopted' that the other prisons' those containin! a!ed be!!ars' va!abonds' and youn! prisoners' hold in reality useless mouths' of )hich it )ould be )ell on that account to !et rid. 7esides' amon! them there should certainly be enemies of the people' a )oman of the name of ;elarue' for instance' the )ido) of a poisoner:

-$33L4he must be furious at bein! in prison' if she could she )ould set fire to Earis: she must have said so' she has said so. Another !ood riddance.L The demonstration appears convincin!' and the prisoners are massacred )ithout e#ception' included in the number bein! some fifty children of from t)elve to seventeen years of a!e' )ho' of course' mi!ht themselves have become enemies of the nation' and of )hom in conseBuence it )as clearly )ell to be rid. At the end of a )eekDs )ork' all these operations bein! brou!ht to an end' the slau!hterers can think of reposin! themselves. Erofoundly convinced that they have deserved )ell of their country' they )ent to the authorities and demanded a recompense. The most Iealous )ent so far as to claim a medal. The history of the Commune of *39* affords several facts analo!ous to those )hich precede. 6iven the !ro)in! influence of cro)ds and the successive capitulations before them of those in authority' )e are destined to )itness many others of a like nature.

-$38-

C&'PTE" !!!. CR M !A# +&R ES.

Criminal Curies -- 6eneral characteristics of Curies -- statistics sho) that their decisions are independent of their composition -- The manner in )hich an impression may be made on Curies -The style and influence of ar!ument -- The methods of persuasion of celebrated counsel -- The nature of those crimes for )hich Curies are respectively indul!ent or severe -- The utility of the Cury as an institution' and the dan!er that )ould result from its place bein! taken by ma!istrates. 7EI-6 unable to study here every cate!ory of Cury' I shall only e#amine the most important -that of the Curies of the Court of AssiIe. These Curies afford an e#cellent e#ample of the hetero!eneous cro)d that is not anonymous. @e shall find them display su!!estibility and but sli!ht capacity for reasonin!' )hile they are open to the influence of the leaders of cro)ds' and they are !uided in the main by unconscious sentiments. In the course of this investi!ation )e shall have occasion to observe some interestin! e#amples of

-$34the errors that may be made by persons not versed in the psycholo!y of cro)ds. Guries' in the first place' furnish us a !ood e#ample of the sli!ht importance of the mental level of the different elements composin! a cro)d' so far as the decisions it comes to are concerned. @e have seen that )hen a deliberative assembly is called upon to !ive its opinion on a Buestion of a character not entirely technical' intelli!ence stands for nothin!. .or instance' a !atherin! of scientific men or of artists' o)in! to the mere fact that they form an assembla!e' )ill not deliver Cud!ments on !eneral subCects sensibly different from those rendered by a !atherin! of masons or !rocers. At various periods' and in particular previous to *3:3' the .rench administration instituted a careful choice amon! the persons summoned to form a Cury' pickin! the Curors from amon! the enli!htened classes= choosin! professors' functionaries' men of letters' Hc. At the present day Curors are recruited for the most part from amon! small tradesmen' petty capitalists' and employPs. 2et' to the !reat astonishment of specialist )riters' )hatever the composition of the Cury has been' its decisions have been identical. Even the ma!istrates' hostile as they are to the institution of the Cury' have had to reco!nise the e#actness of the assertion. 1. 7Prard des 6laCeu#' a former Eresident of the Court of AssiIes' e#

-$85presses himself on the subCect in his L1emoirsL in the follo)in! terms: --

LThe selection of Curymen is to-day in reality in the hands of the municipal councillors' )ho put people do)n on the list or eliminate them from it in accordance )ith the political and electoral preoccupations inherent in their situation. . . . The maCority of the Curors chosen are persons en!a!ed in trade' but persons of less importance than formerly' and employPs belon!in! to certain branches of the administration. . . . 7oth opinions and professions countin! for nothin! once the r7&e of Cud!e assumed' many of the Curymen havin! the ardour of neophytes' and men of the best intentions bein! similarly disposed in humble situations' the spirit of the Cury has not chan!ed: its ver-i,ts h've re*'ine- the s'*e!? ?f the passa!e Cust cited the conclusions' )hich are Cust' are to be borne in mind and not the e#planations' )hich are )eak. Too much astonishment should not be felt at this )eakness' for' as a rule' counsel eBually )ith ma!istrates seem to be i!norant of the psycholo!y of cro)ds and' in conseBuence' of Curies. I find a proof of this statement in a fact related by the author Cust Buoted. 5e remarks that "achaud' one of the most illustrious barristers practisin! in the Court of AssiIe'

-$8$made systematic use of his ri!ht to obCect to a Curor in the case of all individuals of intelli!ence on the list. 2et e#perience -- and e#perience alone -- has ended by acBuaintin! us )ith the utter uselessness of these obCections. This is proved by the fact that at the present day public prosecutors and barristers' at any rate those belon!in! to the Earisian bar' have entirely renounced their ri!ht to obCect to a Curor= still' as 1. des 6laCeu# remarks' the verdicts have not chan!ed' Lthey are neither better nor )orse.L "ike all cro)ds' Curies are very stron!ly impressed by sentimental considerations' and very sli!htly by ar!ument. LThey cannot resist the si!ht'L )rites a barrister' Lof a mother !ivin! its child the breast' or of orphans.L LIt is sufficient that a )oman should be of a!reeable appearance'L says 1. des 6laCeu#' Lto )in the benevolence of the Cury.L @ithout pity for crimes of )hich it appears possible they mi!ht themselves be the victims -- such crimes' moreover' are the most dan!erous for society -- Curies' on the contrary' are very indul!ent in the case of breaches of the la) )hose motive is passion. They are rarely severe on infanticide by !irl-mothers' or hard on the youn! )oman )ho thro)s vitriol at the man )ho has seduced and deserted her' for the reason that they feel instinctively that society runs but sli!ht dan!er

-$8%from such crimes' -ote: J2:K and that in a country in )hich the la) does not protect deserted !irls the crime of the !irl )ho aven!es herself is rather useful than harmful' inasmuch as it fri!htens future seducers in advance. J2:K -ote: It is to be remarked' in passin!' that this division of crimes into those dan!erous and those not dan!erous for society' )hich is )ell and instinctively made by Curies is far from bein! unCust. The obCect of criminal la)s is evidently to protect society a!ainst dan!erous criminals and not to aven!e

it. ?n the other hand' the .rench code' and above all the minds of the .rench ma!istrates' are still deeply imbued )ith the spirit of ven!eance characteristic of the old primitive la)' and the term Lvin-i,teL /prosecution' from the "atin vin-i,t'' ven!eance0 is still in daily use. A proof of this tendency on the part of the ma!istrates is found in the refusal by many of them to apply 7Pren!erDs la)' )hich allo)s of a condemned person not under!oin! his sentence unless he repeats his crime. 2et no ma!istrate can be i!norant' for the fact is proved by statistics' that the application of a punishment inflicted for the first time infallibly leads to further crime on the part of the person punished. @hen Cud!es set free a sentenced person it al)ays seems to them that society has not been aven!ed. >ather than not aven!e it they prefer to create a dan!erous' confirmed criminal. Guries' like all cro)ds' are profoundly impressed by presti!e' and Eresident des 6laCeu# very properly remarks that' very democratic as Curies are in their composition' they are very aristocratic in their likes and dislikes: L-ame' birth' !reat )ealth' celebrity' the assistance of an illustrious counsel' everythin! in the nature of distinction or that

-$8.lends brilliancy to the accused' stands him in e#tremely !ood stead.L The chief concern of a !ood counsel should be to )ork upon the feelin!s of the Cury' and' as )ith all cro)ds' to ar!ue but little' or only to employ rudimentary modes of reasonin!. An En!lish barrister' famous for his successes in the assiIe courts' has )ell set forth the line of action to be follo)ed: -L@hile pleadin! he )ould attentively observe the Cury. The most favourable opportunity has been reached. 7y dint of insi!ht and e#perience the counsel reads the effect of each phrase on the faces of the Curymen' and dra)s his conclusions in conseBuence. 5is first step is to be sure )hich members of the Cury are already favourable to his cause. It is short )ork to definitely !ain their adhesion' and havin! done so he turns his attention to the members )ho seem' on the contrary' ill-disposed' and endeavours to discover )hy they are hostile to the accused. This is the delicate part of his task' for there may be an infinity of reasons for condemnin! a man' apart from the sentiment of Custice.L These fe) lines r=su*= the entire mechanism of the art of oratory' and )e see )hy the speech prepared in advance has so sli!ht an effect' it

