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Procedures for the Examination of the Metals Used in Electrical Power Cables
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WARNING: Please read the License Agreement on the back cover before removing the wrapping material.
Technical Report
Procedures for the Examination of the Metals Used in Electrical Power Cables
1011273
Final Report, December 2004
EPRI Project Managers J. Spanner W. Zenger
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA 800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM: (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR (B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT. ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT Metaltech Consulting Services
ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Orders and Conferences, 1355 Willow Way, Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520, (800) 313-3774, press 2 or internally x5379, (925) 609-9169, (925) 609-1310 (fax). Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. Copyright 2004 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by Metaltech Consulting Services 2 Talisman Business Centre Duncan Road, Park Gate Southampton SO31 7GA England Principal Investigator R. Anstey This report describes research sponsored by EPRI. The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner: Procedures for the Examination of the Metals Used in Electrical Power Cables, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2004. 1011273.
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PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
This report provides detailed procedures for the examination of the metallic components in paper-insulated nonpressurized electrical power cables. The scope includes lead and lead alloy sheaths, splices and repair sleeves, plumbed wipes, and both copper and aluminum stranded and solid aluminum conductors. Examination of these components is usually required following equipment failure or breakdown due to faults developing from defective, incorrect, or adverse manufacturing, installation, or service conditions, and as a result of subsequent site damage or corrosion leading to water ingress and possibly electrical discharge. Results and Findings This report contains specific techniques and procedures recommended as part of a proper failure analysis of failed power cables. Procedures are included for the following tests: Visual examination Determination of sheath dimensions Preparation and etching of samples for metallographic examination Grain size determination Chemical analysis Corrosion testing Mechanical tensile and hardness testing
A process for conducting the analysis of failures of power cables is described that uses the techniques listed above. Challenges and Objectives This report provides in detail the tasks necessary to perform a failure analysis. It should prove to be an invaluable resource for an individual recently assigned to a power cable failure analysis laboratory. Experienced personnel may also find valuable suggestions that will improve their analysis techniques. The report is also intended for use by managers and personnel in operations responsible for maintaining the integrity of cable systems. The report contains extensive recommendations for preserving and shipping failed cable sections to a laboratory for analysis so that all the evidence of the failure is available. Applications, Value, and Use The procedures are primarily intended for use with paper-insulated compound-filled power cables in the United States. The information obtained from these procedures should be included v
in a root cause analysis that is used by utilities to prevent similar failures from causing outages in the future. Although it is not specifically intended, many of these procedures could be employed for the examination of a range of other cables, including telecommunications cables and various other submarine, aerial, and underground cables that are gas- or oil-pressurized paper-insulated, polyethylene, or hybrid cables. EPRI Perspective Very few organizations provide failure analysis training for power cables. The aging of the workforce has resulted in a large loss of undocumented knowledge as employees retire, and the potential impacts of this loss are significant: some power cable systems in operation are over 60 years old, and a majority of them are paper-insulated lead-covered cables. (New cables are usually fabricated with polyethylene sheaths, and the younger employees are more familiar with them.) Major emphasis has recently been placed on maintaining the power grids in a safe and reliable manner. The information obtained from the analysis of failed power cables can be used to prevent similar failures and improve the maintenance of electrical power systems. Approach The goal of the report was to provide detailed procedures for examining failed power cables and their splices. Because cables are made from a variety of materials, the report is organized accordingly, with sections on lead and lead alloy cable sheaths, lead and lead alloys for plumbed wipes, copper conductors, and aluminum conductors. Background information is provided for determining the cause of installation and service breaks. Finally, the process for preserving evidence and examining cable failures, from the failure site to the laboratory, is presented. Keywords Distribution cable Failure analysis Paper-insulated lead-covered cable Metallurgical analysis
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EPRI Licensed Material
ABSTRACT
This report provides detailed procedures for the examination of the metallic components in paper-insulated nonpressurized electrical power cables. The scope includes lead and lead alloy sheaths, splices and repair sleeves, plumbed wipes, and both copper and aluminum stranded and solid aluminum conductors. Examination of these components is usually required following equipment failure or breakdown due to faults developing from defective, incorrect, or adverse manufacturing, installation, or service conditions, and as a result of subsequent site damage or corrosion leading to water ingress and possibly electrical discharge. Although it is not specifically intended, many of these procedures could be employed for the examination of a range of other cables, including telecommunications cables and various other submarine, aerial, and underground cables that are gas- or oil-pressurized paper-insulated, polyethylene, or hybrid cables. The procedures are primarily intended for use with paper-insulated compound-filled power cables in the United States. They do not include the examination of paper-insulated pressurized gas- or oil-filled cables or their joints, or gas or oil reservoirs and accessories. Also not included in these procedures is the examination of termination accessories, transformers, or switching, crosslinking, and grounding equipment.
