40071168

Interpersonal Relationships, Motivation, Engagement, and Achievement: Yields for Theory, Current Issues, and Educational Practice Author(s): Andrew J. Martin and Martin Dowson Source: Review of Educational Research, Vol. 79, No. 1 (Mar., 2009), pp. 327-365

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Review _o_f EducationalResearch

Spring2009, Vol. 79, No. 1, _p_p_. 327-365 DOI: 10.3102/0034654308325583

© 2009 AERA. http://rer.aera.net

InterpersonalRelationships,Motivation, _E_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t_, andAchievement:Yieldsfor _T_h_e_o_r_y_, Current _I_s_s_u_e_s_, and EducationalPractice

AndrewJ.Martin

UniversityofSydney, Australia

MartinDowson

Australian _C_o_l_l_e_g_e_o_f Ministries

'

In thisreview, we _s_c_o_p_e therole

academicmotivation,engagement, and achievement.We _a_r_g_u_e thatachieve- mentmotivation _t_h_e_o_r_y_, current _i_s_s_u_e_s_, and educational _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e _c_a_n _b_e _c_o_n_-

_c_e_p_t_u_a_l_i_z_e_d in relationalterms. Influentialtheorizing,including attribution theory,expectancy-valuetheory,goal theory,self-determinationtheory,self- _e_f_f_i_c_a_c_y_t_h_e_o_r_y_, and _s_e_l_f_-_w_o_r_t_h motivation _t_h_e_o_r_y_, is reviewedin thecontext

of therole ofsignificant othersin youngpeople

ofinterpersonalrelationships in students

'sacademiclives. _I_m_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s

thesetheoretical _p_e_r_-

_f_o_r _e_d_u_c_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e are examinedin the _l_i_g_h_t_o_f

_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_s and their _c_o_m_p_o_n_e_n_t constructsand mechanisms.A trileveI _f_r_a_m_e_-

_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_l_y based _r_e_s_p_o_n_s_e toenhance

students'motivation,engagement, and achievement.This _f_r_a_m_e_w_o_r_k encom-

passes

programsfor at-risk populations, extracurricular activity,cooperative learn-

ing, and

tion,professionaldevelopment, teacher retention, teacher training, and _c_l_a_s_s_r_o_o_m _c_o_m_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n₎_, and school-levelaction ₍_s_c_h_o_o_l as _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_t_y and

effectiveleadership).

workis

proposed as an integrative and

student-levelaction

(universalprograms and intervention, _t_a_r_g_e_t_e_d

_m_e_n_t_o_r_i_n_g₎_, teacher-andclassroom-levelaction ₍_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_v_e instruc-

Keywords:

_d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t_, teacher education/development.

Few would dispute the importance of high-qualityinterpersonalrelationships in _y_o_u_n_g _p_e_o_p_l_e_'_s _c_a_p_a_c_i_t_y to function effectively,including in theiracademic lives. The _l_i_t_e_r_a_t_u_r_e _c_o_n_s_i_s_t_e_n_t_l_y notesthesubstantialrole that _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s_p_l_a_y

in students'success

& _S_t_a_r_o_s_t_,₂₀₀₀_; _F_i_e_l_d_, _D_i_e_g_o_, & Sanders, 2002; _M_a_r_j_o_r_i_b_a_n_k_s_, 1996; Martin,

_M_a_r_s_h_,_M_c_l_n_e_r_n_e_y_, _G_r_e_e_n_, & Dowson, ₂₀₀₇_; Pianta,Nimetz, & Bennett,1997; _R_o_b_i_n_s_o_n_, ₁₉₉₅₎_. _G_u_i_d_e_d _b_y a core definitionof _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p as "a stateof connectedness between _p_e_o_p_l_e_, _e_s_p_e_c_i_a_l_l_y an emotional connection" ₍_W_e_b_s_t_e_r_'_s Online Dictionary,2007), we _s_u_g_g_e_s_t thatthe _c_o_n_c_e_p_t of relationshipsprovides an _o_r_g_a_n_i_z_i_n_g frameworkfor consideringtheories,issues, and practices relevantto

_m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n_, student behavior/attitude, student _c_o_g_n_i_t_i_o_n_, student

at school ₍_e_._g_._, _C_r_e_a_s_e_y et al., 1997; _C_u_l_p_, Hubbs-Tait,Culp,

327


Martin& _D_o_w_s_o_n

achievementmotivation.Wealsoseektodemonstratethatthe _g_r_e_a_t_e_r _t_h_e_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_-

ednesson _p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l andemotionallevels ₍_a_l_s_o referredtoas _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s_a_n_d_r_e_l_a_-

tional processes)

motivation,engagement, andachievement. The _p_u_r_p_o_s_e_s ofthisarticlearemultifold.Itelucidatesthe _w_a_y_s inwhichrela-

_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s affectachievementmotivationandthebenefitsaccruedfrom _c_o_n_s_i_d_e_r_i_n_g a relational _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e on achievementmotivation.It _d_e_s_c_r_i_b_e_s_a numberof _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t motivation-andachievement-relatedtheoriesanddemonstratesthecen-

tralroleof

cal

termsof _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_s_r_e_l_a_t_i_n_g to student-,teacher/classroom-, andschool-levelactions.

_F_i_n_a_l_l_y_, itconcludeswithan _i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_i_v_e frameworkthatsummarizes _t_h_e_o_r_y_, con-

in theacademic _c_o_n_t_e_x_t_, the _g_r_e_a_t_e_r the _s_c_o_p_e foracademic

interpersonalrelationships ineachofthesetheories.It explorespracti-

relational _u_n_d_e_r_s_t_a_n_d_i_n_g ofboth _t_h_e_o_r_y andcurrentissuesin

implications ofa

structs,mechanisms, and _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_s relevanttotherelational _d_y_n_a_m_i_c_s_u_n_d_e_r_p_i_n_- _n_i_n_g_m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n_,_e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t_, andachievementintheacademiccontext. _F_i_g_u_r_e 1

presents an

_o_r_g_a_n_i_z_i_n_g frameworkforthisreview.

PartI: The _I_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_c_e and ProcessofRelatedness

Why Positive InterpersonalRelationships Are _I_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t_f_o_r_Y_o_u_n_g_P_e_o_p_l_e

A substantial _b_o_d_y ofresearchdemonstratesthe _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_c_e _o_f _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e _i_n_t_e_r_-

personalrelationships for _h_e_a_l_t_h_y human _f_u_n_c_t_i_o_n_i_n_g₍_e_._g_._, see Berkowitz,1996;

Bronfenbrenner,1986;

Patten,1998; Hill, ₁₉₉₆_; _M_o_o_s_, ₂₀₀₂_;

Weisenfeld,1996).Relationships area _m_a_j_o_r sourceof

against stress (Argyle,1999;

Rossi, 1996; Sarason,1993;

De

Leon,2000; Fyson,1999;Glover,Burns,Butler, &

Royal

&

Gloveret

happiness anda buffer

al., 1998;McCarthy,Pretty, & _C_a_t_a_n_o_,

a sourceof

unhappiness anddistress

Ryan,2001;

For example,during childhoodand

₁₉₉₀₎_._T_h_r_o_u_g_h_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s_, individualsreceiveinstrumental _h_e_l_p _f_o_r_t_a_s_k_s_a_n_d

_c_h_a_l_l_e_n_g_e_s_, emotional _s_u_p_p_o_r_t intheir _d_a_i_l_y_l_i_v_e_s_, and

activities ₍_A_r_g_y_l_e & Furnham,1983;Gutman,Sameroff, & Eccles,2002; _I_r_w_i_n_,

companionship inshared

1996).Conversely, thelossof relationship is

(Bronfenbrenner,1974;Cowen,1988;Gaede,1985).Interpersonalrelationships

arealso _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t forsocialandemotional _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t₍_A_b_b_o_t_t _&

Kelly & Hansen,1987;McCarthy et _a_l_._,₁₉₉₀₎_.

adolescence,keyaspects of

ships(Damon,1983; Hartup,1982).

youngpeople'sengagement andmotivationatschool ₍_A_i_n_l_e_y_,₁₉₉₅_;

Horn,1997;Hargreaves,Earl,

focusofourreview.

developmentinvolve, and relyon,positive relation-

_R_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s are also a criticalfactorin

Battistich&

& Ryan,1996;Pianta,1998).

Thislatterissueisthe

_R_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s andAchievementMotivation:

Causal _E_f_f_e_c_t_s andValue-Added _E_x_p_l_a_n_a_t_i_o_n_s Motivationisdefinedas a setofinterrelatedbeliefsandemotionsthatinfluence and directbehavior (Wentzel,1999; see also Green,Martin, & _M_a_r_s_h_,₂₀₀₇_;

Martin,2007,2008a,2008b, in

mentmotivation _b_y_d_i_r_e_c_t_l_y_i_n_f_l_u_e_n_c_i_n_g motivation'sconstituentbeliefsandemo-

tions.

press). We

_p_r_o_p_o_s_e that _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s affectachieve-

_O_n_g_o_i_n_g socialinteractionsteachindividualsaboutthemselvesandaboutwhat

particulargroup.Accordingly, individuals _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_b_e_l_i_e_f_s_,

isneededtofitinwitha

orientations, and valuesthatare consistentwiththeirrelationalenvironment.

328


FIGURE1. Organizingframeworkfor review.

_H_e_n_c_e_, relatednessintheacademicdomainteachesstudentsthe _b_e_l_i_e_f_s_, orienta-

_t_i_o_n_s_, _a_n_d_v_a_l_u_e_s_n_e_e_d_e_d_t_o_f_u_n_c_t_i_o_n _e_f_f_e_c_t_i_v_e_l_y inacademicenvironments.Inturn,

thesebeliefs ₍_i_f_p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e and _a_d_a_p_t_i_v_e₎ directbehaviorintheformofenhanced

persistence,goalstriving, âⁿ^d self-regulation.

329


Martin& Dowson

high-qualityrelationships, individualsnot only learnthat particular beliefs

areusefulfor _f_u_n_c_t_i_o_n_i_n_g

thebeliefsvalued _b_y_s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t _o_t_h_e_r_s ₍_W_e_n_t_z_e_l_,₁₉₉₉₎_. Inthis _w_a_y_, beliefsheld

by

context, for example,goodrelationships witha particular teacherare likely tolead studentsto internalizeat leastsomeof thatteacher'sbeliefsand valuesabout

schoolandschoolwork.Theseinternalizedbeliefsandvaluesthenhavethe _p_o_t_e_n_-

tialtobetransferredtootheracademic _s_e_t_t_i_n_g_s_._T_h_u_s_, studentslearnnot _o_n_l_y how tobehaveina _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r academic _s_e_t_t_i_n_g butalsohowtobea studentinacademic

situationsmore _g_e_n_e_r_a_l_l_y₍_R_y_a_n &

Deci,2000).

In

in

particularenvironments, but theyactually internalize

othersbecomea _p_a_r_t oftheindividual'sownbelief _s_y_s_t_e_m_. In theacademic

Relatednessis an

importantself-systemprocess in itself.As such, ithas an

This

intrapersonalenergy,gained frominter-

lasting,

_e_n_e_r_g_i_z_i_n_g functiononthe self,workingthrough theactivationof positive affect

andmood ₍_F_u_r_r_e_r & Skinner,2003).

personalrelationships,provides a primarypathway towardmotivated engagement

inlifeactivities.A

theneedto

a _p_e_r_v_a_s_i_v_e driveto formandmaintainat leasta minimum _q_u_a_n_t_i_t_y of

positive, and significantinterpersonalrelationships"(Baumeister & Leary,1995,

p. 497). Whentheneedfor belongingness is fulfilled, thisfulfillment produces _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e emotional _r_e_s_p_o_n_s_e_s_. Intheacademic _d_o_m_a_i_n_, theseemotional _r_e_s_p_o_n_s_e_s are said to drivestudents'achievement _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_s_,_i_n_c_l_u_d_i_n_g _t_h_e_i_r _r_e_s_p_o_n_s_e_s to

& Turner,

2002).

challenge,self-regulation,participation, and strategy use (Meyer

complementaryperspective onthese processes is providedby

belonghypothesis. This hypothesissuggests that"human beings have

positive

influencesonother _s_e_l_f_-_p_r_o_c_e_s_s_e_s relevanttoachievementmotivation.Forexam-

_p_l_e_, in thecontextofa student's _l_i_f_e_,_p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e emotionalattachmentsto _p_e_e_r_s_,

teachers, and

functioning butalso

Wellborn,1991). Thisis _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t becauseself-worthandself-esteemareboth

relatedto sustainedachievementmotivation ₍_C_o_v_i_n_g_t_o_n_,₂₀₀₂_; _T_h_o_m_p_s_o_n_,

Relatednessaffectsindividuals'motivationandbehavior _b_y_w_a_y of

parentspromote not onlyhealthysocial,emotional, andintellectual

_p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e_f_e_e_l_i_n_g_s ofself-worthandself-esteem ₍_C_o_n_n_e_l_l &

1994).

_F_i_n_a_l_l_y_, relatednessis linkedto _k_e_y_p_s_y_c_h_o_l_o_g_i_c_a_l needsina _w_a_y thatfosters

autonomy in _p_r_e_v_i_o_u_s decadesis a good

exam-

and _s_e_l_f_-_p_r_o_t_e_c_t_i_o_n₎

andcommunion ₍_i_._e_._,_p_a_r_t_i_c_i_p_a_t_i_o_n

oftheindi-

1941 _, 1 ₉₆₅₎_, whoidentifiedorientationstowardself-determinationand

Maslow ₍₁₉₆₈₎_, who

recognized

indi-

_b_e_l_o_n_g_i_n_g_n_e_s_s inthe _p_a_t_h to self-actualization; and (c)

interdependence(Waterman,1981)

undera frameworkthat _p_r_o_-

support forthe scope

of individualisticvalues to facilitate _h_e_l_p_i_n_g_,

seeDeci _&

Ryan,2000) and personality more generally(e.g., see

Adams,Hoffman,Mansfield, &

achievementmotivation.Workon

_p_l_e_._A_u_t_o_n_o_m_y andrelatednesshavebeenlinked ₍_u_n_d_e_r _v_a_r_i_o_u_s _t_e_r_m_i_n_o_l_o_g_i_e_s₎ _i_n

organism as an individual,giving riseto

workon ₍_a₎ _a_g_e_n_c_y₍_i_._e_._, existenceofan

_s_e_l_f_-_e_x_p_a_n_s_i_o_n

vidualina largerorganism,giving riseto _c_o_o_p_e_r_a_t_i_o_n₎_b_y Bakan (1966); (b) the

_i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_c_e ofbothindividuationalandrelationalneeds _a_l_o_n_g _t_h_e_l_i_n_e_s _p_r_o_p_o_s_e_d

byAngyal(

self-surrenderas complementaryneeds, and by

theneedforloveand

vidualismand

vides

cooperation, andother _p_r_o_s_o_c_i_a_l behaviors. Indeed, these earlyintegrations of _a_u_t_o_n_o_m_y andrelatednesshavebeeninfluentialinlater _t_h_e_o_r_i_z_i_n_g _o_n _m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n

specifically(e.g.,

Me

Day,1996).