-$8/bein! necessary to be able to modify the terms employed from moment to moment in accordance )ith the impression produced. The orator does not reBuire to convert to his vie)s all the members of a Cury' but only the leadin! spirits amon! it )ho )ill determine the !eneral opinion. As in all cro)ds' so in Curies there are a small number of individuals )ho serve as !uides to the rest. LI have found by e#perience'L says the counsel cited above' Lthat one or t)o ener!etic men suffice to carry the rest of the Cury )ith them.L It is those t)o or three )hom it is necessary to convince by skilful su!!estions. .irst of all' and above all' it is necessary to please them. The man formin! part of a cro)d )hom one has succeeded in pleasin! is on the point of bein! convinced' and is Buite disposed to accept as e#cellent any ar!uments that may be offered him. I detach the follo)in! anecdote from an interestin! account of 1. "achaud' alluded to above: --

LIt is )ell kno)n that durin! all the speeches he )ould deliver in the course of an assiIe sessions' "achaud never lost si!ht of the t)o or three Curymen )hom he kne) or felt to be influential but obstinate. As a rule he )as successful in )innin! over these refractory Curors. ?n one occasion' ho)ever' in the provinces' he had to deal )ith a

-$80Curyman )hom he plied in vain for three-Buarters of an hour )ith his most cunnin! ar!uments= the man )as the seventh Curyman' the first on the second bench. The case )as desperate. 4uddenly' in the middle of a passionate demonstration' "achaud stopped short' and addressin! the Eresident of the court said: N@ould you !ive instructions for the curtain there in front to be dra)nF The seventh Curyman is blinded by the sun.D The Curyman in Buestion reddened' smiled' and e#pressed his thanks. 5e )as )on over for the defence.L 1any )riters' some of them most distin!uished' have started of late a stron! campai!n a!ainst the institution of the Cury' althou!h it is the only protection )e have a!ainst the errors' really very freBuent' of a caste that is under no control. -ote: J2,K A

-$82portion of these )riters advocate a Cury recruited solely from the ranks of the enli!htened classes= but )e have already proved that even in this case the verdicts )ould be identical )ith those returned under the present system. ?ther )riters' takin! their stand on the errors committed by Curies' )ould abolish the Cury and replace it by Cud!es. It is difficult to see ho) these )ould-be reformers can for!et that the errors for )hich the Cury is blamed )ere committed in the first instance by Cud!es' and that )hen the accused person comes before a Cury he has already been held to be !uilty by several ma!istrates' by the :u1e -;instru,tion' the public prosecutor' and the Court of Arrai!nment. It should thus be clear that )ere the accused to be definitely Cud!ed by ma!istrates instead of by Curymen' he )ould lose his only chance of bein! admitted innocent. The errors of Curies have al)ays been first of all the errors of ma!istrates. It is solely the ma!istrates' then' )ho should be blamed )hen particularly monstrous Cudicial errors crop up' such' for instance' as the

-$83Buite recent condemnation of ;r. " -- -- )ho' prosecuted by a :u1e -;instru,tion' of e#cessive stupidity' on the stren!th of the denunciation of a half-idiot !irl' )ho accused the doctor of havin! performed an ille!al operation upon her for thirty francs' )ould have been sent to penal servitude but for an e#plosion of public indi!nation' )hich had for result that he )as immediately set at liberty by the Chief of the 4tate. The honourable character !iven the condemned man by all his fello)-citiIens made the !rossness of the blunder self-evident. The ma!istrates themselves admitted it' and yet out of caste considerations they did all they could to prevent the pardon bein! si!ned. In all similar affairs the Cury' confronted )ith technical details it is unable to understand' naturally hearkens to the public prosecutor' ar!uin! that' after all' the affair has been investi!ated by

ma!istrates trained to unravel the most intricate situations. @ho' then' are the real authors of the error -- the Curymen or the ma!istratesF @e should clin! vi!orously to the Cury. It constitutes' perhaps' the only cate!ory of cro)d that cannot be replaced by any individuality. It alone can temper the severity of the la)' )hich' eBual for all' ou!ht in principle to be blind and to take no co!nisance of particular cases. Inaccessible to pity' and heedin! nothin! but the te#t of the la)' the Cud!e in his professional severity

-$88)ould visit )ith the same penalty the bur!lar !uilty of murder and the )retched !irl )hom poverty and her abandonment by her seducer have driven to infanticide. The Cury' on the other hand' instinctively feels that the seduced !irl is much less !uilty than the seducer' )ho' ho)ever' is not touched by the la)' and that she deserves every indul!ence. J2,K -ote: The ma!istracy is' in point of fact' the only administration )hose acts are under no control. In spite of all its revolutions' democratic .rance does not possess that ri!ht of h'be's ,orpus of )hich En!land is so proud. @e have banished all the tyrants' but have set up a ma!istrate in each city )ho disposes at )ill of the honour and liberty of the citiIens. An insi!nificant :u1e -;instru,tion /an e#aminin! ma!istrate )ho has no e#act counterpart in En!land. -- Tr'ns!0' fresh from the university' possesses the revoltin! po)er of sendin! to prison at )ill persons of the most considerable standin!' on a simple supposition on his part of their !uilt' and )ithout bein! obli!ed to Custify his act to any one. Under the prete#t of pursuin! his investi!ation he can keep these persons in prison for si# months or even a year' and free them at last )ithout o)in! them either an indemnity or e#cuses. The )arrant in .rance is the e#act eBuivalent of the &ettre -e ,',het' )ith this difference' that the latter' )ith the use of )hich the monarchy )as so Custly reproached' could only be resorted to by persons occupyin! a very hi!h position' )hile the )arrant is an instrument in the hands of a )hole class of citiIens )hich is far from passin! for bein! very enli!htened or very independent. 7ein! )ell acBuainted )ith the psycholo!y of castes' and also )ith the psycholo!y of other cate!ories of cro)ds' I do not perceive a sin!le case in )hich' )ron!ly accused of a crime' I should not prefer to have to deal )ith a Cury rather than )ith ma!istrates. I should have some chance that my innocence )ould be reco!nised by the former and not the sli!htest chance that it )ould be admitted by the latter. The po)er of cro)ds is to be dreaded' but the po)er of certain castes is to be dreaded yet more. Cro)ds are open to conviction= castes never are.

-$84-

C&'PTE" !*. E#ECTORA# CROWDS.

6eneral characteristics of electoral cro)ds -- The manner of persuadin! them -- The Bualities that should be possessed by a candidate -- -ecessity of presti!e -- @hy )orkin! men and peasants so rarely choose candidates from their o)n class -- The influence of )ords and formulas on the elector -- The !eneral aspect of election oratory -- 5o) the opinions of the elector are formed -- The po)er of political committees -- They represent the most redoubtable form of tyranny -- The committees of the >evolution -- Universal suffra!e cannot be replaced in spite of its sli!ht psycholo!ical value -- @hy it is that the votes recorded )ould remain the same even if the ri!ht of votin! )ere restricted to a limited class of citiIens -- ?f )hat universal suffra!e is the e#pression in all countries. E"ECT?>A" cro)ds -- that is to say' collectivities invested )ith the po)er of electin! the holders of certain functions -- constitute hetero!eneous cro)ds' but as their action is confined to a sin!le clearly determined matter' namely' to choosin! bet)een different candidates' they present only a fe) of the