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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1 2 REPORT ORGANIZATION ....................................................................................................2-1 3 GENERAL REMARKS ...........................................................................................................3-1 4 LEAD AND LEAD ALLOY CABLE SHEATHS ......................................................................4-1 4.1 Visual Examination..........................................................................................................4-1 4.1.1 General Remarks ....................................................................................................4-1 4.1.2 Initial Examination ...................................................................................................4-1 4.1.3 Cleaning the Sample ...............................................................................................4-2 4.1.4 Examination of the Cleaned Sample .......................................................................4-2 4.2 Determination of Sheath Dimensions..............................................................................4-3 4.2.1 Sheath Diameter......................................................................................................4-3 4.2.2 Sheath Thickness ....................................................................................................4-3 4.2.3 Sheath Flattening ....................................................................................................4-4 4.3 Preparation of Samples for Metallographic Examination ................................................4-4 4.3.1 General Remarks ....................................................................................................4-4 4.3.2 Sample Preparation and Mounting ..........................................................................4-5 4.3.3 Sample Machining ...................................................................................................4-6 4.3.4 Sample Polishing.....................................................................................................4-6 4.3.5 Chemical Polishing ..................................................................................................4-8 4.4 Macroetching...................................................................................................................4-9 4.4.1 General Remarks ....................................................................................................4-9 4.4.2 Procedure ................................................................................................................4-9 4.5 Additional Preparation and Etching for the Microstructure ............................................4-11 4.5.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................4-11 4.6 Grain Size Determination ..............................................................................................4-13
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4.6.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................4-13 4.6.2 Procedure ..............................................................................................................4-13 4.6.3 Interpretation of Grain Size Results.......................................................................4-14 4.7 Extrusion Flow Patterns ................................................................................................4-14 4.7.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................4-14 4.7.2 Interpretation of the Flow Pattern ..........................................................................4-15 4.8 Chemical Analysis .........................................................................................................4-15 4.8.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................4-15 4.9 Corrosion.......................................................................................................................4-16 4.9.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................4-16 4.9.2 Chemical Corrosion ...............................................................................................4-17 4.9.3 Electrolytic Corrosion.............................................................................................4-18 4.10 Cone Expansion Testing .............................................................................................4-18 4.10.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................4-18 4.10.2 Equipment ...........................................................................................................4-19 4.10.3 Sample Preparation and Testing .........................................................................4-19 4.11.Tensile Testing ............................................................................................................4-20 4.11.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................4-20 4.11.2 Dimensions of Test Pieces ..................................................................................4-21 4.11.3 Preparation of Samples .......................................................................................4-22 4.11.4 Tensile Test Procedure .......................................................................................4-22 4.12 Hardness Testing ........................................................................................................4-23 4.12.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................4-23 4.12.2 Test Conditions....................................................................................................4-23 4.12.3 Test Procedure ....................................................................................................4-24 4.12.4 Conversion of Hardness Results .........................................................................4-24 4.13 Typical Failures in Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths .............................................4-25 4.13.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................4-25 4.13.2 Manufacturing Faults ...........................................................................................4-26 4.13.3 Faults Due to Storage and Transit.......................................................................4-27 4.13.4 Faults Due to Installation .....................................................................................4-28 4.13.5 Faults Due to Service Conditions ........................................................................4-30 5 LEAD ALLOYS FOR PLUMBED WIPES, JOINTS, AND REPAIR SLEEVES......................5-1 5.1 General Remarks ............................................................................................................5-1