330


_B_e_n_e_f_i_t_s Accrued Through Positive InterpersonalRelationships Therearea numberofbenefitsaccrued _t_h_r_o_u_g_h_t_a_k_i_n_g relatednessintoaccount when _e_x_a_m_i_n_i_n_g achievementmotivationtheoriesand _p_r_o_c_e_s_s_e_s_._F_i_r_s_t_, relatedness servesas an _e_x_p_l_a_n_a_t_o_r_y construct _t_h_r_o_u_g_h whichdiversetheoriesofachievement motivationcanbe _i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_e_d_. In _f_a_c_t_, _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s _m_a_y eventranscendbroaderdivi-

sionsof

ness

psychology(Baumeister & Leary,1995).Second,

_d_i_a_g_n_o_s_t_i_c toolwithwhichtoviewandunderstand _a_d_a_p_t_i_v_e behaviorintheclass-

roomandtotreatachievementmotivation _p_r_o_b_l_e_m_s intheclassroomthatareother

related.For

linkedtothefailureof _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g environmentsto meetstudents'needto

(Baumeister & _L_e_a_r_y_,₁₉₉₅_;_W_e_n_t_z_e_l_, McNamara _B_a_r_r_y_, & Caldwell,2004).Third, relatedness _r_e_c_o_g_n_i_z_e_s and _a_c_t_i_v_e_l_y accommodatestheinterconnectednessofthe

_s_o_c_i_a_l_,_a_c_a_d_e_m_i_c_, andaffectivedimensionsoftheselfandtheneedforeducational

_p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s _t_o _r_e_c_o_g_n_i_z_e thisinterconnectedness ₍_W_e_i_s_s_b_e_r_g_,_K_u_m_p_f_e_r_, &

psychologybeyond motivation psychology. For _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, the belonging-

hypothesis has wide application in educational,personality, and social

relatedness _p_r_o_v_i_d_e_s a useful

example,adjustment and adaptationproblems in schoolhavebeen

belong

Seligman,

impetus and explanation for

right. The

_p_r_e_s_e_n_t reviewdealswithrelat-

practicalclarity with respect to

recognized as

Inadditiontothesemoredirectbenefitsderived _t_h_r_o_u_g_h a closer understanding

adap-

example, there

goals

Thrash,

_a_n_d_i_t _m_a_y _b_e thatrelatedness

_e_x_p_l_a_i_n someofthis inconsistency.Specifically, relatedness may actas â ^mê^dⁱ^-

goals

andachievementmotivation.In

perceivedby

studentsas

beingsupportive inthe

₂₀₀₃₎_._T_h_u_s_, _t_h_e _c_o_n_c_e_p_t ofrelatednesscanactas an

_e_d_u_c_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s thataccommodatethewhole _s_e_l_f_._F_o_u_r_t_h_,_p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e relation-

_s_h_i_p_s arevaluedoutcomesintheirown

ednessas a meansto _g_r_e_a_t_e_r theoreticaland

achievementmotivation.However,positiverelationships canalsobe

_i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t endstatesinthemselves. _T_h_u_s_, whatevertheirvaluefor _c_l_a_r_i_f_y_i_n_g human

motivationandachievement,relationships andrelatednessarecriticalforunder-

_s_t_a_n_d_i_n_g human functioning more widely.

ofrelatednessintheclassroom, there _m_a_y also be _i_n_d_i_r_e_c_t _y_i_e_l_d_s froma closer

considerationofrelatedness.Relatedness _m_a_y_h_e_l_p_e_x_p_l_a_i_n_w_h_y theeffectof

tivebeliefsonachievementmotivationvariesacrosscontexts.For

is _v_a_r_i_a_t_i_o_n_a_c_r_o_s_s_s_t_u_d_i_e_s_w_i_t_h _r_e_s_p_e_c_t totheeffectsofvariousbeliefsand

onachievementmotivation.Performance _g_o_a_l_s havebeenshowntobeboth _a_d_a_p_- tiveand _m_a_l_a_d_a_p_t_i_v_e forachievementmotivation. _C_l_e_a_r_l_y_, theseresultsareincon-

sistent (forexamples ofthe _o_n_g_o_i_n_g debateoverthe adaptiveness of performance

orientation, see Brophy,2005;Harackiewicz,Barron,Pintrich,Elliott, ^&

2002;Kaplan & Middleton,2002;Martin,2006c),

can

_a_t_i_n_g _v_a_r_i_a_b_l_e_w_i_t_h _r_e_s_p_e_c_t totheinterfaceof

_p_e_r_f_o_r_m_a_n_c_e_-_o_r_i_e_n_t_e_d environmentswherestudents _e_x_p_e_r_i_e_n_c_e_p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e relation-

_s_h_i_p_s_, theseenvironments _m_a_y be

_p_a_t_h toachievement.Whenthisisthe _c_a_s_e_, achievementmotivation _m_a_y befacili-

tatedandsustainedinthecontextofa _p_e_r_f_o_r_m_a_n_c_e orientation.Ontheother _h_a_n_d_,

_a _p_e_r_f_o_r_m_a_n_c_e_-_o_r_i_e_n_t_e_d environmentinthecontextof _p_o_o_r_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s_m_a_y be

_p_e_r_c_e_i_v_e_d _a_s _a _"_d_o_g_-_e_a_t_-_d_o_g_" contextratherthana _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_i_v_e one. _H_e_n_c_e_, related-

nesscouldbe a _m_e_d_i_a_t_i_n_g_p_r_o_c_e_s_s thatcaninformcurrenttheoreticaldebatesand

_e_m_p_i_r_i_c_a_l inconsistencies.

331


PartII: Relatednessand TheoriesofAchievementMotivation

TheRole

ofInterpersonalRelationships

andtheOtherinAchievementMotivation _T_h_e_o_r_y

Our

analysis

of motivation-related _t_h_e_o_r_y falls _l_a_r_g_e_l_y withinthesocial-

Dweck

cognitive domainand primarily utilizes social-cognitiveperspectives(e.g.,

&

siderationsixtheoretical _v_i_e_w_p_o_i_n_t_s_. Eachofthese _v_i_e_w_p_o_i_n_t_s_, while _m_a_i_n_t_a_i_n_i_n_g

therelevanceof

which interpersonalrelationships areinvoked.These

theory,expectancy-valuetheory,goaltheory, self-determination theory, self-effi-

_v_i_e_w_p_o_i_n_t_s areattribution

Leggett,1988;Schunk,1991).

This

social-cognitiveanalysisbrings intocon-

in

relationships to their conceptualizations, differsin the way

_c_a_c_y_t_h_e_o_r_y_, andself-worthmotivation _t_h_e_o_r_y_. Itis _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t thatnotalltheories

are

_c_o_g_n_i_t_i_v_e elementsforthe _p_u_r_p_o_s_e_s ofour _s_y_n_t_h_e_s_i_s_. Wealso

theories ₍_n_o_t addressed _h_e_r_e₎ include _s_o_c_i_a_l_-_c_o_g_n_i_t_i_v_e elementsas a sourceof

se. _R_a_t_h_e_r_, we invoketheirsocial-

historicallysocial-cognitive theories _p_e_r

recognize thatother

influence.

Rationale _f_o_r theChoice _o_f Theories

Theoriesinthis _s_t_u_d_y_r_e_p_r_e_s_e_n_t_m_a_j_o_r frameworksinachievementmotivation havebeen _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_e_d overthe _p_a_s_t ₄₀ _y_e_a_r_s thatdrivecurrentresearch ₍_M_c_l_n_e_r_n_e_y

&

searchoftheEducationResourcesInformationCenter ₍_E_R_I_C₎ databaselimitedto

publications thatare: (a) journalarticles,(b) peerreviewed,(c)

tionand/orachievementas

writtenin

_k_e_y_w_o_r_d and/or _m_a_p_p_i_n_g onto _s_u_b_j_e_c_t_h_e_a_d_i_n_g_s_, thisidentifiedcloseto

cles

"goal orientation","attribution/s","expectancy/ies", and "self-determination".

Whilstwe _r_e_c_o_g_n_i_z_e thatthisis an ever _c_h_a_n_g_i_n_g andfluid _t_a_l_l_y thatdoes not denotetheseconstructs1relative _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_c_e _o_r _s_u_b_s_t_a_n_c_e_, _w_e _p_r_e_s_e_n_t _t_h_e_t_a_l_l_i_e_s_t_o

demonstratethecurrentandrecentrelevanceoftheseconstructsandthetheories towhich _t_h_e_y relatein _p_u_b_l_i_s_h_e_d educationalresearch. Thesetheoriesalsosharea

common social-cognitiveheritage.Social-cognitive theories examine, inter alia,cognition andbehavior (e.g.,attributions,expectancies, purposes,perceivedneeds,capacities, and vulnerabilities) thatare contextually

locatedandinfluenced.Thisisnotto

andcentralineach

inachievementmotivation _r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h_, thereisoftena clearrelevancefor _i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l

relationships.Indeed, thisrelevanceis

Van Etten,2004).

Atthetimeof _w_r_i_t_i_n_g weconducteda

somewhat expeditious

_d_e_a_l_i_n_g withmotiva-

keywords fromthesixtheoretical positionsoutlined,(d)

English, and (e) published since2000 (inclusive).Through searchesof

1,500 arti-

dealing with "self-efficacy""self-worth/self-esteem", "achievement goals",

imply thatthe place of relationships

is explicit

theory;however, whenitcomesto operationalizing thetheories

thefocusofthe _p_r_e_s_e_n_t review.

Although we propose that relationships are

ignored. We recognize

-

_i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t toachievementmotiva-

self-generatedcognitions andemotions

_t_i_o_n_, thisdoes notmeanthattheroleof

shouldbe

has

tiontorelatednessandits

thereis the _k_e_y issueofstudents'academic _p_r_o_f_i_c_i_e_n_c_y_. _T_h_i_s

passesgeneral skillssuchas critical thinking,self-regulation,

as do thetheorieswe examine - thattheself

_r_e_c_o_g_n_i_z_e thatinaddi-

powerfulgenerativecapacities ofitsown. Similarly, we

impact on motivation,engagement, and achievement,

proficiency encom-

and metacognition,

332


Relationships andStudentMotivationand Engagement

as well as more-specific skills, suchas decoding texts, comprehension, and math- _e_m_a_t_i_c_a_l _r_e_a_s_o_n_i_n_g_. _H_e_n_c_e_, we _s_u_g_g_e_s_t thatrelatednessis a _n_e_c_e_s_s_a_r_y butnotsuf- _f_i_c_i_e_n_t_c_o_n_d_i_t_i_o_n_f_o_r _e_x_p_l_a_i_n_i_n_g variationin educationaloutcomes.

_R_e_v_i_e_w _o_f Theories

_A_t_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_o_n _t_h_e_o_r_y_._A_c_c_o_r_d_i_n_g toattribution _t_h_e_o_r_y_, thecauses individualsattribute

toeventshave an _i_m_p_a_c_t on

_r_e_s_p_o_n_d _o_n futureoccasions ₍_S_c_h_e_l_l_, _B_r_u_n_i_n_g_, &

the waytheycognitively,affectively, and behaviorally

Colvin, 1995; Weiner,1986,

₁₉₉₄₎_. _F_o_u_r _a_t_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_o_n_s_a_r_e _t_y_p_i_c_a_l_l_y identifiedin the literature:attributionsto

luck, task difficulty,ability, and effort.For example, ^fâⁱ^lû^rêôⁿ âⁿ ê^xâ^m may ^bê _a_t_t_r_i_b_u_t_e_d_t_o _b_a_d _l_u_c_k_, _d_i_f_f_i_c_u_l_t _q_u_e_s_t_i_o_n_s_, _l_o_w _a_b_i_l_i_t_y_, or insufficienteffort.

These causal attributionscan also be mappedaccording totheir locus, stability,

and controllability(Weiner,1994). Thus, ^t^hê^câû^sê^s ô^f

_w_i_t_h_i_n_t_h_e _p_e_r_s_o_n or externalto the _p_e_r_s_o_n_,_m_a_y be stableor _u_n_s_t_a_b_l_e_, or _m_a_y be _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_a_b_l_e_o_r uncontrollable.The controldimensionis of _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r interestin

thisreviewbecause ittendsto be a _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t determinantof

to setback, pressure,

₁₉₉₀_; Groteluschen,Borkowski, & Hales, 1990; Martin,Marsh, & Debus, 2001b). _O_n_e means _b_y whichstudents _g_a_i_n _a _s_e_n_s_e ofcontrolis _t_h_r_o_u_g_h thefeedback _t_h_e_y

receive from significant ô^t^hê^r^s^sû^c^h â^s ^t^hêⁱ^r parents âⁿ^d

Hagen,

mechanismfora sense of _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_, and this

_p_a_r_t_,_t_h_r_o_u_g_h thenatureand _s_t_r_e_n_g_t_h ofthe relationship. Ithas been suggested ^t^hâ^t

control ₍_o_r

(Peterson,Maier, & _S_e_l_i_g_m_a_n_,₁₉₉₃₎_.

_v_i_d_e reinforcementand feedback thatare commensuratewithstudents' _p_e_r_f_o_r_-

_m_a_n_c_e _e_n_h_a_n_c_e _s_t_u_d_e_n_t_s_' _p_e_r_c_e_i_v_e_d _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_o_v_e_r educationaloutcomes

Tunna,1988; Thompson,1994). Hence, â definingaspect

profiles is ⁱⁿ partrelationally ^dê^tê^r^mⁱⁿê^d^.^Pû^t simply,

_a_n _e_v_e_n_t _m_a_y be located

students' responses

and fearof failure (Borkowski,Carr,Rellinger, & _P_r_e_s_s_l_e_y_,

teachers (Fabricius &

1984; Weiner,1986). The _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_c_e of thisother _p_e_r_s_o_n an _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t

significance is established, â^t ^lêâ^s^t ⁱⁿ

helplessness) ⁱ^s ^lêâ^rⁿê^d byobservingpowerful models, ^sû^c^hâ^s parents

Furthermore,parents and teacherswho pro-

(Perry

&

ofstudents'attributional

_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_s_c_a_n learncontrol

based emotions ₍_H_a_r_e_l_i & Weiner,2002). Recent workhas _p_r_o_p_o_s_e_d

_p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r outcome ₍_H_a_r_e_l_i & Weiner,2002). This can

_F_i_r_s_t_, itaffectstheobserver'semotions

of admirationforthatstudent.On the other _h_a_n_d_, a

_n_e_g_a_t_i_v_e affect ₍_H_a_r_e_l_i & Weiner,2000). In both cases, emotion is

way socially

based emotions _e_m_e_r_g_e as

example,

observers

_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_'_s _p_e_r_f_o_r_m_a_n_c_e _a_n_d _m_a_k_e inferencesabout

_f_r_o_m_t_h_e_s_e _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t _o_t_h_e_r_s_a_n_d _t_h_e _w_a_y _t_h_e_s_e _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t othersrelateto them. Ithas also been _s_u_g_g_e_s_t_e_d thatattributionsinthe _i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l context _g_i_v_e rise

to

_t_h_a_t _s_o_c_i_a_l_l_y _b_a_s_e_d _e_m_o_t_i_o_n_s_a_r_e _t_h_e_r_e_s_u_l_t_o_f attributionalinferences _f_o_c_u_s_i_n_g on

the perceived ^câû^sê^s ô^f â

have two impacts.

scenario, a

_p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e affectand _f_e_e_l_i_n_g_s

_s_t_u_d_e_n_t _a_t_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_n_g anotherstudent's _p_o_o_r _p_e_r_f_o_r_m_a_n_c_e to a lack of _a_b_i_l_i_t_y_m_a_y

experience

directly. In an adaptive

_s_t_u_d_e_n_t _a_t_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_n_g anotherstudent'ssuccess to effortcan _e_x_p_e_r_i_e_n_c_e

socially

_e_v_o_k_e_d_i_n theacademic _c_o_n_t_e_x_t _t_h_r_o_u_g_h theattributionsstudentsmake aboutoth-

_e_r_s_' _a_c_a_d_e_m_i_c outcomes.Thereis a second

_a _r_e_s_u_l_t_o_f _a_t_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_o_n_a_l_i_n_f_e_r_e_n_c_e_s_. _H_e_r_e_, observers'inferencesaboutthecause of

_a_n _e_v_e_n_t_c_a_n _s_h_a_p_e thestudent'semotionsand behavior.For

(e.g.,

thecauses of the _o_u_t_c_o_m_e_, _a_n_d thesetheninfluencethestudent'sreactionsto the

outcome and

teacher explicitlyattributing â ^s^tû^dêⁿ^t^'^s^sû^c^cê^s^s

teachers,parents) view a

subsequent

behavior.In the _a_d_a_p_t_i_v_e _s_c_e_n_a_r_i_o described _a_b_o_v_e_, a

to effortcan evoke _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e affect

333


Martin& Dowson

and _f_e_e_l_i_n_g_s of _p_r_i_d_e inthestudent.On theother _h_a_n_d_, a teacher _e_x_p_l_i_c_i_t_l_y attribut-

ingpoorperformance to a lack of _a_b_i_l_i_t_y_m_a_y

thatstudent. _A_g_a_i_n_, _a_c_a_d_e_m_i_c_a_l_l_y relatedemotionis evoked _t_h_r_o_u_g_h theattribu- tionsforsuccess and failurein a relational _c_o_n_t_e_x_t_, and thisemotionhas achieve-

ment motivationrelevance. Taken _t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r_, on the matterof relatednessand

attributions, these

inachievement _s_e_t_t_i_n_g_s_, andthe _n_e_c_e_s_s_i_t_y ofa transactional _a_n_a_l_y_s_i_s tounderstand

^t^hê^sô^cⁱâ^l dynamics that accompany achievement performance"(Hareli & Weiner, 2002, _p_. 191).

evoke _n_e_g_a_t_i_v_e affectand shamein

_f_i_n_d_i_n_g_s underscore"theinterconnectionof theselfand others

_E_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_y_-_v_a_l_u_e_t_h_e_o_r_y_. Atkinson ₍₁₉₅₇₎ viewed themotivationto achieve success as a _p_r_o_d_u_c_t oftheindividual's _p_e_r_c_e_i_v_e_d_p_r_o_b_a_b_i_l_i_t_y ofsuccess andtheincen- tivevalue of thatsuccess. _S_i_m_i_l_a_r_l_y_, themotivationto avoid failurewas seen as a

product of perceivedprobability of

failure.More recentformulationsof _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_y_- _v_a_l_u_e

Wigfield,1994; _W_i_g_f_i_e_l_d & Tonks,2002)

have refinedand extendedAtkinson's

original ^fô^r^mû^lâ^tⁱôⁿ bysuggesting that (a) the expectancy-value frameworkcan be

applied

range of behavior, not just risk-takingbehaviors; (b) the

_s_t_r_e_n_g_t_h of an individual's motivationis based _o_n _t_h_e

distaloutcomesassociatedwitha _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_o_r _p_a_t_t_e_r_n _o_f _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_s_; _a_n_d ₍_c₎ _m_o_t_i_v_a_-

tionis _d_e_p_e_n_d_e_n_t on the _p_e_r_c_e_p_t_i_o_n of thelikelihoodof a desiredoutcomeoccur-

ring,contingent on a behavioror _p_a_t_t_e_r_n ofbehaviors ₍_s_e_e also Nicholls,Cheung,

Lauer, &

failureand the _n_e_g_a_t_i_v_e incentivevalue of

theory(e.g., Eccles, 1983;

valuing of proximal and

to the whole

Patashnick,1989; _W_i_g_f_i_e_l_d & Tonks,2002).