-$45characteristics previously described. ?f the characteristics peculiar to cro)ds' they display in particular but sli!ht aptitude for reasonin!' the absence of the critical spirit' irritability' credulity' and simplicity. In their decision' moreover' is to be traced the influence of the leaders of cro)ds and the part played by the factors )e have enumerated: affirmation' repetition' presti!e' and conta!ion. "et us e#amine by )hat methods electoral cro)ds are to be persuaded. It )ill be easy to deduce their psycholo!y from the methods that are most successful. It is of primary importance that the candidate should possess presti!e. Eersonal presti!e can only be replaced by that resultin! from )ealth. Talent and even !enius are not elements of success of serious importance. ?f capital importance' on the other hand' is the necessity for the candidate of possessin! presti!e' of bein! able' that is' to force himself upon the electorate )ithout discussion. The reason )hy the electors' of )hom a maCority are )orkin! men or peasants' so rarely choose a man from their o)n ranks to represent them is that such a person enCoys no presti!e amon! them. @hen' by chance' they do elect a man )ho is their eBual' it is as a rule for subsidiary reasons -- for instance' to spite an eminent man' or an influential employer of labour on )hom the elector is in daily dependence' and

-$4$)hose master he has the illusion he becomes in this )ay for a moment. The possession of presti!e does not suffice' ho)ever' to assure the success of a candidate. The elector stickles in particular for the flattery of his !reed and vanity. 5e must be over)helmed )ith the most e#trava!ant blandishments' and there must be no hesitation in makin! him the most fantastic promises. If he is a )orkin! man it is impossible to !o too far in insultin! and sti!matisin! employers of labour. As for the rival candidate' an effort must be made to destroy his chance by establishin! by dint of affirmation' repetition' and conta!ion that he is an arrant scoundrel' and that it is a matter of common kno)led!e that he has been !uilty of several crimes. It is' of course'

useless to trouble about any semblance of proof. 4hould the adversary be ill-acBuainted )ith the psycholo!y of cro)ds he )ill try to Custify himself by ar!uments instead of confinin! himself to replyin! to one set of affirmations by another= and he )ill have no chance )hatever of bein! successful. The candidateDs )ritten pro!ramme should not be too cate!orical' since later on his adversaries mi!ht brin! it up a!ainst him= in his verbal pro!ramme' ho)ever' there cannot be too much e#a!!eration. The most important reforms may be fearlessly promised. At the moment they are

-$4%made these e#a!!erations produce a !reat effect' and they are not bindin! for the future' it bein! a matter of constant observation that the elector never troubles himself to kno) ho) far the candidate he has returned has follo)ed out the electoral pro!ramme he applauded' and in virtue of )hich the election )as supposed to have been secured. In )hat precedes' all the factors of persuasion )hich )e have described are to be reco!nised. @e shall come across them a!ain in the action e#erted by )ords and formulas' )hose ma!ical s)ay )e have already insisted upon. An orator )ho kno)s ho) to make use of these means of persuasion can do )hat he )ill )ith a cro)d. E#pressions such as infamous capital' vile e#ploiters' the admirable )orkin! man' the socialisation of )ealth' Hc.' al)ays produce the same effect' althou!h already some)hat )orn by use. 7ut the candidate )ho hits on a ne) formula as devoid as possible of precise meanin!' and apt in conseBuence to flatter the most varied aspirations' infallibly obtains a success. The san!uinary 4panish revolution of *39$ )as brou!ht about by one of these ma!ical phrases of comple# meanin! on )hich everybody can put his o)n interpretation. A contemporary )riter has described the launchin! of this phrase in terms that deserve to be Buoted: -LThe radicals have made the discovery that a

-$4.centralised republic is a monarchy in dis!uise' and to humour them the Cortes had unanimously proclaimed a )e-er'& repub&i,' thou!h none of the voters could have e#plained )hat it )as he had Cust voted for. This formula' ho)ever' deli!hted everybody= the Coy )as into#icatin!' delirious. The rei!n of virtue and happiness had Cust been inau!urated on earth. A republican )hose opponent refused him the title of federalist considered himself to be mortally insulted. Eeople addressed each other in the streets )ith the )ords: N"on! live the federal republicOD After )hich the praises )ere sun! of the mystic virtue of the absence of discipline in the army' and of the autonomy of the soldiers. @hat )as understood by the Nfederal republicFD There )ere those )ho took it to mean the emancipation of the provinces' institutions akin to those of the United 4tates and administrative decentralisation= others had in vie) the abolition of all authority and the speedy commencement of the !reat social liBuidation. The socialists of 7arcelona and Andalusia stood out for the absolute soverei!nty of the communes= they proposed to endo) 4pain )ith ten thousand independent municipalities' to le!islate on their o)n account' and their creation to be accompanied by the suppression of the police and the army. In the southern provinces the insurrection )as soon seen to spread from to)n to to)n and villa!e to villa!e.

-$4/;irectly a villa!e had made its pronun,i'*ento its first care )as to destroy the tele!raph )ires and the rail)ay lines so as to cut off all communication )ith its nei!hbours and 1adrid. The sorriest hamlet )as determined to stand on its o)n bottom. .ederation had !iven place to cantonalism' marked by massacres' incendiarism' and every description of brutality' and bloody saturnalia )ere celebrated throu!hout the len!th and breadth of the land.L @ith respect to the influence that may be e#erted by reasonin! on the minds of electors' to harbour the least doubt on this subCect can only be the result of never havin! read the reports of an electioneerin! meetin!. In such a !atherin! affirmations' invectives' and sometimes blo)s are e#chan!ed' but never ar!uments. 4hould silence be established for a moment it is because some one present' havin! the reputation of a Ltou!h customer'L has announced that he is about to heckle the candidate by puttin! him one of those embarrassin! Buestions )hich are al)ays the Coy of the audience. The satisfaction' ho)ever' of the opposition party is shortlived' for the voice of the Buestioner is soon dro)ned in the uproar made by his adversaries. The follo)in! reports of public meetin!s' chosen from hundreds of similar e#amples' and taken from the daily papers' may be considered as typical: --

-$40L?ne of the or!anisers of the meetin! havin! asked the assembly to elect a president' the storm bursts. The anarchists leap on to the platform to take the committee table by storm. The socialists make an ener!etic defence= blo)s are e#chan!ed' and each party accuses the other of bein! spies in the pay of the 6overnment' Hc. . . . A citiIen leaves the hall )ith a black eye. LThe committee is at len!th installed as best it may be in the midst of the tumult' and the ri!ht to speak devolves upon NComradeD V. LThe orator starts a vi!orous attack on the socialists' )ho interrupt him )ith shouts of NIdiot' scoundrel' black!uardOD Hc.' epithets to )hich Comrade V. replies by settin! forth a theory accordin! to )hich the socialists are NidiotsD or NCokers.DL LThe Allemanist party had or!anised yesterday evenin!' in the 5all of Commerce' in the >ue du .aubour!-du-Temple' a !reat meetin!' preliminary to the )orkersD )@te of the *st of 1ay. The )atch)ord of the meetin! )as NCalm and TranBuillityOD LComrade 6 -- -- alludes to the socialists as NidiotsD and Nhumbu!s.D LAt these )ords there is an e#chan!e of invectives and orators and audience come to blo)s. Chairs' tables' and benches are converted into )eapons'L Hc.' Hc. It is not to be ima!ined for a moment that this

-$42description of discussion is peculiar to a determined class of electors and dependent on their social position. In every anonymous assembly )hatever' thou!h it be composed e#clusively of hi!hly educated persons' discussion al)ays assumes the same shape. I have sho)n that )hen men are

collected in a cro)d there is a tendency to)ards their mental levellin! at )ork' and proof of this is to be found at every turn. Take' for e#ample' the follo)in! e#tract from a report of a meetin! composed e#clusively of students' )hich I borro) from the Te*ps of *$th of .ebruary' *3+,: -LThe tumult only increased as the evenin! )ent on= I do not believe that a sin!le orator succeeded in utterin! t)o sentences )ithout bein! interrupted. At every instant there came shouts from this or that direction or from every direction at once. Applause )as intermin!led )ith hissin!' violent discussions )ere in pro!ress bet)een individual members of the audience' sticks )ere brandished threatenin!ly' others beat a tattoo on the floor' and the interrupters )ere !reeted )ith yells of NEut him outOD or N"et him speakOD L1. C -- -- lavished such epithets as odious and co)ardly' monstrous' vile' venal and vindictive' on the Association' )hich he declared he )anted to destroy'L Hc.' Hc. 5o)' it may be asked' can an elector form an