5.2 Visual Examination..........................................................................................................5-3 5.2.1 General Remarks ....................................................................................................5-3 5.2.2 Initial Visual Examination.........................................................................................5-4 5.2.3 Cleaning Plumbed Wipes ........................................................................................5-4 5.2.4 Examination of the Cleaned Sample .......................................................................5-5 5.3 Determination of the Plumbed Wipe Dimensions............................................................5-6 5.3.1 General Remarks ....................................................................................................5-6 5.4 Preparation of Samples for Metallurgical Examination....................................................5-6 5.4.1 General Remarks ....................................................................................................5-6 5.4.2 Initial Sample Preparation .......................................................................................5-7 5.4.3 Sample Mounting.....................................................................................................5-8 5.4.4 Sample Grinding......................................................................................................5-9 5.4.5 Sample Polishing.....................................................................................................5-9 5.4.6 Examination of Sections After Polishing................................................................5-10 5.4.7 Chemical Polishing ................................................................................................5-10 5.4.8 Macroetching .........................................................................................................5-11 5.4.9 Microetching ..........................................................................................................5-13 5.5 Chemical Analysis .........................................................................................................5-15 5.5.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................5-15 5.6 Corrosion of Plumbed Wipes.........................................................................................5-16 5.6.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................5-16 5.7 Nondestructive Testing..................................................................................................5-17 5.7.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................5-17 5.7.2 Radiography ..........................................................................................................5-17 5.7.3 Dye Penetrant Testing...........................................................................................5-18 5.8 Peel Tests .....................................................................................................................5-19 5.8.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................5-19 5.8.2 Procedure ..............................................................................................................5-19 5.9 The Break or Three-Point-Bend Test ............................................................................5-20 5.9.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................5-20 5.9.2 Test Procedure ......................................................................................................5-20 5.10 Hardness Tests ...........................................................................................................5-21 5.10.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................5-21 5.10.2 Test Procedure ....................................................................................................5-21
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5.10.3 Conversion of Hardness Results .........................................................................5-22 5.11 Tensile Tests ...............................................................................................................5-22 5.11.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................5-22 5.11.2 Tensile Test Procedure .......................................................................................5-23 5.11.3 Tensile Test Procedure .......................................................................................5-24 5.13 Defects in Plumbed Wipes ..........................................................................................5-25 5.13.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................5-25 5.13.2 Problems with Plumbing Metals ..........................................................................5-25 5.13.3 Tinning Defects....................................................................................................5-26 5.13.4 Plumbing Defects ................................................................................................5-26 5.14 Service Failures...........................................................................................................5-28 5.14.1 General Remarks ................................................................................................5-28 5.14.2 Slow Bending.......................................................................................................5-28 5.14.3 Tensile Failure .....................................................................................................5-29 5.14.4 Cyclic Loading .....................................................................................................5-29 5.14.5 Corrosion .............................................................................................................5-30 6 COPPER FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS......................................................................6-1 6.1 Copper as an Electrical Conductor..................................................................................6-1 6.1.1 Production of Continuously Cast Copper Rod.........................................................6-3 6.1.2 Properties of Continuously Cast Copper Rod..........................................................6-4 6.1.3 Copper Wire Drawing ..............................................................................................6-6 6.1.4 Tinned Copper Wire ................................................................................................6-7 6.1.5 Properties of Copper Wire .......................................................................................6-7 