In an educational _c_o_n_t_e_x_t_, studentswho believe _t_h_e_y _a_r_e

capable of mastering

^t^hêⁱ^r^s^c^hôô^l^wô^r^k typically have positiveexpectations forsuccess and,hence,high motivationand achievement ₍_N_i_c_h_o_l_l_s et _a_l_._, ₁₉₈₉₎_. What furthercontributesto

students'motivationand _a_c_h_i_e_v_e_m_e_n_t_i_s

as theinterfaceof _t_h_e_i_r _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_i_e_s _a_n_d _t_a_s_k

their valuing

ofan academic _t_a_s_k_, as well

values ₍_A_r_b_r_e_t_o_n & Blumenfield,

1997; Eccles, ₁₉₈₃₎_. In a recentmodel

representing the development of students' expectancies for

success and _t_a_s_k _v_a_l_u_e_s_, _W_i_g_f_i_e_l_d and Tonks ₍₂₀₀₂₎ identifiedtherole _o_f

signifi-

cant socializes' _a_t_t_i_t_u_d_e_s_,_b_e_l_i_e_f_s_, and behaviorsin the _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t of students'

expectancies and values. In particular,expectancies and values are influenced _b_y ^t^hê^sô^cⁱâ^lⁱ^zê^s ^wⁱ^t^h^w^hô^m^s^tû^dêⁿ^t^s^hâ^vê significantrelationships.Thus,expectancy-valuetheoryimplicatesrelationships as an _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t_c_o_m_p_o_n_e_n_t of its theo-

retical framework, and

ⁱⁿ part,relationally determined.

expectancies and values may be conceptualized as being,

Goal _t_h_e_o_r_y_. Goal _t_h_e_o_r_y focuses on the _m_e_a_n_i_n_g studentsattachto _a_c_h_i_e_v_e_m_e_n_t

situationsand the _p_u_r_p_o_s_e _f_o_r_t_h_e_i_r_a_c_t_i_o_n_s

Mclnerney,2002; Dweck, 1992; Pintrich,Marx, & _B_o_y_l_e_, 1993). Goals _p_r_o_p_o_s_e_d

in

desireto

in _g_o_a_l _t_h_e_o_r_y have added social _g_o_a_l_s_. Social _g_o_a_l_s focus on social reasons for

achievement, such as

parents and peers), and complying ^wⁱ^t^h group norms (Dowson & Mclnerney, 2001, 2003; Elliot, 1997, 1999; Mclnerney,Roche, _M_c_l_n_e_r_n_e_y_, & Marsh, 1997; Middleton& Midgley,1997; Urdan& Maehr,1995).

334

^dê^môⁿ^s^t^râ^tê superiority(performancegoal). More-recent _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t_s

₍_A_m_e_s_, 1992; Barker,Dowson, &

and the

earlytheorizing were thedesire to affirm competence(masterygoal)

affiliating with others, gainingapproval fromothers (e.g.,


_R_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s andStudentMotivationand _E_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t

Goal _t_h_e_o_r_i_z_i_n_g hasnowalsointroducedan _a_p_p_r_o_a_c_h andavoidancedistinction

Barkeret

al., 2002; Elliot,1997). Goals may

be

conceptualized as being

arethosethatdraw

drivewithdrawalfromactivitiesor

negativeimplications and consequences.Mastery,performance, and

_f_o_r _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_,_r_e_p_r_e_s_e_n_t_s thedesirenottofailat

developingmastery, a perfor-

for example,workingmainly toavoid disapproval from parents

goals,

Mclnerney,2003; Elliot,1997;

& Van Etten,1998;

_e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, Martinetal.

(2007)

demonstrateda _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t link

_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s

students' relationships with peers

Creasey et al.,

parents).Indeed, there may be different impacts ofteach-

(2007) found

andDowsonand

Mclnerney(2003) foundthat parentsmay havethe

_o_n students'social _g_o_a_l_s_. All this _s_u_g_g_e_s_t_s thatthe _g_o_a_l_s

these goals

are

parents. For

(e.g.,

directedtoward approach ortowardavoidance. Approachgoals

participation inan activity. Avoidance goals

avoidanceof

social _g_o_a_l_s can be locatedon approach-avoidance axes.A _m_a_s_t_e_r_y avoidance

goal,

manceavoidance _g_o_a_l as thedesirenottodemonstratelackof _a_b_i_l_i_t_y_, anda social

avoidance _g_o_a_l_a_s_,

_a_n_d teachers ₍_B_a_r_k_e_r et _a_l_._, 2002; Dowson &

Martin,2001,2002b,2006a).

Whetherdirectedtoward _a_p_p_r_o_a_c_h or avoidance, the _g_o_a_l_s students _a_d_o_p_t_, their _r_e_l_a_t_i_v_e _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_c_e_, andtheireffectsonmotivationandachievementarerelatedto

theinfluenceofothers (e.g.,Mclnerney,Hinkley,Dowson,

Wentzel,1994). For

_b_e_t_w_e_e_n_t_h_e _q_u_a_l_i_t_y _o_f_t_e_a_c_h_e_r_-_s_t_u_d_e_n_t

tionandavoidance _g_o_a_l_s₍_s_e_e alsoAnderman& Maehr,1994;Meece, 1991, for _o_t_h_e_r _a_s_p_e_c_t_s ofteacherbehaviorandstudents' _g_o_a_l_s₎_._T_h_e_y also demonstrateda

andtheir

and (b) students' relationship with parents or caregiv-

1997fortheinfluenceofrelational

contextswith _p_e_e_r_s and

andstudents' _m_a_s_t_e_r_y orienta-

_s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t associationbetween ₍_a₎

_m_a_s_t_e_r_y andavoidance _g_o_a_l_s ersandthese _g_o_a_l_s₍_s_e_e also

_e_r_s_,_p_a_r_e_n_t_s_, and _p_e_e_r_s ondifferent _g_o_a_l_s_. For _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, Martinetal.

_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s withteachershadthemost _i_m_p_a_c_t on students' _m_a_s_t_e_r_y andavoid-

ance

impact students _a_d_o_p_t_, andthe _w_a_y

most

_e_x_p_r_e_s_s_e_d_, arenot independent ofthe

_i_n_f_l_u_e_n_c_e_o_f_t_h_e _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s studentshavewith _t_e_a_c_h_e_r_s_,_p_e_e_r_s_, and

_t_h_i_s _r_e_a_s_o_n_, students' _g_o_a_l_s canbe

fulfilledinrelationalcontexts ₍_s_e_e also Lemos,1996;Stipek,Giwin,Salmon, &

MacGyvers,1998;Taylor,1995).

conceptualized as both arising fromand being

Self-determinationtheory. Ofthetheoriesreviewed here, ^sê^l^f^-^dê^tê^r^mⁱⁿâ^tⁱôⁿ theory

is _a_m_o_n_g _t_h_e_m_o_s_t _e_x_p_l_i_c_i_t _i_n_i_t_s _r_e_c_o_g_n_i_t_i_o_n ofrelatednessas a fundamental _i_n_g_r_e_-

dientofmotivation.It _p_r_o_p_o_s_e_s thatforone _t_o_b_e motivatedandto functionat

_o_p_t_i_m_a_l level, a setof _p_s_y_c_h_o_l_o_g_i_c_a_l needsmustbe supported(Deci

Theseneedsarerelated-

ness,competence, and

belongingprovides the required

_e_m_o_t_i_o_n_a_l _s_e_c_u_r_i_t_y thatindividualsneedto _a_c_t_i_v_e_l_y_e_x_p_l_o_r_e and

withtheirworlds. Froma _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g_p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_, a _s_t_r_o_n_g senseofrelatednessbetter _p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n_s stu-

dentstotakeon

extendandmotivatethem.Moreover, relatednessneedsconstitutea

forcefor internalizing social regulations and adapting to interpersonal circum-

stances ₍_L_a Guardia&

_l_i_k_e_l_y toenablestudentsto _n_e_g_o_t_i_a_t_e theaffectiveandsocialworldoftheclass- _r_o_o_m_a_n_d _s_c_h_o_o_l_, andthisenhancedaffectiveandsocial _i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_i_o_n interfaceswith

&

Ryan,2000;

La Guardia& Ryan,2002;Reeve,Deci, & Ryan,2004).

of _b_e_l_o_n_g_i_n_g withothers.Thisconnectednessand

_a_u_t_o_n_o_m_y_. Relatednessreferstotheconnectionandsense

effectively deal

challenge, set positivegoals, andestablish highexpectations that

Ryan,2002).

motivating

In _t_u_r_n_,_m_e_e_t_i_n_g theserelatednessneedsis

335


Martin& Dowson

enhancedmotivational _p_r_o_c_e_s_s_e_s₍_F_u_r_r_e_r _&

Wentzelet al.,2004).

and

_e_x_p_e_r_i_e_n_c_e betteracademic _f_u_n_c_t_i_o_n_i_n_g in _c_l_a_s_s_, andchildrenwitha

senseofrelatednesswith _p_a_r_e_n_t_s aremore _e_n_g_a_g_e_d atschooland _d_i_s_p_l_a_y_h_i_g_h_e_r

self-esteemwhileatschool ₍_A_v_e_r_y _&

are _a_l_i_g_n_e_d_, childrenwhoaremore _w_a_r_m_l_y involvedwiththeir _p_a_r_e_n_t_s

Skinner,2003;Weissberg et al.,2003;

For _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, totheextentthathomeandschool _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_t_i_o_n_s

heightened

Ryan,1987;Ryan,Stiller, & Lynch,1994).

goals

_Q_u_a_l_i_t_y relatednesswith _p_a_r_e_n_t_s also _p_r_e_d_i_c_t_s_q_u_a_l_i_t_y relatednesswithteachers

(Ryanetal.,1994).

Self-efficacytheory.Self-efficacytheory is _c_e_n_t_r_a_l_l_y relevanttoindividuals'belief intheir capacity to successfullycarry out given tasksandthe consequentimpact thisself-beliefhason motivationandachievement ₍_B_a_n_d_u_r_a_,₁₉₈₆_,₁₉₉₇_; Schell et al., 1995; Schunk& Miller,2002). Self-efficacy is hypothesized to support a

_g_e_n_e_r_a_t_i_v_e_c_a_p_a_c_i_t_y suchthatindividuals _h_i_g_h in

alternativecoursesofactionwhen _t_h_e_y _d_o _n_o_t_m_e_e_t_w_i_t_h_i_n_i_t_i_a_l_s_u_c_c_e_s_s ₍_S_c_h_u_n_k_,

self-efficacygenerate andtest

1991 _; Schunk&

Miller,2002).Highself-efficacy canalsoenhanceone'sfunction-

_i_n_g_t_h_r_o_u_g_h elevatedlevelsofeffortand _p_e_r_s_i_s_t_e_n_c_e andcan also enhanceone's

ability todealwith problematic situations byinfluencingcognitive andemotional _p_r_o_c_e_s_s_e_s relatedtothesituation (Bandura,1986,1997;Zimmerman,Bandura, &

Martinez-Ponz,1992).

Studentscan _g_a_i_n a senseof

self-efficacythrough the problem-solving model-

997).Moreover,

_i_n_g and _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_i_v_e communicationof _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t others ₍_B_a_n_d_u_r_a_, 1

thosewithwhomstudents _i_d_e_n_t_i_f_y andtowhom _t_h_e_y are _c_l_o_s_e_l_y connectedare

more-powerful

channelsofthis modeling and positive communication

(Bandura,

₁₉₉₇_;_M_e_e_c_e_,₁₉₉₇_; Schunk& _M_i_l_l_e_r_,₂₀₀₂₎_. Inthis _s_e_n_s_e_, _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s_i_s_a mecha-

nism through which modeling takes place.Furthermore,

enceon

(Bandura,1997).

theseareheld _b_y_s_e_l_f_, _c_a_n_b_e

And

extenttowhich _s_e_l_f_-_e_f_f_i_c_a_c_y beliefs _c_h_a_n_g_e overtimeandthe _w_a_y_s thesebeliefs

affectmotivationand achievementare determinedin thesocial

Bandura,1986; Parker& _M_a_r_t_i_n_, in

alizedinrelationaltermsratherthanin _s_o_l_e_l_y individualterms ₍_S_c_h_u_n_k_,₁₉₉₁_;

Schunk& _M_i_l_l_e_r_,₂₀₀₂₎_._P_e_r_h_a_p_s a focusforfutureresearchis _w_h_e_t_h_e_r_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_-

ships area

modeling(e.g.,yes,no)

ednessis a mediatorofthese _p_r_o_c_e_s_s_e_s suchthat _m_o_d_e_l_i_n_g_p_r_e_d_i_c_t_s achievement

motivation _b_y_w_a_y ofrelationalfactors.

a keyinterpersonal

influ-

self-efficacy is

thevicariousinfluencefromothers _t_h_r_o_u_g_h _s_o_c_i_a_l_m_o_d_e_l_s

Forthese _r_e_a_s_o_n_s_, efficacious _s_e_l_f_-_b_e_l_i_e_f_s_, andtheextenttowhich

conceptualized as a relationally influenced process.

individualistic _t_e_r_m_s_, boththe

domain (e.g.,

althoughself-efficacy is oftendiscussedin

press).Hence,self-efficacymay be conceptu-

moderatorofthese _p_r_o_c_e_s_s_e_s suchthatrelatedness ₍_e_._g_._,_h_i_g_h_,_l_o_w₎ and

interacttoaffectachievementmotivationorwhetherrelat-

_S_e_l_f_-_w_o_r_t_h motivation _t_h_e_o_r_y_. Self-worthmotivation _t_h_e_o_r_y _d_e_s_c_r_i_b_e_s_t_h_e_b_a_s_e_s _o_f_,

âⁿ^d^t^hê processes involved in,protecting or enhancing one'sself-worth (Covington,

1992,1998,2002).According tothis _t_h_e_o_r_y_, students'self-worthis

largely derived

through their ability to performacademically and competitively(Covington,2002;

One reasonstudentscometo _e_q_u_a_t_e theirworthwith _a_b_i_l_i_t_y is

thattheir _w_o_r_t_h_, _i_n

Robinson,1995).

part communicatedtothem bysignificantothers, is madecon-

significant

ditionalonachievement.Theseconditional _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s_,_t_h_e_n_, _h_a_v_e_a

impact on students' propensity to self-protect(Covington,1992;Martin,2002c,

336



₂₀₀₇_; Martin& Marsh,2003). In turn, such self-protection canhavea negative

impact on

Marsh, & Debus,2001a,2001b,2003;Thompson,1994).

dents' relationships,especially the conditionality ofthose relationships, affects theirself-worthandthentheirmotivationandachievement. _T_h_u_s_, self-worththe-

orymay alsobe

students' _e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t and

achievement (Covington,1992; Martin,

This

suggests thatstu-

_c_o_n_c_e_p_t_u_a_l_i_z_e_d inrelationalterms.

Froman _e_m_p_i_r_i_c_a_l_p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_, Martin,Marsh,Williamson, andDebus ₍₂₀₀₃₎

haveshownthatstudents'motiveto

inwhich theyengage todo

_t_h_e_y _f_o_u_n_d_t_h_a_t_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_s_' _p_a_r_e_n_t_s werea factorintheirfearoffailure. _T_h_e_y also

foundthatthecharacteristic _w_a_y inwhichthatfearwas

_s_e_l_f_-_h_a_n_d_i_c_a_p_p_i_n_g _o_r_d_e_f_e_n_s_i_v_e _p_e_s_s_i_m_i_s_m₎ was oftenlinkedtothecharacteristic

_w_a_y _i_n_w_h_i_c_h_t_h_e_i_r _p_a_r_e_n_t_s dealtwiththeirownfear.This

relatednessis

transmissionoffearoffailureandthe _i_m_p_a_c_t of _a_p_p_r_o_v_a_l withdrawalonstudents'

fearoffailure ₍_E_l_l_i_o_t & Thrash,2004).

_p_r_o_t_e_c_t self-worthandthe specificstrategies

particular,

thisareinfluenced _b_y_s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t others.In

responded to (e.g.,through

impact ofthe family and

the intergenerational

supportedby otherresearch demonstrating

_S_u_m_m_a_r_y_o_f_K_e_y RelationalIdeas

Emanating From Theory

_T_h_e_d_i_s_c_u_s_s_i_o_n_a_b_o_v_e_i_d_e_n_t_i_f_i_e_s _k_e_y motivation-andachievement-relatedcon-

belonging. A _s_u_m_m_a_r_y ofthese linkages is presented inTable

cepts, ideas, and _p_r_o_c_e_s_s_e_s_u_n_d_e_r_p_i_n_n_e_d ordirected byrelatedness,connectedness,

and

_t_h_e_o_r_y focusesonthecausesascribedtooutcomesandeventsinone'slifeandthe

_i_m_p_a_c_t ofthesecausal attributionson behavior,affect, and cognition. Personal

_a_t_t_r_i_b_u_t_i_o_n_s

1.Attribution

_m_a_y _b_e _l_e_a_r_n_e_d_f_r_o_m_, _o_r_m_o_d_e_l_e_d_o_n_, theattributional

_"_s_t_y_l_e_s_" or _p_a_t_-

ternsofothers. Specificconsequences ofattributions (such â^s â ^sêⁿ^sêô^f personal

_c_o_n_t_r_o_l₎ canalsobe _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_e_d_t_h_r_o_u_g_h feedbackfromandobservationof

signifi-

cantothers. Self-efficacy referstoa

_a desiredoutcome.Thissenseof

director vicariousinfluence,modeling, and

_R_e_l_a_t_e_d_t_o _t_h_i_s_,_e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_i_e_s andvalueshavealsobeen _s_u_b_s_t_a_n_t_i_v_e_l_y linkedtosocial-

izers'beliefs,attitudes, andbehaviors.Goal _t_h_e_o_r_y focusesonthe _w_h_y of _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_,

whichcan be

_o_t_h_e_r_s ₍_w_o_r_k_i_n_g atindividual,group, and

_t_h_e_o_r_y _f_o_c_u_s_e_s_o_n_t_h_e _p_s_y_c_h_o_l_o_g_i_c_a_l _n_e_e_d_f_o_r _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s_, whichissatisfied _t_h_r_o_u_g_h the

warmth,support, and

_t_h_e_o_r_y focusesonthelinkbetweenworthandachievement.Itdemonstratesthat thislinkis in _p_a_r_t _d_e_t_e_r_m_i_n_e_d _b_y_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s inthechild'slifeinwhich _w_o_r_t_h_,

affirmation, and

ways.

instilled _t_h_r_o_u_g_h

beliefinone's _c_a_p_a_c_i_t_y and _a_g_e_n_c_y toachieve

capacity and agency can be

open

communicationfromothers.

communicated _t_h_r_o_u_g_h thevaluesand expectations of significant

organizationallevels).Self-determination

nurturanceof _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t _o_t_h_e_r_s_. _S_e_l_f -worthmotivation

_a_p_p_r_o_v_a_l arecommunicatedineitherconditionalorunconditional

_P_a_r_t_I_I_I_: _A _T_r_i_l_e_v_e_l _A_p_p_r_o_a_c_h toActionFroma Relational _P_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e To theextentthatrelatednessis centraltoachievementmotivation _t_h_e_o_r_y_, then

_e_d_u_c_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e relevanttomotivationcanalsobe framedinrelationalterms.