-$43opinion under such conditionsF To put such a Buestion is to harbour a stran!e delusion as to the measure of liberty that may be enCoyed by a collectivity. Cro)ds have opinions that have been imposed upon them' but they never boast reasoned opinions. In the case under consideration the opinions and votes of the electors are in the hands of the election committees' )hose leadin! spirits are' as a rule' publicans' their influence over the )orkin! men' to )hom they allo) credit' bein! !reat. L;o you kno) )hat an election committee isFL )rites 1. 4chPrer' one of the most valiant champions of present-day democracy. LIt is neither more nor less than the corner-stone of our institutions' the masterpiece of the political machine. .rance is !overned to-day by the election committees.L -ote: J2%K J2%K -ote: Committees under )hatever name' clubs' syndicates' Hc.' constitute perhaps the most redoubtable dan!er resultin! from the po)er of cro)ds. They represent in reality the most impersonal and' in conseBuence' the most oppressive form of tyranny. The leaders )ho direct the committees bein! supposed to speak and act in the name of a collectivity' are freed from all responsibility' and are in a position to do Cust as they choose. The most sava!e tyrant has never ventured even to dream of such proscriptions as those ordained by the committees of the >evolution. 7arras has declared that they decimated the convention' pickin! off its members at their pleasure. 4o lon! as he )as able to speak in their name' >obespierre )ielded absolute po)er. The moment this fri!htful dictator separated himself from them' for reasons of personal pride' he )as lost. The rei!n of cro)ds is the rei!n of committees' that is' of the leaders of cro)ds. A severer despotism cannot be ima!ined. To e#ert an influence over them is not difficult' provided the candidate be in himself acceptable and possess adeBuate financial resources. Accordin! to the admissions of the donors' three millions

-$48-

of francs sufficed to secure the repeated elections of 6eneral 7oulan!er. 4uch is the psycholo!y of electoral cro)ds. It is identical )ith that of other cro)ds: neither better nor )orse. In conseBuence I dra) no conclusion a!ainst universal suffra!e from )hat precedes. 5ad I to settle its fate' I should preserve it as it is for practical reasons' )hich are to be deduced in point of fact from our investi!ation of the psycholo!y of cro)ds. ?n this account I shall proceed to set them forth. -o doubt the )eak side of universal suffra!e is too obvious to be overlooked. It cannot be !ainsaid that civilisation has been the )ork of a small minority of superior intelli!ences constitutin! the culminatin! point of a pyramid' )hose sta!es' )idenin! in proportion to the decrease of mental po)er' represent the masses of a nation. The !reatness of a civilisation cannot assuredly depend upon the votes !iven by inferior elements boastin! solely numerical stren!th. ;oubtless'

-$44too' the votes recorded by cro)ds are often very dan!erous. They have already cost us several invasions' and in vie) of the triumph of socialism' for )hich they are preparin! the )ay' it is probable that the va!aries of popular soverei!nty )ill cost us still more dearly. E#cellent' ho)ever' as these obCections are in theory' in practice they lose all force' as )ill be admitted if the invincible stren!th be remembered of ideas transformed into do!mas. The do!ma of the soverei!nty of cro)ds is as little defensible' from the philosophical point of vie)' as the reli!ious do!mas of the 1iddle A!es' but it enCoys at present the same absolute po)er they formerly enCoyed. It is as unattackable in conseBuence as in the past )ere our reli!ious ideas. Ima!ine a modern freethinker miraculously transported into the midst of the 1iddle A!es. ;o you suppose that' after havin! ascertained the soverei!n po)er of the reli!ious ideas that )ere then in force' he )ould have been tempted to attack themF 5avin! fallen into the hands of a Cud!e disposed to send him to the stake' under the imputation of havin! concluded a pact )ith the devil' or of havin! been present at the )itches sabbath' )ould it have occurred to him to call in Buestion the e#istence of the devil or of the sabbathF It )ere as )ise to oppose cyclones )ith discussion as the beliefs of cro)ds. The

-%55do!ma of universal suffra!e possesses to-day the po)er the Christian do!mas formerly possessed. ?rators and )riters allude to it )ith a respect and adulation that never fell to the share of "ouis VI . In conseBuence the same position must be taken up )ith re!ard to it as )ith re!ard to all reli!ious do!mas. Time alone can act upon them. 7esides' it )ould be the more useless to attempt to undermine this do!ma' inasmuch as it has an appearance of reasonableness in its favour. LIn an era of eBuality'L TocBueville Custly remarks' Lmen have no faith in each other on account of their bein! all alike= yet this same similitude !ives them an almost limitless confidence in the Cud!ment of the public' the reason bein! that it does not appear probable that' all men bein! eBually enli!htened' truth and numerical superiority should not !o hand in hand.L 1ust it be believed that )ith a restricted suffra!e -- a suffra!e restricted to those intellectually

capable if it be desired -- an improvement )ould be effected in the votes of cro)dsF I cannot admit for a moment that this )ould be the case' and that for the reasons I have already !iven touchin! the mental inferiority of all collectivities' )hatever their composition. In a cro)d men al)ays tend to the same level' and' on !eneral Buestions' a vote' recorded by forty academicians is no better than that of forty )ater-carriers. I do

-%5$not in the least believe that any of the votes for )hich universal suffra!e is blamed -- the reestablishment of the Empire' for instance -- )ould have fallen out differently had the voters been e#clusively recruited amon! learned and liberally educated men. It does not follo) because an individual kno)s 6reek or mathematics' is an architect' a veterinary sur!eon' a doctor' or a barrister' that he is endo)ed )ith a special intelli!ence of social Buestions. All our political economists are hi!hly educated' bein! for the most part professors or academicians' yet is there a sin!le !eneral Buestion -- protection' bimetallism' Hc. -- on )hich they have succeeded in a!reein!F The e#planation is that their science is only a very attenuated form of our universal i!norance. @ith re!ard to social problems' o)in! to the number of unkno)n Buantities they offer' men are substantially' eBually i!norant. In conseBuence' )ere the electorate solely composed of persons stuffed )ith sciences their votes )ould be no better than those emitted at present. They )ould be !uided in the main by their sentiments and by party spirit. @e should be spared none of the difficulties )e no) have to contend )ith' and )e should certainly be subCected to the oppressive tyranny of castes. @hether the suffra!e of cro)ds be restricted or !eneral' )hether it be e#ercised under a republic

-%5%or a monarchy' in .rance' in 7el!ium' in 6reece' in Eortu!al' or in 4pain' it is every)here identical= and' )hen all is said and done' it is the e#pression of the unconscious aspirations and needs of the race. In each country the avera!e opinions of those elected represent the !enius of the race' and they )ill be found not to alter sensibly from one !eneration to another. It is seen' then' that )e are confronted once more by the fundamental notion of race' )hich )e have come across so often' and on this other notion' )hich is the outcome of the first' that institutions and !overnments play but a small part in the life of a people. Eeoples are !uided in the main by the !enius of their race' that is' by that inherited residue of Bualities of )hich the !enius is the sum total. >ace and the slavery of our daily necessities are the mysterious master-causes that rule our destiny.

-%5.-

C&'PTE" *. PAR# AME!TAR% ASSEM(# ES.

Earliamentary cro)ds present most of the characteristics common to hetero!eneous cro)ds that are not anonymous -- The simplicity of their opinions -- Their su!!estibility and its limits -- Their indestructible' fi#ed opinions and their chan!ed opinions -- The reason of the predominance of indecision -- The r7&e of the leaders -- The reason of their presti!e -- They are the true masters of an assembly )hose votes' on that account' are merely those of a small minority -- The absolute po)er they e#ercise -- The elements of their oratorical art -- Ehrases and ima!es -- The psycholo!ical necessity the leaders are under of bein! in a !eneral )ay of stubborn convictions and narro)minded -- It is impossible for a speaker )ithout presti!e to obtain reco!nition for his ar!uments -The e#a!!eration of the sentiments' )hether !ood or bad' of assemblies -- At certain moments they become automatic -- The sittin!s of the Convention -- Cases in )hich an assembly loses the characteristics of cro)ds -- The influence of specialists )hen technical Buestions arise -- The advanta!es and dan!ers of a parliamentary system in all countries -- It is adapted to modern needs= but it involves financial )aste and the pro!ressive curtailment of all liberty -- Conclusion. I- parliamentary assemblies )e have an e#ample of hetero!eneous cro)ds that are not anonymous.