A

_t_h_e _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e tiersatwhicheducationaloutcomesunfoldandatwhichintervention

_a_n_d _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e canbedirected.Tiered _a_p_p_r_o_a_c_h_e_s tointerventionand _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e arenot

_u_n_c_o_m_m_o_n_a_n_d_h_a_v_e _r_e_c_e_n_t_l_y beenadvocatedasbest _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e in

education-andhealth-based _p_r_o_b_l_e_m_s and _c_h_a_l_l_e_n_g_e_s₍_e_._g_._,

usefulheuristic _b_y whichto _o_r_g_a_n_i_z_e andconsidereducational _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e restson

addressing diverse

seeNationalInstitutes

337


TABLE 1

_S_u_m_m_a_r_y_o_f_k_e_y theoriesand _k_e_y_c_o_n_c_e_p_t_s relevanttorelatedness

Theory

Key concepts

Attribution _t_h_e_o_r_y

Perceivedcauses of an event

_E_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_y_- value

_t_h_e_o_r_y

or outcome _s_h_a_p_e _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_, _a_f_f_e_c_t_, and _c_o_g_n_i_t_i_o_n_;_k_e_y

causal ascriptions

_l_o_c_u_s_, _s_t_a_b_i_l_i_t_y Positive _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_t_i_o_n_s and _h_i_g_h value _p_l_a_c_e_d on taskor outcomeenhancesmotivation

-

_c_o_n_t_r_o_l_,

Link to relatedness or theother

_P_e_r_c_e_i_v_e_d_c_a_u_s_e_s learnedor inferredfrom _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t _o_t_h_e_r_s_; dimensionssuch as

control _s_h_a_p_e_d _b_y feedback fromothers Socializers' beliefs,attitudes, and _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_s _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_e_l_e_v_e_l of

expectation and nature of value

^Gôâ^l theory Reasons for engaging in a Communicated through

particular behavioror pursuing a particulargoal

^Sê^l^f^-^dê^tê^r^mⁱⁿâ^tⁱôⁿ Relatednessa psychological need

theory

_S_e_l_f_-_e_f_f_i_c_a_c_y

Belief in _c_a_p_a_c_i_t_y to achieve ⁱⁿ â specific domainor task

^Sê^l^f^-^wô^r^t^h

motivation

_t_h_e_o_r_y

^Lⁱⁿ^k betweenworthand achievement; fearof failure

others' values, _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_t_i_o_n_s_, and _g_r_o_u_p norms Relatednessneed met through

warmth, support, and nurturance Modeled and communicated

by significant others; vicariousinfluence fromothers

Relationships(approval, affirmation) conditional on level of achievement; specificresponse to fear offailurelinkedto _h_o_w

significant others _r_e_s_p_o_n_d

andNationalInstituteofChildHealthandHuman _D_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t_,

of Health,2008,

₂₀₀₈_, forlinksto research _a_l_o_n_g

identifiedas

_d_e_g_r_e_e_s and _t_y_p_e_s ofneed.Thetiered _a_p_p_r_o_a_c_h _i_s _a_l_s_o_a _u_s_e_f_u_l _w_a_y _o_f _o_r_g_a_n_i_z_i_n_g

thediscussionofrelationalaction. _A_c_c_o_r_d_i_n_g_l_y_, _w_e _c_o_n_s_i_d_e_r_r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s_a_t _t_h_e threelevelsthat _t_y_p_i_c_a_l_l_y characterizethenaturalstructureofstudents'educational

environs,namely,(a) _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e atthelevelofthe _s_t_u_d_e_n_t_,₍_b₎ _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e atthelevelof

theteacheror

particularly effectivein reaching diverse populations with varying

these lines).

Suchtiered _a_p_p_r_o_a_c_h_e_s arenow

classroom, and (c) _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e attheleveloftheschool.

We _a_r_g_u_e that _a_n_a_l_y_z_i_n_g actioninthistrilevelfashion _r_e_p_r_e_s_e_n_t_s _a_n

&

integrative

means _b_y whichtoaddressrelational _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e _i_n_t_h_e_c_o_n_t_e_x_t_o_f

this argument, we

ofthesethreelevelstoenhancethe _q_u_a_l_i_t_y _o_f _p_e_d_a_g_o_g_y₍_H_i_l_l

&

theory. To support

_p_o_i_n_t tothefactthat _p_r_e_v_i_o_u_s researchhasfocusedononeormore

Rowe,1996; Kontos

Wilcox-Herzog,1997b;Marzano,2003), improve middle schooling(Eccles,

338



₁₉₉₉₎_, enhancetheeducationaloutcomesof

boys(Martin,2003a,2003b,2004;

buoyancy(Cunningham,

Martin& Marsh,2006,

Weaver-Hightower,2003),

addresstheeducationalneedsof

_B_e_c_k_e_r_& _L_u_t_h_a_r_,₂₀₀₂₎_, smootheducationaltransition ₍_B_a_r_r_a_t_t_,₁₉₉₈_; Maehr&

Midgley,1996;Martin,2008a),

Brandon, & Frydenberg,1999; Howard& Johnson,2000;

2008, in press). _T_h_e _k_e_y_p_r_i_n_c_i_p_l_e_s _d_e_r_i_v_e_d_f_r_o_m _t_h_e_o_r_y outlinedin PartII arealso usefulin elementstoconsiderateachofthethreelevelsofintervention.

identifyingkey

_T_h_u_s_, _w_e_s_h_o_u_l_d_b_e _l_o_o_k_i_n_g _t_o _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e ateachlevelthatinvolvesor _e_n_c_o_m_p_a_s_s_e_s

_k_e_y constructsandmechanismsdetailedinthe _k_e_y theoriesdiscussedinPartII. _A_l_o_n_g _t_h_e_s_e_l_i_n_e_s_, _P_i_n_t_r_i_c_h ₍₂₀₀₃₎_r_e_c_e_n_t_l_y identifiedsubstantive _q_u_e_s_t_i_o_n_s forthe

development ofa

the importance of considering,conceptualizing, and

_v_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e fromsalientandseminal _t_h_e_o_r_i_z_i_n_g relatedto

butions,expectancy and _v_a_l_u_i_n_g_,_g_o_a_l orientation,self-determination, and

assist _I_n_d_i_g_e_n_o_u_s Australianstudents ₍_M_u_n_n_s_,₁₉₉₈₎_,

disadvantaged students (Battistich & Horn,1997;

andbuildresilienceand

motivationalscience.Taken _t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r_, these _q_u_e_s_t_i_o_n_s underscore

_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_t_i_n_g a modelofmoti-

self-efficacy, attri-

practice, itis important to recognize thatno one

encompassingapproach torelationalinter-

self-worth perspectives. _A_s _w_e discusseachlevelof

_p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e _i_s _a sufficientconditionforan

vention.Moreover, inthecontextofa tiered model,approaches aremosteffective

if integrated. For example, a school implementingcooperativelearning, mentor-

onlytargeted effort

ing, oran

tomeettherelationalneedsofitsstudentsis

_y_i_e_l_d_s _o_f_s_c_h_o_o_l_s _d_o_i_n_g _m_o_r_e_t_h_a_n_t_h_i_s_. _L_i_k_e_w_i_s_e_, thebenefitstobe derivedfrom

_p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e _w_i_l_l_b_e limitedifthereis _n_o_t_s_u_f_f_i_c_i_e_n_t _d_e_p_t_h suchthatthefullnessof _a_n_y

one _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e _i_s_n_o_t _a_m_p_l_y addressed.We

propose,then, thata powerfulimplemen-

_t_a_t_i_o_n_o_f_t_h_e_v_a_r_i_o_u_s _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_s describedbelowwillreston _b_r_e_a_d_t_h_,_d_e_p_t_h_,_q_u_a_l_i_t_y_,

and integration.

_e_x_p_a_n_d_e_d_a_p_p_r_o_a_c_h toextracurricular _a_c_t_i_v_i_t_y as its

_u_n_l_i_k_e_l_y toachievethe interpersonal

_P_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_a_t theStudentLevel

Atthestudentlevel, we _e_m_p_h_a_s_i_z_e universalstudent _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s and _i_n_t_e_r_v_e_n_t_i_o_n_,

underpinnedby

emphasize these practices because they

elementsof _t_h_e_o_r_y described above,representopportunities to

grounded in

_t_a_r_g_e_t_e_d student programsassisting at-risk populations, ê^x^t^râ^cû^r^rⁱ^cû^lâ^r activity, cooperativelearning, and mentoring.Although ^t^hê^rêâ^rê many ô^t^hê^r practices â^t^t^hê

studentlevelthatfacilitate _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s_, we

are

individual, student-

_t_o_-_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_,

enhanceconnectednessbetweenstudents, andare

_o_r_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_-_t_o_-_a_d_u_l_t

_a_p_p_r_o_a_c_h_e_s _t_o _e_n_h_a_n_c_i_n_g educationaloutcomes.

UniversalStudent _P_r_o_g_r_a_m_s andIntervention

In termsofthetheoreticalfoundationsdescribedearlier, thereare

(6-7),2003,

many in-

for

schoolandout-of-school _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s inwhichstudents _e_n_g_a_g_e thatnot _o_n_l_y enhance

academicoutcomesand

_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l_g_r_o_w_t_h _a_n_d _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t₍_i_n_d_e_e_d_, a recentissueofAmerican _P_s_y_c_h_o_l_o_g_i_s_t_,

38

Even _b_r_o_a_d_l_y basedrelational _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s offer _s_c_o_p_e _t_o_b_u_i_l_d _b_r_i_d_g_e_s tostudents'

academiclives.Such programstypicallyrange ⁱⁿ specificpurpose butareoften

aimedat

ioral, andacademic _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t_. These programscomprisepositiveinterpersonal

preventmaladaptive outcomesbutalso offer scope

focusedon such _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s andinterventionsfor _y_o_u_n_g_p_e_o_p_l_e₎_.

_i_n_t_e_r_v_e_n_i_n_g instudents'emotional,social,physical, behav-

enhancing or

339


Martin& Dowson

relationships and support,helping studentsfeel valued,developingsupportive rela-

tionships,establishing

_f_o_s_t_e_r_i_n_g individuals'usefulnessto

et al., 2003;

Martin ₍₂₀₀₅_, ₂₀₀₈_a₎ also identifiedelementsthatcontributeto effectivemoti- vationand _e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t interventionsbased on theseminal _t_h_e_o_r_y describedabove.

^T^hê firstelement comprisedoptimisticexpectations held by adultsforthe students, directlyinvokingself-efficacyprinciplesthrough the _m_o_d_e_l_i_n_g of efficacious

behavior

efficacy-relatedexpectations tostudents ₍_e_._g_._, see Bandura,1997;Wigfield & Tonks,

₂₀₀₂₎_. A focuson _m_a_s_t_e_r_y was a second

ory that identify the _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_c_e of significant adults in shaping

₍_e_._g_._, see Anderman& Maehr, 1994; _C_r_e_a_s_e_y et _a_l_._, 1997; Meece, ₁₉₉₁₎_. These

adultsare also influentialin

Martin. _S_p_e_c_i_f_i_c_a_l_l_y_, a climate of _c_o_o_p_e_r_a_t_i_o_n_, consistentwith

relevantclimateresearch ₍_A_m_e_s_, 1992; Dweck, 1992; _E_l_l_i_o_t_, 1997; _Q_i_n_, Johnson,

& Johnson,1995; Roeser, _M_i_d_g_l_e_y_, & Urdan,1996; Urdan,Midgley, & Anderman, ₁₉₉₈₎_, evokes a sense of _b_e_l_o_n_g_i_n_g thatfulfillsrelatedness _n_e_e_d_s_, consistentwith

self-determination _t_h_e_o_r_y₍_D_e_c_i &

climateof _c_o_o_p_e_r_a_t_i_o_n also servesto diminishevaluativeconcernsand _a _c_o_n_s_e_- _q_u_e_n_t fear of _f_a_i_l_u_r_e_, in _k_e_e_p_i_n_g with tenetsof self-worthmotivation _t_h_e_o_r_y

₍_C_o_v_i_n_g_t_o_n_,₁₉₉₂_, 1998, 2002; Martin& Marsh,2003).

a meaningfulplace for the individual in a group,

others ₍_D_r_y_f_o_o_s_, 1990; Martin,2008a;

and

Nation

Weissberg et al., 2003).

by

adults and

expectancy-value principles throughcommunicating

shaping

element,invokingprinciples of goal

the-

students' _g_o_a_l_s

the _c_l_i_m_a_t_e_, thethirdelementidentified _b_y

goal theory and

Ryan,2000; La Guardia & Ryan,2002). This

Targeted Student Programsfor At-Risk Populations:

Special Focus on Indigenous Students

As discussed, universal

intervention programstypically involve practices

students, whether _t_h_e_y be _h_i_g_h orlow achievers,motivated, orunmo-

directedatall

tivated. _H_o_w_e_v_e_r_, therehas been some concernthatsuch _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s_m_a_y _i_n_c_r_e_a_s_e

the _g_a_p betweenthe

butthe stronggain more ₍_e_._g_._, Ceci &

_p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e on educational _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_m_a_y hold _s_p_e_c_i_f_i_c and differentiatedbenefits

for _g_r_o_u_p_s thatare at _r_i_s_k_, even undera universalintervention _p_a_r_a_d_i_g_m_. To illus-

_t_r_a_t_e_, ^wê ^fô^cû^sôⁿ studentsfrom disadvantagedgroups.Although these _g_r_o_u_p_s are

by no

examining ^t^hê potential fora relational approach in addressing theireducational needs.

strong andthe

_s_t_r_u_g_g_l_i_n_g studentssuchthatthe _s_t_r_u_g_g_l_e_r_s_g_a_i_n

_P_a_p_i_e_r_n_o_,₂₀₀₅₎_. We _p_r_o_p_o_s_e thata relational

meansexhaustiveofstudent _g_r_o_u_p_s at _r_i_s_k_,_t_h_e_y arean informativemeansof

In

manycountries, _I_n_d_i_g_e_n_o_u_s

students _r_e_p_r_e_s_e_n_t a distinct _g_r_o_u_p _o_f_d_i_s_a_d_v_a_n_-

across _r_e_a_d_i_n_g_, mathematical _l_i_t_e_r_a_c_y_, and

_t_a_g_e_d student.In Australia, for _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_,

scientific _l_i_t_e_r_a_c_y_,_I_n_d_i_g_e_n_o_u_s studentsachieveata muchlowerstandardthantheir

non-Indigenouscounterparts, and the _d_r_o_p_o_u_t rate in high school is markedly higher for Indigenousgroups(Groome & Hamilton,1995; Martin,2003c; Munns,

₁₉₉₈₎_. Researchconducted

amongIndigenous studentshas foundthatthe _i_m_p_a_c_t

Godfrey,Partington,

Giventhefactthat _m_a_n_y_I_n_d_i_g_e_n_o_u_s students _e_x_p_e_r_i_-

of _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s on a numberof educationaloutcomescan be substantial

(see, e.g., Collins, 1993; Groome& Hamilton,1995; _R_i_c_h_e_r_,

Harslett, & Harrison,1998).

êⁿ^cê ^dⁱ^f^fⁱ^cû^l^tⁱê^s^wⁱ^t^h^t^hêⁱ^r teacher, interpersonalrelationships are a criticalcon-

^cê^rⁿ ^w^hêⁿ ^s^c^hôô^l^s â^rê seeking ^tô enhance Indigenous outcomes ₍_R_i_c_h_e_r _e_t _a_l_._, ₁₉₉₈₎_.

340

students'educational



_R_e_v_i_e_w_s _p_o_i_n_t _t_o _t_h_r_e_e_l_e_v_e_l_s of _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s relevantto theeducationalneeds

students ₍_M_a_r_t_i_n_,₂₀₀₆_a_, 2006b; Munns, 1998; see also Fanshawe,

of Indigenous

1989). The

_f_i_r_s_t_i_n_v_o_l_v_e_s_a_n active _d_a_i_l_y connectionwiththeschool. This relation-

_s_h_i_p is underpinnedby ongoing connectionswith ^t^hê Indigenous community,

_c_u_r_r_i_c_u_l_u_m_, and a focuson theinterests

Indigenous Studiesas part

of Indigenous

withschool _e_n_h_a_n_c_e students'academic _a_n_d nonacademic morale ₍_F_a_n_s_h_a_w_e_,

₁₉₈₉_; Martin,2006a, 2006b; Munns, ₁₉₉₈₎_. The second, interpersonal relation-

ships,

and school, and developingIndigenous cultural knowledge âⁿ^d understanding.

The third,pedagogical relationships, involves

of challenging and

expectations ^hê^l^d by

_p_r_e_d_i_c_t_o_r_s _o_f_t_h_i_s _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p includeteacher _s_a_t_i_s_f_a_c_t_i_o_n_, _a_p_p_r_o_p_r_i_a_t_e and

fulviews _o_f _s_t_u_d_e_n_t_s_' _I_n_d_i_g_e_n_o_u_s _s_t_a_t_u_s_, collaborativelesson _p_l_a_n_n_i_n_g_, and effec-

tive _e_a_r_l_y intervention _p_o_l_i_c_i_e_s and programming(Munns, 1998). Taken together,

school, interpersonal, and pedagogical for _i_m_p_r_o_v_i_n_g educationaloutcomesof

educationaloutcomesof other _d_i_s_a_d_v_a_n_t_a_g_e_d minoritiesand

of the

general

studentsas a

policypriority.Together, these aspects ô^f relationship

involvesteachers' _g_e_t_t_i_n_g toknow students,developing trustwithintheclass

_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_n_g withstudents _b_y means

_i_n_t_e_r_e_s_t_i_n_g _w_o_r_k_, effectiveinstructional _s_t_r_a_t_e_g_i_e_s_, and _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e

teachersforstudents.In thecontextof _I_n_d_i_g_e_n_o_u_s _e_d_u_c_a_t_i_o_n_,

respect-

relatednesscan be

an organizingconcept

Indigenous students ^- and potentially the

groups.

educationare echoed in for example,developed â

AfricanAmericans. _N_o_t_w_i_t_h_s_t_a_n_d_i_n_g

_M_a_r_t_i_n ₍₂₀₀₃_c₎

_s_u_g_g_e_s_t_e_d thatthisframework _p_r_o_v_i_d_e_d a usefulmeans _b_y students'educational _s_t_a_t_u_s _a_n_d outcomes.

Indigenous

_t_o _G_r_a_h_a_m_, a centralelementof such a motivational _p_s_y_c_h_o_l_o_g_y must

_h_a_v_e been drawnfromthe work of _L_a_d_s_o_n_-_B_i_l_l_i_n_g_s with

exemplary

students,developing a community of learners, and encouraging students

can be _r_e_a_d_i_l_y surmised, theseare principles of ê^f^fê^c^-

anygroup.

In line with this, lessons learned throughIndigenous thoselearnedin othercultural _s_e_t_t_i_n_g_s_. Graham ₍₁₉₉₄₎_,

_t_a_x_o_n_o_m_y for considering motivation among

_t_h_e _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t historicaland social _f_a_c_t_o_r_s_t_h_a_t _d_i_s_t_i_n_g_u_i_s_h themfromotherracial

groups, which to thinkabout

According

addresssocializationantecedentsofachievement _s_t_r_i_v_i_n_g_s_._S_i_m_i_l_a_r_l_y_,_p_e_d_a_g_o_g_i_c_a_l

principles

teachersof AfricanAmerican students (Ladson-Billings, 1995). According ^tô

Ladson-Billings,culturallyresponsive ^têâ^c^hê^r^s^c^rêâ^tê^sô^cⁱâ^l ⁱⁿ^tê^râ^c^tⁱôⁿ^s through maintaining fluid teacher-student relationships,demonstrating ^côⁿⁿê^c^tê^dⁿê^s^s

withall

to learn collaboratively. As

However,they have _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_-

lar scope

who are _a_c_a_d_e_m_i_c_a_l_l_y disadvantaged,

Indigenous

nic minoritiesand

groups _w_h_e_r_e _t_h_e_y _a_r_e mostneeded.

_t_i_v_e _t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g _t_h_a_t_s_h_o_u_l_d_b_e effectivewith

forclassroomscharacterized _b_y_d_i_v_e_r_s_i_t_y_, and in _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r withstudents

such as Indigenous ^mⁱⁿô^rⁱ^tⁱê^s ₍_e_._g_._,

Australians, Native Americans) and educationallydisadvantaged ê^t^h^-

₍_e_._g_._, AfricanAmericans and Mexican _A_m_e_r_i_c_a_n_s₎_,

Extracurricular _A_c_t_i_v_i_t_y

out-of-school _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s_.

Extracurricularinvolvement _e_n_c_o_m_p_a_s_s_e_s_,_a_m_o_n_g

_s_p_o_r_t_, music,dance,clubs, and church.The

extracurricularactivitiesarea _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e influencein _y_o_u_n_g_p_e_o_p_l_e_'_s lives,including

in theireducational,social, and emotionallives ₍_B_a_r_b_e_r_,_E_c_c_l_e_s_, & Stone, 2001; _C_o_o_p_e_r_, Valentine,Nye, & _L_i_n_d_s_a_y_, ₁₉₉₉_; Eccles & Barber,1999; Marsh, 1992; Marsh & Kleitman, 2002; _V_a_l_e_n_t_i_n_e_,_C_o_o_p_e_r_, Bettencourt, & DuBois, 2002).

341

Extracurricularinvolvementstraversein-schooland

_o_t_h_e_r _t_h_i_n_g_s_, activitiessuch as

suggests ^t^hâ^t^mô^s^t

_w_e_i_g_h_t ofevidence


Martin& _D_o_w_s_o_n

Significantly, relatednessand

thought to yieldpositive effects.Extracurricular activityprovidesyoungpeople

withsafeand caring environments (McLaughlin,Irby, & Langman,1994)

prosocial adults (Mahoney,Schweder, & Stattin,2001;

2000)

with self-efficacytheory(Bandura,1997;

_a_c_t_i_v_i_t_y_h_e_l_p_s_d_e_v_e_l_o_p socialskillsandsocial

_i_n_g a student'ssenseof _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_, as articulated _b_y

attribution theory(Weiner,1986,

_b_e_l_o_n_g_i_n_g are _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t reasonssuchactivitiesare

inwhich

Roth& Brooks-Gunn,

areableto _p_r_o_m_o_t_e_s_e_l_f_-_e_f_f_i_c_a_c_y andmodeleffective _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_s_, consistent

Schunk& _M_i_l_l_e_r_,₂₀₀₂₎_. Extracurricular

capital(Broh,2002),thereby build-

Perry & Tunna,1988;Thompson,1994), and _a_u_t_o_n_o_m_y_, consistent

₁₉₉₄_; seealso

witha self-determination _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e₍_D_e_c_i &

Ryan,2000; La Guardia& Ryan,

2002; Reeveet al.,2004). _M_o_r_e_o_v_e_r_, extracurricular _a_c_t_i_v_i_t_y_p_r_o_v_i_d_e_s an adoles-

belonging to a personally valued group(Brown & Evans,

centwitha _s_e_n_s_e_o_f

₂₀₀₂₎_,_h_a_r_n_e_s_s_i_n_g_p_r_i_n_c_i_p_l_e_s from _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_y_-_v_a_l_u_e andself-determinationframe-

works (Deci & Ryan,2000;

connectionsand

to _p_r_o_m_o_t_e achievementmotivation. _H_e_n_c_e_,_t_h_r_o_u_g_h a relationalframeworkunder-

pinnedbyprinciples salientin

_a_c_t_i_v_i_t_y can facilitate

_W_i_g_f_i_e_l_d & _T_o_n_k_s_,₂₀₀₂₎_. To theextentthatthese

modeling are aligned withacademic goals,they havethe potential

_t_h_e_o_r_i_z_i_n_g_, extracurricular

educationalandotheroutcomes.

^Côô^pê^râ^tⁱ^vê^Lêâ^rⁿⁱⁿ^g Alsorelevantatthestudentlevelandrelatedin _p_a_r_t to _g_o_a_l_t_h_e_o_r_y istherelative emphasis on cooperative(relational) and competitive(anti- oratleasta relational) activities among students. Cooperation canbe operationally definedas the pres-

enceof jointgoals,

(Qin,Johnson, & Johnson,1995). In cooperativesituations, studentsstrivetoreach their _g_o_a_l_s_t_h_r_o_u_g_h the _s_u_p_p_o_r_t and _j_o_i_n_t focusofothersintheir _g_r_o_u_p _o_r_c_l_a_s_s_._I_n

_c_o_m_p_e_t_i_t_i_v_e_s_i_t_u_a_t_i_o_n_s_, studentsstrivetoreachtheir _g_o_a_l_s_i_n_d_i_v_i_d_u_a_l_l_y_, _o_r

(rather than with) others (Anderman & Maehr,1994;

whereas _c_o_o_p_e_r_a_t_i_o_n isfocusedonthenotionofrelatednessandmutualactionwith

antitheticaltoit.Evidence _s_u_g_g_e_s_t_s

the _o_t_h_e_r_, thenotionof

that _c_o_o_p_e_r_a_t_i_v_e effortsaremoreeffectivethan _c_o_m_p_e_t_i_t_i_v_e _e_f_f_o_r_t_s_f_o_r _m_a_n_y_l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g_-

related _t_a_s_k_s_, _s_u_c_h_a_s those _i_n_v_o_l_v_i_n_g_d_e_c_o_d_i_n_g andrecallofinformation ₍_B_a_r_k_e_r

et

duciveto

et

ingsbyarguing thatthe _p_u_r_s_u_i_t of _j_o_i_n_t_g_o_a_l_s

ofintellectualand _p_h_y_s_i_c_a_l resources ₍_a_l_l factors _r_e_l_y_i_n_g onrelatednessandinter-

_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_e_d_n_e_s_s₎ contributeto theadvancementof achievementand _m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n

_u_n_d_e_r_p_i_n_n_i_n_g theseoutcomes.

mutual _r_e_w_a_r_d_s_, shared _r_e_s_o_u_r_c_e_s_, _a_n_d

complementary roles

against

Barkeret al.,2002).Thus,

competition tendstobe

al.,2002;Johnson,Maruyama,Johnson,Nelson, & _S_k_o_n_,₁₉₈₁₎_, andmorecon-

higher level thinking and problemsolving(Johnson et al., 1981;Qin

al.,1995;Slavin,1983).Cooperativelearning theorists _m_i_g_h_t_e_x_p_l_a_i_n suchfind-

andmutualrewardsandthe _s_h_a_r_i_n_g

^Mêⁿ^tô^rⁱⁿ^g Withintheschool _e_n_v_i_r_o_n_m_e_n_t_,_m_e_n_t_o_r_i_n_g harnessesrelatednessbetween _y_o_u_n_g_e_r studentsandolderstudents ₍_o_r_a_d_u_l_t_s₎ _w_h_o _p_r_o_v_i_d_e_s_u_p_p_o_r_t _a_n_d _g_u_i_d_a_n_c_e

in

high schoolstudents "adopting"elementary school students,elementary school _a_c_t_i_v_i_t_y_d_a_y_s₍_e_._g_._,_h_i_g_h schoolstudents _t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g_y_o_u_n_g_e_r studentsskillsforbetter

particular domains. _M_e_n_t_o_r_i_n_g is implemented in numerous ways,including

_s_c_h_o_o_l_w_o_r_k₎_, formerstudents _v_i_s_i_t_i_n_g _t_h_e_s_c_h_o_o_l ₍_e_._g_._, to

identifypostschoolpathwaysrelying on academic _e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t₎_, underachievers

342

encouragereading orto



choosing

_i_n_d_u_s_t_r_y₍_s_e_e Noble & _B_r_a_d_f_o_r_d_,₂₀₀₀₎_. It has been _s_u_g_g_e_s_t_e_d thattheenhanced

_i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l connectednessthatis _p_a_r_t of

Powell, ₂₀₀₂₎_. In a recent

model _r_e_p_r_e_s_e_n_t_i_n_g the _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t ofstudents' _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_i_e_s forsuccess andtask

values,Wigfield and Tonks ₍₂₀₀₂₎

(e.g.,

Froma self-efficacyperspective, students gain a sense ô^f efficacy, â^t least ⁱⁿ part,

_t_h_r_o_u_g_h the problem-solvingmodeling

₍_B_a_n_d_u_r_a_, ₁₉₉₇₎_. Mentorsare _l_i_k_e_l_y to _b_e _p_o_w_e_r_f_u_l channels of _m_o_d_e_l_i_n_g and _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_, _a_n_d so _q_u_a_l_i_t_y relatednessin the mentor _p_r_o_c_e_s_s is an

importantpart ô^f^t^hⁱ^s^.

_P_r_a_c_t_i_c_e at theTeacherand ClassroomLevel

and _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_i_v_e communicationof _o_t_h_e_r_s

_m_e_n_t_o_r_s₎ _b_e_l_i_e_f_s _a_n_d _b_e_h_a_v_i_o_r_s_o_n the academic _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t of students.

a teacher-mentorto work _w_i_t_h_, or _p_a_i_r_i_n_g_s in _p_a_r_t_n_e_r_s_h_i_p withlocal

these _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s contributes _d_i_r_e_c_t_l_y to

_e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t and achievement _g_a_i_n_s (Karcher,Davis, &

_e_m_p_h_a_s_i_z_e_d therole of _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t socializers'

_A _p_e_r_v_a_d_i_n_g _t_h_e_m_e _u_n_d_e_r_p_i_n_n_i_n_g thetheoreticaltraditionsin PartII is therole

thatstudents _g_a_i_n a senseofcontroland locus _t_h_r_o_u_g_h

andbehaviorsinthe _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t ofstudents' _e_x_p_e_c_-

of teachers ₍_a_n_d classroom _f_a_c_t_o_r_s₎ in _s_h_a_p_i_n_g students'achievementmotivation.

Attribution theoryproposes

feedbackfromteachersor _b_y _o_b_s_e_r_v_i_n_g models _d_e_m_o_n_s_t_r_a_t_i_n_g a sense of control ₍_F_a_b_r_i_c_i_u_s & _H_a_g_e_n_, ₁₉₈₄_; _P_e_r_r_y & Tunna,1988; Petersonet al., 1993; _T_h_o_m_p_s_o_n_,

₁₉₉₄_; Weiner,1986). Expectancy-valuetheory ⁱ^dêⁿ^tⁱ^fⁱê^s^t^hê ^rô^lê ô^f significant

socializers' attitudes,beliefs,

tancies and values (Wigfield & Tonks, 2002). From a goal theoryperspective,

teacher-set tasks,assessment, and groupingstrategies ⁱⁿ^f^lûêⁿ^cê^t^hê goals ^s^tû^dêⁿ^t^s _a_d_o_p_t₍_A_n_d_e_r_m_a_n & Maehr,1994; Meece, 1991). Belongingness ⁱⁿ^t^hê classroom, centralto self-determination _t_h_e_o_r_y_, is cultivated _b_y theteacherand thestudents collectedintheclassroom ₍_D_e_c_i & _R_y_a_n_, ₂₀₀₀_; La Guardia& _R_y_a_n_, ₂₀₀₂_; Reeve

et al., 2004).

_p_o_r_t_i_v_e communicationofteachers ₍_B_a_n_d_u_r_a_,₁₉₉₇₎_. Froma self-worthmotivation

_p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_, Martin,Marsh,Williamson, et al. ₍₂₀₀₃_; see also Covington, 1992,

Students _g_a_i_n

a sense of self-efficacythrough the modeling âⁿ^d sup-

have shownthatstudents'motiveto _p_r_o_t_e_c_t self-worthis

1998; Thompson,1994)

_i_n_f_l_u_e_n_c_e_d _b_y _t_e_a_c_h_e_r_s _w_h_i_l_e _o_t_h_e_r_r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h has demonstratedthe _i_m_p_a_c_t of

approval

teacherandclassroom _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e can be a vehiclefor _p_r_o_v_i_d_i_n_g studentswitha sense

communion positedby ^Bâ^kâⁿ

_s_o_m_e fourdecades

lapping

_m_e_n_t_, _a_n_d achievement ₍_B_a_k_a_n_, ₁₉₆₆_;

₁₉₆₅_; _M_a_s_l_o_w_, ₁₉₆₈_; Waterman,1981; forlater work, see Deci & _R_y_a_n_, 2000; McAdams et _a_l_._, ₁₉₉₆₎_.

see _a_l_s_o_, for _e_a_r_l_y work,Angyal, 1941,

_s_e_n_s_e _o_f _p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l_a_g_e_n_c_y _t_h_a_t_i_s a hallmarkofstudentmotivation, _e_n_g_a_g_e_-

_w_i_t_h_d_r_a_w_a_l_o_n students'fearof failure ₍_E_l_l_i_o_t & _T_h_r_a_s_h_,₂₀₀₄₎_. _I_n_d_e_e_d_,

_t_h_e lines of

of _b_e_i_n_g at one withthe groupalong

ago and yet

letstudentsretainthe _c_o_m_p_l_e_m_e_n_t_a_r_y butnonover-

_t_h_e _c_a_s_e_, _i_t _i_s _c_l_e_a_r _t_h_a_t_t_h_e_m_e_a_n_s _b_y whichteachersand class-

_r_o_o_m _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e affectachievementmotivationare _d_i_r_e_c_t_l_y and _i_n_d_i_r_e_c_t_l_y_s_h_a_p_e_d_b_y

relationalfactorsand

that instructional,professionaldevelopment, teacherretentionand training, and

organizationalpractices ^câⁿ ^bê

of connectiveinstruction _m_a_y

have

and processes.

At theteacherand classroom _l_e_v_e_l_, we _s_u_g_g_e_s_t

All this

being

processes.

_c_o_n_c_e_p_t_u_a_l_i_z_e_d in termsoftheserelationalfactors

In

particular, ^t^hê emergingconcept

_i_m_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s forteachers' ongoingprofessionaldevelopment, ^t^hê importance

positive(young)

adultstoteacher

ofteacherretentionand _a_t_t_r_a_c_t_i_n_g_p_r_o_s_o_c_i_a_l and

_t_r_a_i_n_i_n_g_, _a_n_d thenatureof classroom _c_o_m_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n in _a_f_f_e_c_t_i_n_g themotivationand

343


Martin& Dowson

_e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t of studentsand classroomclimate. _A_l_t_h_o_u_g_h notthe _o_n_l_y teacherand classroom _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_s thataffectachievement _m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n_,_t_h_e_y area usefulandinfor- mativemeans _b_y whichto frame _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e in relationalterms.