-%5/Althou!h the mode of election of their members varies from epoch to epoch' and from nation to nation' they present very similar characteristics. In this case the influence of the race makes itself felt to )eaken or e#a!!erate the characteristics common to cro)ds' but not to prevent their manifestation. The parliamentary assemblies of the most )idely different countries' of 6reece' Italy' Eortu!al' 4pain' .rance' and America present !reat analo!ies in their debates and votes' and leave the respective !overnments face to face )ith identical difficulties. 1oreover' the parliamentary system represents the ideal of all modern civilised peoples. The system is the e#pression of the idea' psycholo!ically erroneous' but !enerally admitted' that a lar!e !atherin! of men is much more capable than a small number of comin! to a )ise and independent decision on a !iven subCect. The !eneral characteristics of cro)ds are to be met )ith in parliamentary assemblies: intellectual simplicity' irritability' su!!estibility' the e#a!!eration of the sentiments and the preponderatin! influence of a fe) leaders. In conseBuence' ho)ever' of their special composition parliamentary cro)ds offer some distinctive features' )hich )e shall point out shortly. 4implicity in their opinions is one of their most important characteristics. In the case of all

-%50parties' and more especially so far as the "atin peoples are concerned' an invariable tendency is met )ith in cro)ds of this kind to solve the most complicated social problems by the simplest abstract principles and !eneral la)s applicable to all cases. -aturally the principles vary )ith the party= but o)in! to the mere fact that the individual members are a part of a cro)d' they are al)ays inclined to e#a!!erate the )orth of their principles' and to push them to their e#treme conseBuences. In conseBuence parliaments are more especially representative of e#treme opinions.

The most perfect e#ample of the in!enuous simplification of opinions peculiar to assemblies is offered by the Gacobins of the .rench >evolution. ;o!matic and lo!ical to a man' and their brains full of va!ue !eneralities' they busied themselves )ith the application of fi#ed-principles )ithout concernin! themselves )ith events. It has been said of them' )ith reason' that they )ent throu!h the >evolution )ithout )itnessin! it. @ith the aid of the very simple do!mas that served them as !uide' they ima!ined they could recast society from top to bottom' and cause a hi!hly refined civilisation to return to a very anterior phase of the social evolution. The methods they resorted to to realise their dream )ore the same stamp of absolute in!enuousness. They confined themselves' in reality' to destroyin! )hat stood in their )ay.

-%52All of them' moreover -- 6irondists' the 1en of the 1ountain' the Thermidorians' Hc. -- )ere alike animated by the same spirit. Earliamentary cro)ds are very open to su!!estion= and' as in the case of all cro)ds' the su!!estion comes from leaders possessin! presti!e= but the su!!estibility of parliamentary assemblies has very clearly defined limits' )hich it is important to point out. ?n all Buestions of local or re!ional interest every member of an assembly has fi#ed' unalterable opinions' )hich no amount of ar!ument can shake. The talent of a ;emosthenes )ould be po)erless to chan!e the vote of a ;eputy on such Buestions as protection or the privile!e of distillin! alcohol' Buestions in )hich the interests of influential electors are involved. The su!!estion emanatin! from these electors and under!one before the time to vote arrives' sufficiently out)ei!hs su!!estions from any other source to annul them and to maintain an absolute fi#ity of opinion. -ote: J29K J29K -ote: The follo)in! reflection of an En!lish parliamentarian of lon! e#perience doubtless applies to these opinions' fi#ed beforehand' and rendered unalterable by electioneerin! necessities: L;urin! the fifty years that I have sat at @estminster' I have listened to thousands of speeches= but fe) of them have chan!ed my opinion' not one of them has chan!ed my vote.L ?n !eneral Buestions -- the overthro) of a Cabinet' the imposition of a ta#' Hc. -- there is no

-%53lon!er any fi#ity of opinion' and the su!!estions of leaders can e#ert an influence' thou!h not in Buite the same )ay as in an ordinary cro)d. Every party has its leaders' )ho possess occasionally an eBual influence. The result is that the ;eputy finds himself placed bet)een t)o contrary su!!estions' and is inevitably made to hesitate. This e#plains ho) it is that he is often seen to vote in contrary fashion in an interval of a Buarter of an hour or to add to a la) an article )hich nullifies it= for instance' to )ithdra) from employers of labour the ri!ht of choosin! and dismissin! their )orkmen' and then to very nearly annul this measure by an amendment. It is for the same reason that every Chamber that is returned has some very stable opinions' and other opinions that are very shiftin!. ?n the )hole' the !eneral Buestions bein! the more numerous'

indecision is predominant in the Chamber -- the indecision )hich results from the ever-present fear of the elector' the su!!estion received from )hom is al)ays latent' and tends to counterbalance the influence of the leaders. 4till' it is the leaders )ho are definitely the masters in those numerous discussions' )ith re!ard to the subCect-matter of )hich the members of an assembly are )ithout stron! preconceived opinions. The necessity for these leaders is evident' since' under the name of heads of !roups' they are met

-%58)ith in the assemblies of every country. They are the real rulers of an assembly. 1en formin! a cro)d cannot do )ithout a master' )hence it results that the votes of an assembly only represent' as a rule' the opinions of a small minority. The influence of the leaders is due in very small measure to the ar!uments they employ' but in a lar!e de!ree to their presti!e. The best proof of this is that' should they by any circumstance lose their presti!e' their influence disappears. The presti!e of these political leaders is individual' and independent of name or celebrity: a fact of )hich 1. Gules 4imon !ives us some very curious e#amples in his remarks on the prominent men of the Assembly of *3:3' of )hich he )as a member: -LT)o months before he )as all-po)erful' "ouis -apoleon )as entirely )ithout the least importance. L ictor 5u!o mounted the tribune. 5e failed to achieve success. 5e )as listened to as .Pli# Eyat )as listened to' but he did not obtain as much applause. NI donDt like his ideas'D aulabelle said to me' speakin! of .Pli# Eyat'D but he is one of the !reatest )riters and the !reatest orator of .rance.D Ed!ar Ruinet' in spite of his e#ceptional and po)erful intelli!ence' )as held in no esteem )hatever. 5e had been popular for a)hile before

-%54the openin! of the Assembly= in the Assembly he had no popularity. LThe splendour of !enius makes itself less felt in political assemblies than any)here else. They only !ive heed to eloBuence appropriate to the time and place and to party services' not to services rendered the country. .or homa!e to be rendered "amartine in *3:3 and Thiers in *39*' the stimulant )as needed of ur!ent' ine#orable interest. As soon as the dan!er )as passed the parliamentary )orld for!ot in the same instant its !ratitude and its fri!ht.L I have Buoted the precedin! passa!e for the sake of the facts it contains' not of the e#planations it offers' their psycholo!y bein! some)hat poor. A cro)d )ould at once lose its character of a cro)d )ere it to credit its leaders )ith their services' )hether of a party nature or rendered their country. The cro)d that obeys a leader is under the influence of his presti!e' and its submission is not dictated by any sentiment of interest or !ratitude. In conseBuence the leader endo)ed )ith sufficient presti!e )ields almost absolute po)er. The immense influence e#erted durin! a lon! series of years' thanks to his presti!e' by a celebrated ;eputy'

-ote: J23K beaten at the last !eneral election in con

-%$5seBuence of certain financial events' is )ell kno)n. 5e had only to !ive the si!nal and Cabinets )ere overthro)n. A )riter has clearly indicated the scope of his action in the follo)in! lines: -J23K -ote: 1. Clemenceau. -- Note o) the Tr'ns&'tor! LIt is due' in the main' to 1. V -- -- that )e paid three times as dearly as )e should have done for Tonkin' that )e remained so lon! on a precarious footin! in 1ada!ascar' that )e )ere defrauded of an empire in the re!ion of the "o)er -i!er' and that )e have lost the preponderatin! situation )e used to occupy in E!ypt. The theories of 1. V -- -- have cost us more territories than the disasters of -apoleon I.L @e must not harbour too bitter a !rud!e a!ainst the leader in Buestion. It is plain that he has cost us very dear= but a !reat part of his influence )as due to the fact that he follo)ed public opinion' )hich' in colonial matters' )as far from bein! at the time )hat it has since become. A leader is seldom in advance of public opinion= almost al)ays all he does is to follo) it and to espouse all its errors. The means of persuasion of the leaders )e are dealin! )ith' apart from their presti!e' consist in the factors )e have already enumerated several times. To make a skilful use of these resources a leader must have arrived at a comprehension' at