ConnectiveInstruction To theextentthat _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s _a_r_e _a _v_i_t_a_l

_e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t_, and _a_c_h_i_e_v_e_m_e_n_t_, teacherswho frame _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e inrelationaltermsare

more likely to foster motivated, engaged, and achieving

_s_u_p_p_o_r_t this contention ₍_e_._g_._, _A_b_b_o_t_t_& _R_y_a_n_, ₂₀₀₁_;

Elicker & Fortner-Wood,1995; _F_y_s_o_n_, ₁₉₉₉_; Kontos &

underpinning of student motivation,

students. _M_a_n_y studies

Battistich& _H_o_r_n_, ₁₉₉₇_;

Wilcox-Herzog, 1997a,

1997b; Martin,2006d). Specifically, research supports the followingpoints:

a. Students'sense of support(e.g., being liked,respected, and valued by the teacher)predicts their expectancies forsuccess and valuing of subject matter. _I_n_d_e_e_d_, _s_u_p_p_o_r_t fromteacheris a _c_o_n_s_i_s_t_e_n_t_l_y influentialfactorin _m_o_t_i_- vationand achievement (Goodenow, 1993a).

b. Studentswhobelievethattheirteacheris _c_a_r_i_n_g _a_l_s_o _b_e_l_i_e_v_e _t_h_e_y _l_e_a_r_n_m_o_r_e (Teven & McCroskey,1997).

c. Students' _f_e_e_l_i_n_g_s of _a_c_c_e_p_t_a_n_c_e_b_y teachersare associated with _e_m_o_t_i_o_n_a_l_, _c_o_g_n_i_t_i_v_e_, and behavioral _e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t in _c_l_a_s_s ₍_C_o_n_n_e_l_l _& _W_e_l_l_b_o_r_n_,

1991).

d. Teacherswho _s_u_p_p_o_r_t _a student's _a_u_t_o_n_o_m_y tendtofacilitate _g_r_e_a_t_e_r motiva-

tion,

curiosity, âⁿ^d desirefor challenge(Flink,Boggiano, & Barrett,1990).

higher in

warmthtendto _d_e_v_e_l_o_p _g_r_e_a_t_e_r confidencein students

e. Teachers

₍_R_y_a_n & Grolnick,1986).

_C_o_n_v_e_r_s_e_l_y_, researchalso _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_s the _f_o_l_l_o_w_i_n_g conclusions:

f. Whenteachersaremore _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_l_i_n_g_, studentstendtoshowless _m_a_s_t_e_r_y moti-

vationand lowerconfidence ₍_D_e_c_i_,

_g_. Teacherswho are not _p_e_r_c_e_i_v_e_d as

Schwartz,Sheinman, & _R_y_a_n_,₁₉₈₁₎_.

warm _t_y_p_i_c_a_l_l_y evince lowermotivation

âⁿ^d â^c^hⁱê^vê^mêⁿ^t among ^s^tû^dêⁿ^t^s (Kontos & Wilcox-Herzog,1997b).

Relationships,therefore, are centralto theissue of teaching

concept ô^f ^côⁿⁿê^c^tⁱ^vê instruction, builton the previouslyproposedpastoralpeda-

_g_o_g_y₍_C_a_v_a_n_a_g_h_,₂₀₀₁_; Hunter,1994; Martin,2006a, ₂₀₀₆_b₎_,

₍_B_e_r_g_u_m_,₂₀₀₃_; _B_o_y_d_, MacNeil, & Sullivan,2006; _G_a_d_o_w_, ₁₉₉₉₎_, and connective

_p_e_d_a_g_o_g_y (Corbett,2001a, 2001b; Corbett& Norwich, ₁₉₉₉₎_,

Pastoral _p_e_d_a_g_o_g_y_, introduced _b_y Hunter ₍₁₉₉₄₎_, describedhow modernteachers harness _p_r_i_n_c_i_p_l_e_s of theChristian _p_a_s_t_o_r_a_t_e _t_o _s_h_a_p_e _t_h_e_e_t_h_i_c_a_l _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t _o_f

students ₍_s_e_e _a_l_s_o _C_a_v_a_n_a_g_h_,₂₀₀₁₎_. Relational _p_e_d_a_g_o_g_y refersto _p_e_d_a_g_o_g_y _t_h_a_t_h_a_s

as itsfoundationtheneed for _g_o_o_d _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s betweenstudentand _t_e_a_c_h_e_r_t_h_a_t

must also be

Extending Gadow's (1999) work,

teaching ^t^hâ^t interpersonally connectswith learners, seeks to make the learning material _m_e_a_n_i_n_g_f_u_l₍_i_._e_._, anotherformof _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_o_n₎_, connectswithexternalsec-

torstomaximizestudent _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t_, and looks toconnectwith _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t_o_t_h_e_r_s_,

and instruction.The

relational _p_e_d_a_g_o_g_y

is relevanthere.

accompanied by êⁿ^hâⁿ^cê^d student learning(Boyd et al., 2006).

connective _p_e_d_a_g_o_g_y deals withthe _d_e_l_i_v_e_r_y of

344



_s_u_c_h as _p_a_r_e_n_t_s_, in students'lives ₍_C_o_r_b_e_t_t_,₂₀₀₁_a_, ₂₀₀₁_b_; _C_o_r_b_e_t_t_& _N_o_r_w_i_c_h_,

1999).

Martin ₍₂₀₀₆_a_, 2006b; see also Martino& Pallotta-Chiarolli,2003; Munns,1998, for cognateperspectives) offeredan adaptation of thesenotionsto more centrally _p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s_a_n_d connectednessbetweenteacherand studentin thecontext of instructionitself.Martin _p_r_o_p_o_s_e_d suchinstruction - connectiveinstruction - as _t_h_a_t_w_h_i_c_h_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_s_t_h_e_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_a_n_d teacheron threelevels: thelevel of _s_u_b_s_t_a_n_c_e _a_n_d _s_u_b_j_e_c_t _m_a_t_t_e_r_, _t_h_e _i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l_l_e_v_e_l_, and the instructionallevel ₍_s_e_e _a_l_s_o Martino& Pallotta-Chiarolli,2003; Munns, ₁₉₉₈₎_. Hence, connectiveinstruction _c_o_m_p_r_i_s_e_s _t_h_r_e_e _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s_: _t_h_e_s_u_b_s_t_a_n_t_i_v_e _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p₍_t_h_e connectionbetween

_t_h_e_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_a_n_d_t_h_e _s_u_b_j_e_c_t matterand substanceofwhatis _t_a_u_g_h_t

_t_o_t_h_e _w_h_a_t₎_, _t_h_e _i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p₍_t_h_e connectionbetweenthestudentand

theteacherhimselfor herself ^- _i_._e_._, _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_n_g _t_o _t_h_e _w_h_o₎_, _a_n_d theinstructional

_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p₍_t_h_e connectionbetweenthestudentand theinstructionor _t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g

i.e.,connecting tothe how).Although connectiveinstruction _e_m_p_h_a_s_i_z_e_s the _i_m_p_a_c_t

ofteacheron _s_t_u_d_e_n_t_, thereis

_t_e_a_c_h_e_r_i_s _a_b_l_e to refineor

_i_n_s_t_r_u_c_t_i_o_n_o_n _t_h_e_b_a_s_i_s _o_f _s_t_u_d_e_n_t_s_' _r_e_s_p_o_n_s_e_s to theteacher'sconnectiveinstruc-

tion.Connectiveinstruction,then,may be viewedas a bidirectional _p_r_o_c_e_s_s thatis _m_u_t_u_a_l_l_y _b_e_n_e_f_i_c_i_a_l_a_n_d _e_n_h_a_n_c_i_n_g _t_o bothteacherand student.

^-

i.e., connecting

-

also an _i_m_p_a_c_t _o_f _s_t_u_d_e_n_t₍_s₎ on teachersuchthatthe

adjust subject matter, interpersonal relatedness, âⁿ^d

Substantiveconnectiveness ₍_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_n_g tothe _w_h_a_t₎_. The first _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p incon- nectiveinstructionis thatbetweenthe studentand theactual _s_u_b_j_e_c_t matterand

and _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g context.Core elementsof

_n_a_t_u_r_e_o_f tasksconductedin the

teaching and learning con-

subject

textinclude _s_e_t_t_i_n_g tasksthatare appropriatelychallenging,assigning ^wô^r^k^t^hâ^tⁱ^s

assessment _t_a_s_k_s_, and

_u_t_i_l_i_z_i_n_g materialthatarouses

important and meaningful,buildingvariety ⁱⁿ^tô^côⁿ^têⁿ^tâⁿ^d

teaching

matterthatfacilitatestudents'connectiontothe

_c_u_r_i_o_s_i_t_y and is interesting to youngpeople (e.g.,

These ele-

_m_e_n_t_s_r_e_f_l_e_c_t _c_o_n_t_e_n_t_,_s_u_b_j_e_c_t _m_a_t_t_e_r_, _a_n_d _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g _t_a_s_k_s _t_o which a studentcan

_m_e_a_n_i_n_g_f_u_l_l_y connect.These are a means _b_y whichthestudent _e_n_g_a_g_e_s withthe

whatof

gogy restson

dimensionof

_t_h_e_o_r_y_, _w_h_i_c_h _e_m_p_h_a_s_i_z_e _r_e_l_e_v_a_n_c_e_, contextualdimensionsof

_s_u_b_j_e_c_t _m_a_t_t_e_r_,_u_t_i_l_i_t_y_, _i_n_t_e_r_e_s_t_, andsatisfactionin

Covington, 1998; Martin,2002a, 2003a, 2003b; Mclnerney,2000).

_t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g and learning. A good

_d_e_a_l _o_f _t_h_i_s _c_o_m_p_o_n_e_n_t of relational _p_e_d_a_-

the valuing dimensionof expectancy-valuetheory âⁿ^d ^t^hê mastery

goal

learning(see Eccles, 1983; Elliot,

Tonks,2002).

1997, 1999; Mclnerney, 2000; Wigfield, 1994; Wigfield ^&

_I_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l connectiveness ₍_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_n_g to the _w_h_o₎_. The second _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p in theconnectiveinstructionframeworkis thatbetweenthestudentand theteacher. _P_r_e_v_i_o_u_s_l_y identifiedcharacteristicsof qualityinterpersonalrelationships ⁱⁿ ^t^hê

_t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g _a_n_d _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g contextinclude

ing

_s_h_o_w_i_n_g no favoritismbut _a_f_f_i_r_m_i_n_g all students,accepting students' _i_n_d_i_v_i_d_u_a_l_i_t_y_,

and

2003b; Slade,

_M_c_C_r_o_s_k_e_y_, ₁₉₉₇_, _f_o_r_r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h _c_o_n_f_i_r_m_i_n_g _t_h_e _y_i_e_l_d_s of suchrelationalcharacter- _i_s_t_i_c_s₎_. _T_h_e_s_e elementsare a means _b_y whichthestudent _e_n_g_a_g_e_s withthewho in the _t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g and _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g context.This componentexplicitly ⁱⁿ^vô^kê^s interpersonal

activelylistening to

students' _v_i_e_w_s_, allow-

studentstohave _i_n_p_u_t intodecisionsthataffect _t_h_e_m_,_g_e_t_t_i_n_g toknow _s_t_u_d_e_n_t_s_,

havingpositive ^bû^tâ^t^tâⁱⁿâ^b^lê expectations ^fô^r^s^tû^dêⁿ^t^s (Martin,2002a, 2003a,

₁₉₉₀_; Goodenow, 1993a; Teven &

₂₀₀₁_; see also Flink et _a_l_._,

345


Martin& Dowson

_r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s as centralto _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g and instruction -

most

₍_R_y_a_n & _D_e_c_i_, ₂₀₀₀₎_. Whereasothertheories _m_i_g_h_t_r_e_l_y on _i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l related-

ness moreas a conduitfortheirconstructsand

efficacy,control,self-worth, _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_t_i_o_n_s_,_v_a_l_u_i_n_g₎ ^- self-determination theory

quite centrallycomprises theneed for interpersonal relatednessas an important end in itself.

withself-determination _t_h_e_o_r_y and itsrelatednessconstruct

and byimplication is perhaps

closely aligned

processes(e.g., for enhancing ^sê^l^f^-

Instructionalconnectiveness ₍_c_o_n_n_e_c_t_i_n_g _t_o _t_h_e _h_o_w₎_. _T_h_e third _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p in connectiveinstructionis thatbetweenthestudentand the _t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g or instruction itself.Elementsof effectiveinstructioninclude _m_a_x_i_m_i_z_i_n_g_o_p_p_o_r_t_u_n_i_t_i_e_s forstu- dentsto develop competence,providing clear feedbackto students, explaining

thingsclearly and carefully,injectingvariety into teaching methods, encouraging

studentsto learn fromtheir

schoolworkis _r_e_l_e_v_a_n_t_o_r

and allowing

_C_o_v_i_n_g_t_o_n_,₁₉₉₇_; Craven,Marsh, & Debus, 1991; Martin,2002a, 2003a, ₂₀₀₃_b₎_. These elementscharacterize _h_i_g_h_-_q_u_a_l_i_t_y instructional _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e andarea means _b_y

whichthestudent _e_n_g_a_g_e_s _w_i_t_h_t_h_e_h_o_w_o_f

considerationteacher-basedbehaviors _t_h_a_t

emphasize reward (attributiontheory),nurturing ofstudents' _e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_i_e_s and _v_a_l_u_i_n_g ofsub-

ject matter (expectancy-valuetheory),development ofa _m_a_s_t_e_r_y and _i_m_p_r_o_v_e_m_e_n_t ^fô^cû^s (goal theory), use of modeling (self-efficacytheory), and reductionof achievementstressand fearof _f_a_i_l_u_r_e ₍_s_e_l_f_-_w_o_r_t_h _m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n _t_h_e_o_r_y₎_.

mistakes,

clearly demonstrating to studentshow

meaningful,ensuring all students keepup withthe work,

for opportunities to catch up (e.g., Baird, 1999; Bandura, 1997;

teaching and learning.Theybring into

effectivefeedback and

The role _o_f the studentin connectiveinstruction.Connective _i_n_s_t_r_u_c_t_i_o_n_a_l_s_o

_r_e_c_o_g_n_i_z_e_s that _t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g is nota unidirectional _p_r_o_c_e_s_s_._R_a_t_h_e_r_, ateach ofthethree

levels

teacherto refineor _a_d_j_u_s_t therelevantlevel. For _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, in _r_e_s_p_o_n_s_e _t_o _a lack of

^s^tû^dêⁿ^tⁱⁿ^tê^rê^s^tⁱⁿ a particularlesson, theteacher mightadjustsubjectmatter, how ^hê ô^r ^s^hê is relatinginterpersonally to students, theinstructional _t_e_c_h_n_i_q_u_e_s them- selves, or a combinationof these. Hence, in the true _s_p_i_r_i_t of relatedness, there ê^xⁱ^s^t^sâ bidirectional processpotentiallymutually beneficialto all _p_a_r_t_i_e_s_. In sum, connectiveinstruction _e_x_p_l_i_c_i_t_l_y_r_e_c_o_g_n_i_z_e_s thatrelatednessis an instruc-

tionalneedandthatstudentsare _l_i_k_e_l_y _t_o_b_e _m_o_r_e

needis

1986; N. Fry,1994; Fyson, 1999; McCarthy et al., 1990). Throughmeeting this relatedness _n_e_e_d_, connectiveinstructionfacilitatesstudents'identificationwiththe

school and _p_r_o_v_i_d_e_s a connectionwithinstructionon _a _m_o_r_e

_M_u_n_n_s_,₁₉₉₈₎_. _J_o_i_n_t_l_y_, identificationwithschoolandconnectionwithinstructionare

proposed to promoteadaptive academic _e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t and motivation.

(substantive,interpersonal, and _i_n_s_t_r_u_c_t_i_o_n_a_l₎ thereis the _o_p_p_o_r_t_u_n_i_t_y forthe

engaged

and motivatedwhenthis

^mê^t (Battistich ^& Horn,1997;Burroughs & Eby,1998; Chavis& Newbrough,

meaningful basis (see

ProfessionalDevelopment Seminal motivation _t_h_e_o_r_y _a_n_d _c_o_n_c_e_p_t_u_a_l_i_z_i_n_g aroundinstructionitself ₍_e_._g_._,

connective instruction) can also be

development(Bergum,2003; _B_o_y_d et al., 2006; _C_a_v_a_n_a_g_h_, 2001; Corbett,2001a;

Hunter,1994; Martin,2006a, ₂₀₀₆_b₎_. Teacher

^hâ^vê ^bêêⁿ â focusof much priorresearch, witha numberof _j_o_u_r_n_a_l_s _s_p_e_c_i_f_i_c_a_l_l_y

a basis forteachereducationand _p_r_o_f_e_s_s_i_o_n_a_l

training and preservice education

346



devotedto it. _H_o_w_e_v_e_r_,_r_e_l_a_t_i_v_e_l_y less attentionhas been _g_i_v_e_n to _t_h_e _p_r_o_f_e_s_s_i_o_n_a_l _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t ofteachersin theworkforce. Teacher professionaldevelopment(orin-servicing) has the potential forenhanc-

_i_n_g theeducationaloutcomes of studentsand _a_s_s_i_s_t_i_n_g

_e_f_f_e_c_t_i_v_e_l_y in the classroom ₍_R_o_w_e & Rowe, ₁₉₉₉₎_. Cherubini,Zambelli, and Boscolo ₍₂₀₀₂₎ examined the effectsof _p_r_o_f_e_s_s_i_o_n_a_l_d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t on teachers' _s_u_c_c_e_s_s _i_n _f_a_c_i_l_i_t_a_t_i_n_g studentmotivation.Teachers _p_a_r_t_i_c_i_p_a_t_e_d in _p_r_o_f_e_s_s_i_o_n_a_l

development related to theoreticaland methodological aspects of motivation researchand _s_t_r_a_t_e_g_i_e_s to _m_o_d_i_f_y and sustainstudentmotivation.Their _f_i_n_d_i_n_g_s _s_h_o_w_e_d_t_h_a_t _p_a_r_t_i_c_i_p_a_n_t_s _i_n_c_r_e_a_s_e_d_t_h_e_i_r _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_a_l_k_n_o_w_l_e_d_g_e aboutstudentmotiva-

_t_i_o_n_, werebetterable to

_n_e_w _i_n_s_t_r_u_c_t_i_o_n_a_l _p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s to sustaintheirstudents'motivation ₍_s_e_e also _S_c_h_o_r_r_, 2000). Similarly,Stipek et al. (1998) foundthatteachers participating in profes- _s_i_o_n_a_l _d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t_f_o_c_u_s_i_n_g on studentmotivationweremore _l_i_k_e_l_y to _e_m_p_h_a_s_i_z_e

mastery and understanding in their teaching, ^tô encourage student autonomy, and

to create psychologically

teachersto _o_p_e_r_a_t_e more

identify and considermotivational _p_r_o_b_l_e_m_s_, and planned

saferclassroom

environments. Participating teachers

an importantpre-

also made more-accurateassessmentsof students'motivation ^-

cursorto effectiveand _t_a_r_g_e_t_e_d intervention (Martin,2008a).

Recentreviewshave

_p_o_i_n_t_e_d to theneed forteacher professionaldevelopment

in assistingdisengaged

_k_e_y areas

relationships(Becker

PartsII and III

focuson (a) developing a senseof _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_t_y_a_m_o_n_g students throughrelationally

supportive

(b) cultivatingcooperative âⁿ^d mastery-oriented ^c^lⁱ^mâ^tê^s â^s â^r^tⁱ^cû^lâ^tê^dⁱⁿ goal

theory(Qin et al., 1995); (c)

Patterson, & Kupersmidt,1998) ^tô _d_e_v_e_l_o_p a sense of belonging

self-determination _t_h_e_o_r_y_;₍_d₎ developingcompetence

contextof interpersonal relatedness (Connell

of thatarticulatedunder _s_e_l_f_-_e_f_f_i_c_a_c_y and attribution principles,respectively;

(e) reducingemphases on teacher-as-authority(Flink et al., 1990), ^côⁿ^sⁱ^s^têⁿ^t^wⁱ^t^h

connectiveinstructional _p_r_i_n_c_i_p_l_e_s introducedabove ₍_s_e_e also _B_e_r_g_u_m_, ₂₀₀₃_; _B_o_y_d et _a_l_._, ₂₀₀₆_; _C_a_v_a_n_a_g_h_, ₂₀₀₁_; Corbett,2001a, 2001b; Hunter,1994; Martin,

2006a, 2006b); and (f) providingpositive role modeling(Hernandez,1995), ^côⁿ^-

sistentwith

self-efficacytheory. ^T^hê^sê are all a means of intentionallydirecting

professionaldevelopment ^tô^wâ^r^d^rê^lâ^tⁱôⁿâ^l understandings ô^f teaching âⁿ^d ^lêâ^rⁿ^-

ing.

achievement-related _t_h_e_o_r_y_,_k_e_y _i_s_s_u_e_s_, and _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_s describedabove.

and

disadvantaged students.Itis noteworthy ^t^hâ^tôⁿê ô^f^t^hê

_t_a_r_g_e_t_e_d forsuch professionaldevelopment ⁱ^s improving ^têâ^c^hê^r^-^s^tû^dêⁿ^t

& Luthar,2002). Integratingtheory and

researchdetailedin

_s_u_g_g_e_s_t_s that professionaldevelopmentalong ^t^hê^sê ^lⁱⁿê^s ^s^hôû^l^d

school

structures (Battistich & Horn, 1997; _C_u_m_m_i_n_g_, 1996);

_i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_i_n_g studentswithintheir _p_e_e_r_g_r_o_u_p_s₍_B_o_l_g_e_r_,

consistentwith

and _p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l controlin the

&

Wellborn,1991) _a_l_o_n_g thelines

This accordswithouroverallrelational _c_o_n_c_e_p_t_u_a_l_i_z_a_t_i_o_n of motivation-and

TeacherRetentionand _T_r_a_i_n_i_n_g

In almost everyorganizationalsetting, the workplace is changing,

&

oftennot

&

and at a

seeminglyincreasingpace (Schabaracq

sufficiently remunerated (Dollard, 2006). Reports ô^f âⁿ

_i_n_c_r_e_a_s_i_n_g _l_a_c_k _o_f _c_o_n_t_r_o_l_, _l_e_s_s _i_n_p_u_t _i_n_t_o_d_e_c_i_s_i_o_n _m_a_k_i_n_g_, _a_n_d _l_e_s_s involvementin

_l_o_n_g hours,

Cooper, 2000). ^Mô^s^t employees ^wô^r^k

the _s_c_h_e_d_u_l_i_n_g _o_f_w_o_r_k_t_a_s_k_s_a_n_d methodsofworkare _c_o_n_s_i_s_t_e_n_t_l_y associatedwith

stress-relatedworkers'

poorerwell-being(Karasek

_c_o_m_p_e_n_s_a_t_i_o_n claimscontinuetoriseatan _a_l_a_r_m_i_n_g rate.For _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, inAustralia

Theorell, ₁₉₉₀₎_. Indeed,

347


Martin& Dowson

₍_t_h_e contextforthe _p_r_e_s_e_n_t_a_u_t_h_o_r_s₎_, stress-relatedclaimsincreased _b_y morethan 60% between1996-1997and 2002-2003 ₍_O_f_f_i_c_e of theAustralian _S_a_f_e_t_y and

CompensationCouncil,2006),

working

adults _s_a_y_t_h_e_y areconcernedabouttheamountofstressintheirlives ₍_S_t_a_m_b_o_r_,

2006).

ers

(Martin & Marsh, in press).

among the group of employeesfacingmany or all of theabove pressures

andintheUnited _S_t_a_t_e_s_, morethanhalfof

Of _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r relevancetothis _r_e_v_i_e_w_, someresearchers _p_l_a_c_e schoolteach-

Suchresearchhas

identified stress,disengagement,

_h_e_a_v_y_w_o_r_k_l_o_a_d_s_, little _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_, and _h_i_g_h turnoverinthis _c_h_a_l_l_e_n_g_i_n_g_s_e_t_t_i_n_g₍_F_r_y

&

& Watt,2006; Smithers&

individualcareerand

factorsalsoleadto

ties _a_t_t_r_a_c_t_i_n_g sufficientnumbersofteachersintoteacher _t_r_a_i_n_i_n_g₍_G_.

Martin,1994;Mayer,2006;McCormack,Gore, & Thomas,2006; Richardson

Robinson,2003) ^- factorsthat significantlyhamper

employmentdevelopment. Itis _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t tonotethatsuch

_h_i_g_h ratesofteacher attrition,highmobility, andevendifficul-

_F_r_y & Martin,

1994;Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development,2005; Smithers

&

Oneoftheeffectsofteacherattritionand _m_o_b_i_l_i_t_y isthattherearefewer _o_p_p_o_r_- tunitiesforconsistentandstable _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s _b_e_t_w_e_e_n_s_t_u_d_e_n_t_a_n_d_t_e_a_c_h_e_r _a_n_d_,_b_y

_i_m_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_, fewerconsistent _p_r_o_s_o_c_i_a_l and _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e adultsin students'lives.

Similarly, failureto attract potentiallygood teachersto

limited _p_o_o_l ofavailablesuch _p_e_o_p_l_e _f_o_r_c_h_i_l_d_r_e_n_a_n_d

_s_e_q_u_e_n_t costofthisintermsofchildren'sand

ive

interpersonalrelationships. The presentreview,then, echoescalls in other

researchfor _s_u_p_p_o_r_t _n_e_e_d_e_d _b_y teachersandschoolstomore _e_f_f_e_c_t_i_v_e_l_y _d_e_a_l_w_i_t_h

thestressorsthatleadto _a_t_t_r_i_t_i_o_n_,_m_o_b_i_l_i_t_y_, andalternativecareerchoices ₍_G_.

& Martin,1994; Martin& Marsh, in press;Mayer,2006;

Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development,2005; Richardson& Watt,2006; Smithers& Robinson,2003;Vinson,2002).

Robinson,2003;Vinson,2002).

teaching meansa more

youngpeople andthecon-

youngpeople'spotentiallysupport-

Fry

McCormacket _a_l_, ₂₀₀₆_;

Classroom Composition

Froma

relational perspective, itis also

_i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t toconsiderthenatureand

key theories (e.g.,goaltheory,self-efficacy

numberofstudentsintheclassroom. _I_f_, _a_s

_t_h_e_o_r_y_, attribution _t_h_e_o_r_y₎_p_r_o_p_o_s_e_, motivationandachievementareaffected _b_y

other students),

thenitfollowsthatresearchand

tionofstudentsintheclassroom.

To _d_a_t_e_, mostmultilevelresearch _e_x_a_m_i_n_i_n_g varianceinachievementandmoti- vationattheclassroomlevelattributessuchvariancetotheteachersthemselves

(e.g.,

_g_o_a_l_c_l_i_m_a_t_e_s_,_p_e_e_r_s_, andmodelswithwhomoneidentifies ₍_e_._g_._,

practice mustlookmore closely atthe composi-

seeHill&

Rowe,1996;Papaioannou,Marsh, & _T_h_e_o_d_o_r_a_k_i_s_,₂₀₀₄_; Rowe&

attempted to disentangle the

Whatstudentsarecollected _t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r_? _H_o_w

many are

alongside? Howdo they

theyget on?

Rowe,1999).Relatively little _r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h_,_h_o_w_e_v_e_r_, has

effectsoftheteacherfromthoseoftheclass. _I_f_, for _e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, thereis aneffectof

implications from

a relational _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_. Someimmediate _q_u_e_s_t_i_o_n_s fromanachievementmotiva-

tion perspective wouldbe:

there?Whereare _t_h_e_y _s_e_a_t_e_d_?_W_h_o_m_d_o _t_h_e_y _w_o_r_k_w_i_t_h_o_r

interact?Howdo

class _c_o_m_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n onmotivationand _e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t_, _t_h_e_n_t_h_e_r_e_a_r_e

composition is most

appropriately handled _b_y

multipleteachers, eachofwhomteaches _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e classes. Marsh,Martin, and _C_h_e_n_g

348

_D_i_s_e_n_t_a_n_g_l_i_n_g therelativeroleofteacherfromthatofclass

multilevelcross-classification _a_n_a_l_y_s_e_s _i_n_w_h_i_c_h_t_h_e_r_e_a_r_e



₍₂₀₀₈₎ conducted such _a_n_a_l_y_s_e_s and showed thattherewere some _d_i_f_f_e_r_e_n_c_e_s _b_e_t_w_e_e_n_c_l_a_s_s_e_s butthatthesedifferencesdid not _a_l_w_a_y_s _g_e_n_e_r_a_l_i_z_e overdifferent classes _t_a_u_g_h_t_b_y thesame teacher. _H_e_n_c_e_, overand above teachereffectsare the _e_f_f_e_c_t_s_o_f_c_l_a_s_s _c_o_m_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n_. The researchersconcludedthatboththe _q_u_a_l_i_t_y ofthe _t_e_a_c_h_i_n_g _a_n_d theclassroom _c_o_m_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n are factorsin motivation ₍_s_e_e also Martin & Marsh,2005). _T_h_i_s _a_c_h_i_e_v_e_m_e_n_t_h_a_s _i_m_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s forclassroomclimate _r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h_, which _s_u_g_-

gests

_t_i_o_n_o_f _s_t_u_d_e_n_t_s_i_n _t_h_a_t_c_l_a_s_s_. _W_h_e_r_e_a_s in recent _y_e_a_r_s therehas been substantial

_f_o_c_u_s _o_n _t_e_a_c_h_e_r_e_f_f_e_c_t_i_v_e_n_e_s_s_a_n_d characteristicsof effective _t_e_a_c_h_e_r_s_, it

_n_o_w _b_e _t_i_m_e_l_y _t_o revisittheissue of class _c_o_m_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n and _p_e_r_h_a_p_s froma rela-

tional _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_. More specifically, ⁱⁿ thecontextof â^c^hⁱê^vê^mêⁿ^t motivation, _r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h _m_i_g_h_t_i_n_v_e_s_t_i_g_a_t_e thecharacteristicsofeffective _c_l_a_s_s_r_o_o_m_s_, thestudents

collected _t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r inthe _c_l_a_s_s_r_o_o_m_, _t_h_e_b_a_s_e_s _o_n _w_h_i_c_h _t_h_e_y arecollected together,

_a_n_d _h_o_w _t_h_e_y interact. _M_o_v_i_n_g _b_e_y_o_n_d thestudentsthemselvesare otherfactors _r_e_l_e_v_a_n_t_t_o theclassroom and itsenvironmentthataffectrelatedness _a_m_o_n_g stu- _d_e_n_t_s_a_n_d betweenstudentsand teachers.These includesuch factorsas theclass-

room's _p_h_y_s_i_c_a_l_s_p_a_c_e ₍_e_n_c_o_m_p_a_s_s_i_n_g size,organization offurnitureand _e_q_u_i_p_m_e_n_t_,

thatthemotivationalclimate _m_a_y also be a functionofthe _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r collec-

might

lighting,temperature,etc.),

proximity ^tô

day at

into cognate issues such as _s_e_a_t_i_n_g arrangement(Hastings

Marx, Fuhrer, & Hartig,1999), streaming(Marsh,

_s_i_n_g_l_e_-_s_e_x class composition(Marsh, 1989; ^Mâ^r^s^h

Martin& Marsh,2005), and the _p_h_y_s_i_c_a_l_i_t_y ofthe

₁₉₉₈_; _S_t_o_n_e_,₂₀₀₁₎_. _H_e_n_c_e_, _c_l_a_s_s _c_o_m_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n _a_n_d _o_t_h_e_r_c_l_a_s_s environmentfactors _f_r_o_m_a _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_a_n_d achievementmotivation _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e arean avenueforfurther research.Moreover, froma relational _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_, such researchwould also need _t_o _e_s_t_a_b_l_i_s_h_h_o_w _m_u_c_h_v_a_r_i_a_n_c_e_i_n achievementmotivationat theclass level is a _f_u_n_c_t_i_o_n_o_f teacher-studentinteractions ₍_i_._e_._, class-levelvariancedue to teacher- _s_t_u_d_e_n_t _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s₎ _a_n_d _h_o_w _m_u_c_h_i_s _u_n_i_q_u_e to student-studentinteractions ₍_i_._e_._,

class-levelvariancedue to student-student _r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s₎_.

itslocationin theschool itself ₍_e_._g_._, in termsof _n_o_i_s_e_,

_a_n_d _e_v_e_n thetimeof

otherclassrooms forease of movement,etc.),

_w_h_i_c_h_c_l_a_s_s_r_o_o_m _a_c_t_i_v_i_t_i_e_s_a_r_e conducted.Priorworkhas been conducted

& Schwieso, 1995;

1987; Marsh & Hau, 2003),

& _R_o_w_e_, 1996; Martin,2004; _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g environment ₍_O_'_H_a_r_e_,

Practice at theSchool Level

The _t_h_e_o_r_i_e_s _i_n_f_o_r_m_i_n_g thisdiscussiondeal _p_r_i_m_a_r_i_l_y with _i_n_t_r_a_p_s_y_c_h_i_c_, indi-

groups

and

aligned

withresearchand _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e

the school level. A thoroughgoing ^t^rêâ^t^mêⁿ^tô^f

_s_e_e _D_u_d_a_, ₂₀₀₁_; Middleton & _M_i_d_g_l_e_y_, 1997;

et _a_l_._, 2004; Roeser et _a_l_._, 1996; Urdanet al., 1998). The

vidualisticconstructsthataredirectedatindividualsor _r_e_l_a_t_i_v_e_l_y small

activated _b_y individualssuch as teachers,counselors, _p_s_y_c_h_o_l_o_g_i_s_t_s_, and thelike.