-%$$least in an unconscious manner' of the psycholo!y of cro)ds' and must kno) ho) to address them. 5e should be a)are' in particular' of the fascinatin! influence of )ords' phrases' and ima!es. 5e should possess a special description of eloBuence' composed of ener!etic affirmations -unburdened )ith proofs -- and impressive ima!es' accompanied by very summary ar!uments. This is a kind of eloBuence that is met )ith in all assemblies' the En!lish Earliament included' the most serious thou!h it is of all. L;ebates in the 5ouse of Commons'L says the En!lish philosopher 1aine' Lmay be constantly read in )hich the entire discussion is confined to an e#chan!e of rather )eak !eneralities and rather violent personalities. 6eneral formulas of this description e#ercise a prodi!ious influence on the ima!ination of a pure democracy. It )ill al)ays be easy to make a cro)d accept !eneral assertions' presented in strikin! terms' althou!h they have never been verified' and are perhaps not susceptible of verification.L Too much importance cannot be attached to the Lstrikin! termsL alluded to in the above Buotation. @e have already insisted' on several occasions' on the special po)er of )ords and formulas. They must be chosen in such a )ay as to evoke very

-%$%vivid ima!es. The follo)in! phrase' taken from a speech by one of the leaders of our assemblies' affords an e#cellent e#ample: -L@hen the same vessel shall bear a)ay to the fever-haunted lands of our penitentiary settlements the politician of shady reputation and the anarchist !uilty of murder' the pair )ill be able to converse to!ether' and they )ill appear to each other as the t)o complementary aspects of one and the same state of society.L The ima!e thus evoked is very vivid' and all the adversaries of the speaker felt themselves threatened by it. They conCured up a double vision of the fever-haunted country and the vessel that may carry them a)ay= for is it not possible that they are included in the some)hat ill-defined cate!ory of the politicians menacedF They e#perienced the lurkin! fear that the men of the Convention must have felt )hom the va!ue speeches of >obespierre threatened )ith the !uillotine' and )ho' under the influence of this fear' invariably yielded to him. It is all to the interest of the leaders to indul!e in the most improbable e#a!!erations. The speaker of )hom I have Cust cited a sentence )as able to affirm' )ithout arousin! violent protestations' that bankers and priests had subsidised

-%$.the thro)ers of bombs' and that the directors of the !reat financial companies deserve the same punishment as anarchists. Affirmations of this kind are al)ays effective )ith cro)ds. The affirmation is never too violent' the declamation never too threatenin!. -othin! intimidates the audience more than this sort of eloBuence. Those present are afraid that if they protest they )ill be put do)n as traitors or accomplices. As I have said' this peculiar style of eloBuence has ever been of soverei!n effect in all assemblies. In times of crisis its po)er is still further accentuated. The speeches of the !reat orators of the assemblies of the .rench >evolution are very interestin! readin! from this point of vie). At every instant they thou!ht themselves obli!ed to pause in order to denounce crime and e#alt virtue' after )hich they )ould burst forth into imprecations a!ainst tyrants' and s)ear to live free men or perish. Those present rose to their feet' applauded furiously' and then' calmed' took their seats a!ain. ?n occasion' the leader may be intelli!ent and hi!hly educated' but the possession of these Bualities does him' as a rule' more harm than !ood. 7y sho)in! ho) comple# thin!s are' by allo)in! of e#planation and promotin! comprehension' intelli!ence al)ays renders its o)ner indul!ent' and blunts' in a lar!e measure' that intensity and violence of conviction needful for

-%$/apostles. The !reat leaders of cro)ds of all a!es' and those of the >evolution in particular' have been of lamentably narro) intellect= )hile it is precisely those )hose intelli!ence has been the most restricted )ho have e#ercised the !reatest influence. The speeches of the most celebrated of them' of >obespierre' freBuently astound one by their incoherence: by merely readin! them no plausible e#planation is to be found of the !reat part played

by the po)erful dictator: -LThe commonplaces and redundancies of peda!o!ic eloBuence and "atin culture at the service of a mind childish rather than undistin!uished' and limited in its notions of attack and defence to the defiant attitude of schoolboys. -ot an idea' not a happy turn of phrase' or a tellin! hit: a storm of declamation that leaves us bored. After a dose of this une#hilaratin! readin! one is attempted to e#claim N?hOD )ith the amiable Camille ;esmoulins.L It is terrible at times to think of the po)er that stron! conviction combined )ith e#treme narro)ness of mind !ives a man possessin! presti!e. It is none the less necessary that these conditions should be satisfied for a man to i!nore obstacles and display stren!th of )ill in a hi!h measure.

-%$0Cro)ds instinctively reco!nise in men of ener!y and conviction the masters they are al)ays in need of. In a parliamentary assembly the success of a speech depends almost solely on the presti!e possessed by the speaker' and not at all on the ar!uments he brin!s for)ard. The best proof of this is that )hen for one cause or another a speaker loses his presti!e' he loses simultaneously all his influence' that is' his po)er of influencin! votes at )ill. @hen an unkno)n speaker comes for)ard )ith a speech containin! !ood ar!uments' but only ar!uments' the chances are that he )ill only obtain a hearin!. A ;eputy )ho is a psycholo!ist of insi!ht' 1. ;esaubes' has recently traced in the follo)in! lines the portrait of the ;eputy )ho lacks presti!e: -L@hen he takes his place in the tribune he dra)s a document from his portfolio' spreads it out methodically before him' and makes a start )ith assurance. L5e flatters himself that he )ill implant in the minds of his audience the conviction by )hich he is himself animated. 5e has )ei!hed and re)ei!hed his ar!uments= he is )ell primed )ith fi!ures and proofs= he is certain he )ill convince his hearers. In the face of the evidence he is to

-%$2adduce all resistance )ould be futile. 5e be!ins' confident in the Custice of his cause' and relyin! upon the attention of his collea!ues' )hose only an#iety' of course' is to subscribe to the truth. L5e speaks' and is at once surprised at the restlessness of the 5ouse' and a little annoyed by the noise that is bein! made. L5o) is it silence is not keptF @hy this !eneral inattentionF @hat are those ;eputies thinkin! about )ho are en!a!ed in conversationF @hat ur!ent motive has induced this or that ;eputy to Buit his seatF LAn e#pression of uneasiness crosses his face= he fro)ns and stops. Encoura!ed by the Eresisident' he be!ins a!ain' raisin! his voice. 5e is only listened to all the less. 5e lends emphasis to his )ords' and !esticulates: the noise around him increases. 5e can no lon!er hear himself' and a!ain stops= finally' afraid that his silence may provoke the dreaded cry' NThe ClosureOD he starts off

a!ain. The clamour becomes unbearable.L @hen parliamentary assemblies reach a certain pitch of e#citement they become identical )ith ordinary hetero!eneous cro)ds' and their sentiments in conseBuence present the peculiarity of bein! al)ays e#treme. They )ill be seen to commit acts of the !reatest heroism or the )orst

-%$3e#cesses. The individual is no lon!er himself' and so entirely is this the case that he )ill vote measures most adverse to his personal interests. The history of the .rench >evolution sho)s to )hat an e#tent assemblies are capable of losin! their self-consciousness' and of obeyin! su!!estions most contrary to their interests. It )as an enormous sacrifice for the nobility to renounce its privile!es' yet it did so )ithout hesitation on a famous ni!ht durin! the sittin!s of the Constituant Assembly. 7y renouncin! their inviolability the men of the Convention placed themselves under a perpetual menace of death and yet they took this step' and )ere not afraid to decimate their o)n ranks' thou!h perfectly a)are that the scaffold to )hich they )ere sendin! their collea!ues to-day mi!ht be their o)n fate to-morro). The truth is they had attained to that completely automatic state )hich I have described else)here' and no consideration )ould hinder them from yieldin! to the su!!estions by )hich they )ere hypnotised. The follo)in! passa!e from the memoirs of one of them' 7illaud- arennes' is absolutely typical on this score: LThe decisions )ith )hich )e have been so reproached'L he says' L(ere not -esire- b+ us t(o -'+s6 ' sin1&e -'+ be)ore the+ (ere t'AenB it ('s the ,risis 'n- nothin1 e&se th't 1've rise to the*!? -othin! can be more accurate.

-%$8The same phenomena of unconsciousness )ere to be )itnessed durin! all the stormy sittin!s of the Convention. LThey approved and decreed measures'L says Taine' L)hich they held in horror -- measures )hich )ere not only stupid and foolish' but measures that )ere crimes -- the murder of innocent men' the murder of their friends. The "eft' supported by the >i!ht' unanimously and amid loud applause' sent to the scaffold ;anton' its natural chief' and the !reat promoter and leader of the >evolution. Unanimously and amid the !reatest applause the >i!ht' supported by the "eft' votes the )orst decrees of the revolutionary !overnment. Unanimously and amid cries of admiration and enthusiasm' amid demonstrations of passionate sympathy for Collot dD5erbois' Couthon' and >obespierre' the Convention by spontaneous and repeated re-elections keeps in office the homicidal !overnment )hich the Elain detests because it is homicidal' and the 1ountain detests because it is decimated by it. The Elain and the 1ountain' the maCority and the minority' finish by consentin! to help on their o)n suicide. The 22 Erairial the entire Convention offered itself to the e#ecutioner= the 3 Thermidor' durin! the first Buarter of an hour that follo)ed >obespierreDs speech' it did the same thin! a!ain.L

-%$4-

This picture may appear sombre. 2et it is accurate. Earliamentary assemblies' sufficiently e#cited and hypnotised' offer the same characteristics. They become an unstable flock' obedient to every impulsion. The follo)in! description of the Assembly of *3:3 is due to 1. 4puller' a parliamentarian )hose faith in democracy is above suspicion. I reproduce it from the Revue &itt=r'ire' and it is thorou!hly typical. It offers an e#ample of all the e#a!!erated sentiments )hich I have described as characteristic of cro)ds' and of that e#cessive chan!eableness )hich permits of assemblies passin!' from moment to moment' from one set of sentiments to another entirely opposite. LThe >epublican party )as brou!ht to its perdition by its divisions' its Cealousies' its suspicions' and' in turn' its blind confidence and its limitless hopes. Its in!enuousness and candour )ere only eBualled by its universal mistrust. An absence of all sense of le!ality' of all comprehension of discipline' to!ether )ith boundless terrors and illusions= the peasant and the child are on a level in these respects. Their calm is as !reat as their impatience= their ferocity is eBual to their docility. This condition is the natural conseBuence of a temperament that is not formed and of the lack of education. -othin! astonishes such persons' and everythin! disconcerts them. Tremblin! )ith

-%%5fear or brave to the point of heroism' they )ould !o throu!h fire and )ater or fly from a shado). LThey are i!norant of cause and effect and of the connectin! links bet)een events. They are as promptly discoura!ed as they are e#alted' they are subCect to every description of panic' they are al)ays either too hi!hly strun! or too do)ncast' but never in the mood or the measure the situation )ould reBuire. 1ore fluid than )ater they reflect every line and assume every shape. @hat sort of a foundation for a !overnment can they be e#pected to supplyFL .ortunately all the characteristics Cust described as to be met )ith in parliamentary assemblies are in no )ise constantly displayed. 4uch assemblies only constitute cro)ds at certain moments. The individuals composin! them retain their individuality in a !reat number of cases' )hich e#plains ho) it is that an assembly is able to turn out e#cellent technical la)s. It is true that the author of these la)s is a specialist )ho has prepared them in the Buiet of his study' and that in reality the la) voted is the )ork of an individual and not of an assembly. These la)s are naturally the best. They are only liable to have disastrous results )hen a series of amendments has converted them into the outcome of a collective effort. The )ork of a cro)d is al)ays inferior'

-%%$)hatever its nature' to that of an isolated individual. It is specialists )ho safe!uard assemblies from passin! ill-advised or un)orkable measures. The specialist in this case is a temporary leader of cro)ds. The Assembly is )ithout influence on him' but he has influence over the Assembly. In spite of all the difficulties attendin! their )orkin!' parliamentary assemblies are the best form of !overnment mankind has discovered as yet' and more especially the best means it has found to escape the yoke of personal tyrannies. They constitute assuredly the ideal !overnment at any rate for philosophers' thinkers' )riters' artists' and learned men -- in a )ord' for all those )ho form the cream of a civilisation. 1oreover' in reality they only present t)o serious dan!ers' one bein! inevitable financial )aste'

and the other the pro!ressive restriction of the liberty of the individual. The first of these dan!ers is the necessary conseBuence of the e#i!encies and )ant of foresi!ht of electoral cro)ds. 4hould a member of an assembly propose a measure !ivin! apparent satisfaction to democratic ideas' should he brin! in a 7ill' for instance' to assure old-a!e pensions to all )orkers' and to increase the )a!es of any class of 4tate employPs' the other ;eputies' victims of su!!estion in their dread of their electors' )ill

-%%%not venture to seem to disre!ard the interests of the latter by reCectin! the proposed measure' althou!h )ell a)are they are imposin! a fresh strain on the 7ud!et and necessitatin! the creation of ne) ta#es. It is impossible for them to hesitate to !ive their votes. The conseBuences of the increase of e#penditure are remote and )ill not entail disa!reeable conseBuences for them personally' )hile the conseBuences of a ne!ative vote mi!ht clearly come to li!ht )hen they ne#t present themselves for re-election. In addition to this first cause of an e#a!!erated e#penditure there is another not less imperative -the necessity of votin! all !rants for local purposes. A ;eputy is unable to oppose !rants of this kind because they represent once more the e#i!encies of the electors' and because each individual ;eputy can only obtain )hat he reBuires for his o)n constituency on the condition of accedin! to similar demands on the part of his collea!ues. -ote: J2+K J2+K -ote: In its issue of April %' *3+,' the E,ono*iste published a curious revie) of the fi!ures that may be reached by e#penditure caused solely by electoral considerations' and notably of the outlay on rail)ays. To put "an!ayes /a to)n of $'&&& inhabitants' situated on a mountain0 in communication )ith Euy' a rail)ay is voted that )ill cost *, millions of francs. 4even millions are to be spent to put 7eaumont /$',&& inhabitants0 in communication )ith Castel-4arraIin= 9 millions to put ?ust /a villa!e of ,2$ inhabitants0 in communication )ith 4ei# /*'2&& inhabitants0= % millions to put Erade in communication )ith the hamlet of ?lette /9:9 inhabitants0' Hc. In *3+, alone +& millions of francs )ere voted for rail)ays of only local utility. There is other no less important e#penditure necessitated also by electioneerin! considerations. The la) institutin! )orkin!menDs pensions )ill soon involve a minimum annual outlay of *%, millions' accordin! to the 1inister of .inance' and of 3&& millions accordin! to the academician 1. "eroy-7eaulieu. It is evident that the continued !ro)th of e#penditure of this kind must end in bankruptcy. 1any European countries -- Eortu!al' 6reece' 4pain' Turkey -- have reached this sta!e' and others' such as Italy' )ill soon be reduced to the same e#tremity. 4till too much alarm need not be felt at this state of thin!s' since the public has successively consented to put up )ith the reduction of fourfifths in the payment of their coupons by these different countries. 7ankruptcy under these in!enious conditions allo)s the eBuilibrium of 7ud!ets difficult to balance to be instantly restored. 1oreover' )ars' socialism' and economic conflicts hold in store for us a profusion of other catastrophes in the period of universal disinte!ration )e are traversin!' and it is necessary to be resi!ned to livin! from hand to mouth )ithout too much concern for a future )e cannot control.