_A_l_t_h_o_u_g_h _t_h_e_i_s_s_u_e ofrelatedness _m_a_y be more

at theindividualand _i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l _l_e_v_e_l_, itis _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t to considerwhat _a_p_p_l_i_c_a_-

_t_i_o_n_o_f _t_h_e_o_r_y _c_a_n be directedat

_r_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s_w_o_u_l_d _e_n_c_o_m_p_a_s_s _i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_e_d recommendationsat all levels: student,

teacheror classroom, and school.For example,hypothesized ûⁿ^dê^r goal theory are _m_a_s_t_e_r_y and performance ^c^lâ^s^s^rôô^m ^c^lⁱ^mâ^tê^s ^t^hâ^t â^l^sô have implications ^fô^r

whole-school climates ₍_e_._g_._,

Papaioannou

notionof

fearof

_f_a_i_l_u_r_e_a_n_d _d_i_s_e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t _a_t _t_h_e_s_c_h_o_o_l _l_e_v_e_l is notinconsistentwith _p_r_e_-

dictionsunderneed _a_c_h_i_e_v_e_m_e_n_t_a_n_d self-worthmotivationtheories ₍_A_t_k_i_n_s_o_n_, ₁₉₅₇_; _C_o_v_i_n_g_t_o_n_, ₁₉₉₂_, ₁₉₉₈_; _M_c_C_l_e_l_l_e_a_n_d_, ₁₉₆₅₎_. Workintheareasofattributions

349


Martin& Dowson

and learned helplessness shows that throughobservingpotent models, even rela- tivelylargegroups can acquirehelpless behaviorsand dispositions(Peterson et al., ₁₉₉₃₎_. _I_n_d_e_e_d_, recentmultilevel _m_o_d_e_l_i_n_g _r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h_h_a_s _e_x_a_m_i_n_e_d school-level

variancein constructscentralto self-efficacy,expectancy-value,goal,

_m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n_, and self-determinationtheories ₍_M_a_r_s_h et _a_l_._, ₂₀₀₈_; Martin& _M_a_r_s_h_,

₂₀₀₅₎_. _H_e_n_c_e_, thereareextensionsofachievementmotivation _t_h_e_o_r_y and research

to school-level considerationsthatare

addresstwoissues relevanttosuchconsiderations:schoolas _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_t_y andeffec- tive _l_e_a_d_e_r_s_h_i_p_._A_g_a_i_n_,_t_h_e_y arenotthe _o_n_l_y school-level _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_s thatarerelevant to _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s_, but _t_h_e_y are a usefulmeans _b_y whichto considerrelatednessat a school level as relevantto achievementmotivation.

self-worth

logical

and defensible. Given _t_h_i_s_, we

School as Community Cooperative climates develop a sense of community and belonging, consistent with _p_r_e_d_i_c_t_i_o_n_s under _g_o_a_l and self-determinationtheories ₍_A_m_e_s_, ₁₉₉₂_; _D_w_e_c_k_,

1992; Elliot, 1997; _Q_i_n et _a_l_._, ₁₉₉₅_; _R_y_a_n & _D_e_c_i_, ₂₀₀₀₎_. A sense of _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_t_y

affects _y_o_u_n_g_p_e_o_p_l_e_'_s senseofselfand _e_f_f_i_c_a_c_y_. Itcan _a_l_s_o

In theeducational _c_o_n_t_e_x_t_, Becker and Luthar ₍₂₀₀₂₎ _s_u_g_g_e_s_t thatan _i_m_p_o_r_t_a_n_t

meansof _e_n_h_a_n_c_i_n_g motivationis

In _f_a_c_t_, it has been

social cohesion ₍_e_._g_._, school as _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_t_y₎ and a _s_t_r_o_n_g academic mission -

schools often _p_u_r_s_u_i_n_g one morethantheother. _I_n_d_e_e_d_, _r_e_s_e_a_r_c_h_u_n_d_e_r_t_h_e _g_o_a_l _t_h_e_o_r_y frameworkhas _a_t_t_e_m_p_t_e_d toresolvesimilardissonance _t_h_r_o_u_g_h thearticula-

tionof _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e_g_o_a_l_s ₍_e_._g_._, see _H_e_y_m_a_n & Dweck, 1992; Urdan& Maehr, 1995; _W_e_n_t_z_e_l_,₁₉₉₂₎_. _E_n_c_o_u_r_a_g_i_n_g_l_y_, ithas been foundthatachievementcan resultfrom an _i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_e_d_e_m_p_h_a_s_i_s on social cohesion and academic _m_i_s_s_i_o_n ₍_S_h_o_u_s_e_, ₁₉₉₆₎

and that psychological school membership(students'perceivedbelonging) is sig-

_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t_l_y linkedto academic

Conversely, alienation may be conceptualized, not just in relationalterms (i.e., not feeling athomeina particularinstitution), butalso inacademicterms (i.e., not being able to relateto _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r contentor the _p_r_e_s_e_n_t_a_t_i_o_n of that _c_o_n_t_e_n_t₎_. For these

_s_u_p_p_o_r_t_g_r_e_a_t_e_r school-levelactiontoenhance

reasons, relational perspectives would

a sense of _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_t_y_,_b_e_l_o_n_g_i_n_g_, and connectednessat school ₍_f_o_l_l_o_w_i_n_g_o_t_h_e_r_s_,

_e_._g_._,_C_u_m_m_i_n_g_,₁₉₉₆_; Hernandez,1995; Mann, ₁₉₈₉₎_.

affecttheir engagement.

with

throughpromoting a senseof belonging inschool.

thattherecan _b_e tensionbetweenthe _e_m_p_h_a_s_i_s _o_n

suggested

motivationand achievement (Goodenow, 1993b).

EffectiveLeadership In our discussion of teacher-and classroom-level _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_, _w_e _d_e_s_c_r_i_b_e_d_h_o_w

feedback, modeling of efficacy and control, effectivereward contingencies,expec-

tations, set _t_a_s_k_s_,

and the transferof _f_e_a_r_a_n_d

influencestudents'achievementmotivation.It _i_s _n_o_t _i_n_c_o_n_c_e_i_v_a_b_l_e_t_h_a_t_s_i_m_i_l_a_r

_d_y_n_a_m_i_c_s arerelevantat _u_p_p_e_r_l_e_v_e_l_s_, suchas attheschool _e_x_e_c_u_t_i_v_e_o_r _l_e_a_d_e_r_s_h_i_p

level. Researchintoschool

ofeffective _l_e_a_d_e_r_s_h_i_p₍_E_d_m_o_n_d_s_, 1979; Levine & Lezotte, 1990; Marzano,2003; Sammons, ₁₉₉₉₎_. Thereare _m_a_n_y featuresofeffective _l_e_a_d_e_r_s_h_i_p _t_h_a_t_h_a_v_e _p_a_r_a_l_-

lels withmotivationand

serveas modeling behavior ₍_s_e_e

âⁿ^d ^s^tû^dêⁿ^t^s (see expectancy-valuetheory),openness to feedbackand _i_n_p_u_t that

assessmentand groupingstrategies,supportivecommunication,

_a_p_p_r_o_v_a_l are means _b_y which teachers _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_l_y

effectiveness consistentlyemphasizes

the

importance

â^c^hⁱê^vê^mêⁿ^t theories, includingvisibility and energy that

self-efficacytheory),highexpectations forstaff

350



attributionandself-de-

_t_e_r_m_i_n_a_t_i_o_n _t_h_e_o_r_y₎_, and _a_d_v_o_c_a_c_y fortheschoolthatdemonstrates _v_a_l_u_i_n_g₍_s_e_e

_e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_y_- value _t_h_e_o_r_y₎_. Otherrelationalfeaturesincludeemotionaland

sional support of

_n_e_s_s_t_o_t_h_e_s_t_u_d_e_n_t _b_o_d_y_, interestinandinvolvementwith _p_a_r_e_n_t_s_, _a_n_d_l_i_n_k_s_t_o_t_h_e

community and industry(Blum,Butler, & Olson, 1987; Hallinger & Murphy,

1987; Levine& Lezotte,1990;Sammons,Hillman, & Mortimore,1995). In imple-

canenhanceteachers'senseofcontroland

autonomy(see

profes-

_s_t_a_f_f_, _m_u_t_u_a_l _r_e_s_p_e_c_t betweenstaffandthe _e_x_e_c_u_t_i_v_e_, _c_o_n_n_e_c_t_e_d_-

important notto

sharpdevelopmentaltrajectories occur-

_m_e_n_t_i_n_g school-levelaction _a_l_o_n_g these lines,however, it is

_u_n_d_e_r_e_s_t_i_m_a_t_e_t_h_e _y_i_e_l_d_s ofinterventionatthestudentandclassroomlevels.For

_e_x_a_m_p_l_e_, inthecontextofthe _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e and

_r_i_n_g_t_h_r_o_u_g_h childhoodand _a_d_o_l_e_s_c_e_n_c_e_, the _i_m_p_a_c_t ofrelationalintervention _m_a_y

be _g_r_e_a_t_e_r whendirectedtostudentsandclassroomsthanwhendirectedtoschool executives.

_P_a_r_t_I_V_: _I_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_i_v_e Model of _T_h_e_o_r_y and Practice

In

finalizing our review, we synthesize its key

elementsintoan

integrative

modelof _t_h_e_o_r_y andrelational _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_. Table2 _p_r_e_s_e_n_t_s thismodelandsumma- rizestherelevanttheories, their _c_o_m_p_o_n_e_n_t_c_o_n_s_t_r_u_c_t_s_, recommendededucational _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_, _a_n_d themechanismsand conduitswithinthetheoriesthatinformor _i_m_p_l_e_m_e_n_t _s_u_c_h _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_. Also evidentinthetablearesomeofthe _c_o_n_g_r_u_e_n_c_i_e_s

betweencentralconstructsinthe model,includingcompetence-based constructs

suchas

_a_s controland

termsofthemechanismsthatarethemeans _b_y whichthesetheoriesand

nentconstructsare _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_l_y translatedtoeducational _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_. Theseinclude

therolesof _m_o_d_e_l_i_n_g_, communicationof

self-efficacy,expectancies, and

autonomy. The

_r_e_w_a_r_d _c_o_n_t_i_n_g_e_n_c_i_e_s_,

_w_o_r_t_h_, andcontrol-basedconstructssuch

_t_a_b_l_e_a_l_s_o showsthattherearecommonalitiesin

compo-

expectations, task assignment, skill

andfeedbacktostudents - allcentraltomoti-

_d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t_,

vation-andachievement-relatedtheoriesdetailedinPartII.

_I_t_i_s alsoevidentinTable2

that interpersonalrelationships are directly orindi-

practicemay

be

prospective

conceptualized froma relational

relational _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_-

_r_e_c_t_l_y_p_r_e_s_e_n_t _i_n_t_h_e _w_a_y_t_h_e_o_r_y is manifestedinstudents'academiclives. _M_o_v_i_n_g

beyondtheory, Table2 _s_u_g_g_e_s_t_s that interpersonalrelationshipsplay a pivotalpart

in _r_e_s_o_l_v_i_n_g_c_o_m_p_l_e_x orcriticalconcernswith _r_e_s_p_e_c_t tocurrentand

_e_d_u_c_a_t_i_o_n_a_l _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_. _F_o_r_t_h_e_s_e_r_e_a_s_o_n_s_, _w_e _a_r_g_u_e thatmotivation-andachievement-

based theory,keyissues,

perspective. Hence, the interplay of theory and practice froma

_t_i_v_e _p_r_o_v_i_d_e_s _d_i_r_e_c_t_i_o_n_f_o_r_e_d_u_c_a_t_o_r_s _s_e_e_k_i_n_g to enhancestudents'achievement

motivation.

and

Conclusion

Thisreviewhaselucidatedthe _m_u_l_t_i_p_l_e_w_a_y_s inwhich interpersonalrelationships

_a_f_f_e_c_t_m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n_a_n_d_a_c_h_i_e_v_e_m_e_n_t_, thebenefitsderivedfromrelational _p_e_r_s_p_e_c_t_i_v_e_s

_o_n_m_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n_a_n_d _e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t_, achievementmotivationtheoriesrelevanttorelation-

_s_h_i_p_s_, andrelational practicesunderpinning student-, ^têâ^c^hê^r^-ô^r classroom-, âⁿ^d

school-levelactions. _T_h_e_o_r_y andresearch _s_u_p_p_o_r_t the _p_r_o_p_o_s_i_t_i_o_n that _p_o_s_i_t_i_v_e rela-

_t_i_o_n_s_h_i_p_s _w_i_t_h _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t othersarecornerstonesof _y_o_u_n_g_p_e_o_p_l_e_'_s_c_a_p_a_c_i_t_y tofunc-

tion effectively in

weconcludethat high-qualityinterpersonalrelationships ⁱⁿ^s^tû^dêⁿ^t^s^'^lⁱ^vê^s^côⁿ^t^rⁱ^bû^tê

_t_o theiracademicmotivation,engagement, and achievement. _F_u_r_t_h_e_r_, relational

_s_o_c_i_a_l_,_a_f_f_e_c_t_i_v_e_, andacademicdomains.Witha focusonthe _l_a_t_t_e_r_,

351


TABLE 2

Summaryofconstructs,mechanisms,and _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e relevanttorelatedness

_K_e_y constructsrelevant

to review

_T_h_e_o_r_y

Attribution _t_h_e_o_r_y

•

•

^•

Expectancy-value

^•

_t_h_e_o_r_y

_P_e_r_c_e_i_v_e_d control

Perceived locus

Helplessness

_E_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_y for

success

• _V_a_l_u_i_n_g of _s_c_h_o_o_l_, subjects, etc.

•

_M_e_c_h_a_n_i_s_m_s or

conduits

Trileveleducational

_p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e

Feedback to students Practiceat studentlevel:

• Reward

• Universalstudent

contingencies

programs âⁿ^d

•

Observationof and

intervention

identificationwith

• _T_a_r_g_e_t_e_d student

relevantothers

_p_r_o_g_r_a_m_s and

^• Communicationof

intervention

_e_x_p_e_c_t_a_n_c_i_e_s

• Extracurricular

• Communicationof

_a_c_t_i_v_i_t_y

_v_a_l_u_i_n_g

^•

Cooperative learning

^• _M_o_d_e_l_i_n_g of valuing ^• Mentoring

^• Responses to or treatmentof students in class

Goal theory

Self-determination

_t_h_e_o_r_y

Self-efficacy

Self-worthmotivation

_t_h_e_o_r_y

^•

•

^• Social goals

• _M_o_t_i_v_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_c_l_i_m_a_t_e •

• ₍_A_p_p_r_o_a_c_h _a_n_d

•

^•

Masterygoals

Performance _g_o_a_l_s

Tasks set

• Assessmentand

gradingpractices

_D_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t of

Practiceat teacherand

_c_l_i_m_a_t_e

classroom level:

Reasons for _l_e_a_r_n_i_n_g •

Connective

instruction

valued _b_y relevant others

• Professional

avoidance

_e_x_t_e_n_s_i_o_n_s₎

•

^•

^•

_R_e_l_a_t_e_d_n_e_s_s _o_r

_b_e_l_o_n_g_i_n_g

Autonomy

Competence

•

^•

^•

_W_a_r_m_t_h_, _s_u_p_p_o_r_t_, _a_n_d nurturance

_P_r_o_m_o_t_i_n_g

independence

Self-responsibility

•

_d_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t

Teacher retention

and training

^• Classroom

composition

^• Self-efficacy

•

Control

^• _M_o_d_e_l_i_n_g

• Positive

•

communicationfrom

relevantothers

Vicarious influence

• _S_e_l_f_-_w_o_r_t_h • Fear of failure

•

_D_i_s_e_n_g_a_g_e_m_e_n_t

• _A_p_p_r_o_v_a_l_,

affirmation

• Conditions of _l_o_v_e_,

approval

^• Intergenerational

transferof _l_o_v_e

• Reward

contingencies

^• Gradingpractices

_P_r_a_c_t_i_c_e_a_t _t_h_e_s_c_h_o_o_l

level:

• _S_c_h_o_o_l as _c_o_m_m_u_n_i_t_y

^• Effective leadership

352



elementsofeducational theoryprovideguidance foreducational practice directedat studentmotivationand achievement.Taken _t_o_g_e_t_h_e_r_, this _i_n_t_e_g_r_a_t_i_o_n of _r_e_l_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_l_y _b_a_s_e_d _t_h_e_o_r_y and _p_r_a_c_t_i_c_e holds _i_m_p_l_i_c_a_t_i_o_n_s forresearchers _s_t_u_d_y_i_n_g issuesrelevant to motivationand achievementand is also relevanttoeducators _s_e_e_k_i_n_g _t_o _e_n_h_a_n_c_e _e_d_u_c_a_t_i_o_n_a_l_o_u_t_c_o_m_e_s_t_h_a_t _r_e_l_y in _l_a_r_g_e_p_a_r_t on theextenttowhichtheirstudentsare _i_n_t_e_r_p_e_r_s_o_n_a_l_l_y connectedtothe _s_i_g_n_i_f_i_c_a_n_t othersintheiracademiclives.

Notes

_T_h_i_s_a_r_t_i_c_l_e_w_a_s in _p_a_r_t_p_r_e_p_a_r_e_d whilethefirstauthorwas _V_i_s_i_t_i_n_g SeniorResearch _F_e_l_l_o_w_i_n_t_h_e _D_e_p_a_r_t_m_e_n_t ofEducationatthe _U_n_i_v_e_r_s_i_t_y ofOxford. _R_e_q_u_e_s_t_s forfurtherinformationaboutthis _i_n_v_e_s_t_i_g_a_t_i_o_n shouldbe senttoAssociate ProfessorAndrew Martin,Faculty ofEducationandSocial Work,University of _S_y_d_n_e_y_, NSW 2006, Australia; e-mail: a.martin@edfac.usyd.edu.au. MartinDowson may be _c_o_n_t_a_c_t_e_d _b_y e-mailatmdowson@acom.edu.au.

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Authors

ANDREWMARTINisAssociateProfessorandInternationalSeniorResearchFellowatthe _F_a_c_u_l_t_y ofEducationandSocialWork,University of _S_y_d_n_e_y_. Hisareasofresearchinter-

estincludestudentmotivationand

engagement,pedagogy,parenting, and quantitative

researchmethods. MARTINDOWSON is DirectorofAcademic _D_e_v_e_l_o_p_m_e_n_t attheAustralian _C_o_l_l_e_g_e of

_M_i_n_i_s_t_r_i_e_s_._H_i_s coreresearchinterestslie _i_n_t_h_e _p_s_y_c_h_o_l_o_g_y ofmotivationand ^- _p_a_r_t_i_c_u_l_a_r_l_y froma psychometricperspective.

learning

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