-%%.-

The second of the dan!ers referred to above -- the inevitable restrictions on liberty consummated by parliamentary assemblies -- is apparently less obvious' but is' nevertheless' very real. It is the result of the innumerable la)s -- havin! al)ays a restrictive action -- )hich parliaments consider themselves obli!ed to vote and to )hose conseBuences' o)in! to their shortsi!htedness' they are in a !reat measure blind. The dan!er must indeed be most inevitable' since even En!land itself' )hich assuredly offers

-%%/the most popular type of the parliamentary r=1i*e' the type in )hich the representative is most independent of his elector' has been unable to escape it. 5erbert 4pencer has sho)n' in a )ork already old' that the increase of apparent liberty must needs be follo)ed by the decrease of real liberty. >eturnin! to this contention in his recent book' LThe Individual versus the 4tate'L he thus e#presses himself )ith re!ard to the En!lish Earliament: -L"e!islation since this period has follo)ed the course' I pointed out. >apidly multiplyin! dictatorial measures have continually tended to restrict individual liberties' and this in t)o )ays. >e!ulations have been established every year in !reater number' imposin! a constraint on the citiIen in matters in )hich his acts )ere formerly completely free' and forcin! him to accomplish acts )hich he )as formerly at liberty to accomplish or not to accomplish at )ill. At the same time heavier and heavier public' and especially local' burdens have still further restricted his liberty by diminishin! the portion of his profits he can spend as he chooses' and by au!mentin! the portion )hich is taken from him to be spent accordin! to the !ood pleasure of the public authorities.L This pro!ressive restriction of liberties sho)s

-%%0itself in every country in a special shape )hich 5erbert 4pencer has not pointed out= it is that the passin! of these innumerable series of le!islative measures' all of them in a !eneral )ay of a restrictive order' conduces necessarily to au!ment the number' the po)er' and the influence of the functionaries char!ed )ith their application. These functionaries tend in this )ay to become the veritable masters of civilised countries. Their po)er is all the !reater o)in! to the fact that' amidst the incessant transfer of authority' the administrative caste is alone in bein! untouched by these chan!es' is alone in possessin! irresponsibility' impersonality' and perpetuity. There is no more oppressive despotism than that )hich presents itself under this triple form. This incessant creation of restrictive la)s and re!ulations' surroundin! the pettiest actions of e#istence )ith the most complicated formalities' inevitably has for its result the confinin! )ithin narro)er and narro)er limits of the sphere in )hich the citiIen may move freely. ictims of the delusion that eBuality and liberty are the better assured by the multiplication of la)s' nations daily consent to put up )ith trammels increasin!ly burdensome. They do not accept this le!islation )ith impunity. Accustomed to put up )ith every yoke' they soon end by desirin! servitude' and lose all spontaneousness and ener!y. They are then no

-%%2more than vain shado)s' passive' unresistin! and po)erless automata. Arrived at this point' the individual is bound to seek outside himself the forces he no lon!er finds )ithin him. The functions of !overnments necessarily increase in proportion as the indifference and helplessness of the citiIens !ro). They it is )ho must necessarily e#hibit the initiative' enterprisin!' and !uidin! spirit in )hich private persons are lackin!. It falls on them to undertake everythin!' direct everythin!' and take everythin! under their protection. The 4tate becomes an all-po)erful !od. 4till e#perience sho)s that the po)er of such !ods )as never either very durable or very stron!. This pro!ressive restriction of all liberties in the case of certain peoples' in spite of an out)ard license that !ives them the illusion that these liberties are still in their possession' seems at least as much a conseBuence of their old a!e as of any particular system. It constitutes one of the precursory symptoms of that decadent phase )hich up to no) no civilisation has escaped. Gud!in! by the lessons of the past' and by the symptoms that strike the attention on every side' several of our modern civilisations have reached that phase of e#treme old a!e )hich precedes decadence. It seems inevitable that all peoples should pass throu!h identical phases of e#istence'

-%%3since history is so often seen to repeat its course. It is easy to note briefly these common phases of the evolution of civilisations' and I shall terminate this )ork )ith a summary of them. This rapid sketch )ill perhaps thro) some !leams of li!ht on the causes of the po)er at present )ielded by cro)ds. If )e e#amine in their main lines the !enesis of the !reatness and of the fall of the civilisations that preceded our o)n' )hat do )e seeF At the da)n of civilisation a s)arm of men of various ori!in' brou!ht to!ether by the chances of mi!rations' invasions' and conBuests. ?f different blood' and of eBually different lan!ua!es and beliefs' the only common bond of union bet)een these men is the half-reco!nised la) of a chief. The psycholo!ical characteristics of cro)ds are present in an eminent de!ree in these confused a!!lomerations. They have the transient cohesion of cro)ds' their heroism' their )eaknesses' their impulsiveness' and their violence. -othin! is stable in connection )ith them. They are barbarians. At len!th time accomplishes its )ork. The identity of surroundin!s' the repeated intermin!lin! of races' the necessities of life in common e#ert their influence. The assembla!e of dissimilar units be!ins

-%%8to blend into a )hole' to form a race= that is' an a!!re!ate possessin! common characteristics and sentiments to )hich heredity )ill !ive !reater and !reater fi#ity. The cro)d has become a people' and this people is able to emer!e from its barbarous state. 5o)ever' it )ill only entirely emer!e

therefrom )hen' after lon! efforts' stru!!les necessarily repeated' and innumerable recommencements' it shall have acBuired an ideal. The nature of this ideal is of sli!ht importance= )hether it be the cult of >ome' the mi!ht of Athens' or the triumph of Allah' it )ill suffice to endo) all the individuals of the race that is formin! )ith perfect unity of sentiment and thou!ht. At this sta!e a ne) civilisation' )ith its institutions' its beliefs' and its arts' may be born. In pursuit of its ideal' the race )ill acBuire in succession the Bualities necessary to !ive it splendour' vi!our' and !randeur. At times no doubt it )ill still be a cro)d' but henceforth' beneath the mobile and chan!in! characteristics of cro)ds' is found a solid substratum' the !enius of the race )hich confines )ithin narro) limits the transformations of a nation and overrules the play of chance. After havin! e#erted its creative action' time be!ins that )ork of destruction from )hich neither !ods nor men escape. 5avin! reached a certain level of stren!th and comple#ity a civilisation ceases to !ro)' and havin! ceased to !ro) it is

-%%4condemned to a speedy decline. The hour of its old a!e has struck. This inevitable hour is al)ays marked by the )eakenin! of the ideal that )as the mainstay of the race. In proportion as this ideal pales all the reli!ious' political' and social structures inspired by it be!in to be shaken. @ith the pro!ressive perishin! of its ideal the race loses more and more the Bualities that lent it its cohesion' its unity' and its stren!th. The personality and intelli!ence of the individual may increase' but at the same time this collective e!oism of the race is replaced by an e#cessive development of the e!oism of the individual' accompanied by a )eakenin! of character and a lessenin! of the capacity for action. @hat constituted a people' a unity' a )hole' becomes in the end an a!!lomeration of individualities lackin! cohesion' and artificially held to!ether for a time by its traditions and institutions. It is at this sta!e that men' divided by their interests and aspirations' and incapable any lon!er of self-!overnment' reBuire directin! in their pettiest acts' and that the 4tate e#erts an absorbin! influence. @ith the definite loss of its old ideal the !enius of the race entirely disappears= it is a mere s)arm of isolated individuals and returns to its ori!inal state -- that of a cro)d. @ithout consistency and )ithout a future' it has all the transitory characteristics

-%.5of cro)ds. Its civilisation is no) )ithout stability' and at the mercy of every chance. The populace is soverei!n' and the tide of barbarism mounts. The civilisation may still seem brilliant because it possesses an out)ard front' the )ork of a lon! past' but it is in reality an edifice crumblin! to ruin' )hich nothin! supports' and destined to fall in at the first storm. To pass in pursuit of an ideal from the barbarous to the civilised state' and then' )hen this ideal has lost its virtue' to decline and die' such is the cycle of the life of a people.

-%.$-

The 6resham Eress' U-@I- 7>?T5E>4' @?KI-6 A-; "?-;?-.