6.2 Manufacturing of Copper Conductors ...........................................................................6-10 6.2.1 Joining Copper Wires ............................................................................................6-11 6.2.2 Joining Stranded Copper Conductors ...................................................................6-12 6.3 Properties of Copper Conductors..................................................................................6-13 6.3.1 Testing of Stranded Copper Conductors and Joints..............................................6-14 6.3.2 Dimensions............................................................................................................6-14 6.3.3 Weight per Meter ...................................................................................................6-14 6.3.4 Electrical Resistivity...............................................................................................6-15 6.3.5 Chemical Analysis .................................................................................................6-16 6.3.6 Tensile Tests .........................................................................................................6-16 6.3.7 Preparation of Metallographic Samples of Copper Conductors ............................6-19
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6.3.8 Grinding and Polishing Copper Conductor Samples for Metallographic Examination....................................................................................................................6-21 6.3.9 Macroetching and Microetching of Copper............................................................6-22 6.3.10 Hardness Tests ...................................................................................................6-23 6.3.11 Degree of Fill .......................................................................................................6-24 6.4 Faults and Defects in Copper Conductors ....................................................................6-25 6.4.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................6-25 6.4.2 Copper Wire Breaks ..............................................................................................6-25 6.4.3 Rod Casting Defects..............................................................................................6-26 6.4.4 Rod Rolling Defects...............................................................................................6-26 6.4.5 Wire Drawing Defects............................................................................................6-27 6.4.6 Installation and Service Breaks .............................................................................6-29 6.4.7 Defects in Stranded Copper Conductors...............................................................6-29 6.4.8 Breaks in Copper Conductors and Joints ..............................................................6-32 6.4.9 Installation and Service Breaks .............................................................................6-33 7 ALUMINUM STRANDED AND SOLID ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS ...................................7-1 7.1 Aluminum as an Electrical Conductor .............................................................................7-1 7.1.1 Production of Aluminum Redrawn Rod and Solid Aluminum Conductor .................7-2 7.1.2 Aluminum Rod Drawing...........................................................................................7-4 7.1.3 Properties of Aluminum Wire...................................................................................7-5 7.1.4 Properties of Solid Aluminum Conductor.................................................................7-6 7.2 Aluminum Wire Stranding................................................................................................7-7 7.2.1 Using Solid Aluminum Conductor............................................................................7-9 7.2.2 Joining Aluminum Rod, Wire, and Conductors........................................................7-9 7.3 Tests Carried Out on Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors .................................7-11 7.3.1 Dimensions............................................................................................................7-12 7.3.2 Weight per Meter ...................................................................................................7-12 7.3.3 Electrical Resistivity...............................................................................................7-13 7.3.4 Chemical Analysis .................................................................................................7-14 7.3.5 Tensile Testing ......................................................................................................7-15 7.3.6 Degree of Anneal...................................................................................................7-18 7.3.7 Preparation of Metallographic Samples of Aluminum............................................7-19 7.3.8 Grinding and Polishing Aluminum Conductors for Metallurgical Examination .......7-21 7.3.9 Macroetching and Microetching of Aluminum........................................................7-22
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7.3.10 Hardness Tests ...................................................................................................7-24 7.3.11 Degree of Fill .......................................................................................................7-25 7.4 Faults and Defects in Aluminum Conductors ................................................................7-25 7.4.1 General Remarks ..................................................................................................7-25 7.4.2 Examination of Wire Breaks ..................................................................................7-26 7.4.3 Rod Casting Defects..............................................................................................7-26 7.4.4 Rod Rolling Defects...............................................................................................7-27 7.4.5 Wire Drawing Defects............................................................................................7-28 7.4.6 Defects in Stranded Aluminum Conductors...........................................................7-30 7.4.7 Defects in Solid Aluminum Conductors .................................................................7-33 7.4.8 Breaks in Conductors and Joints...........................................................................7-34 7.4.9 Installation and Service Breaks .............................................................................7-35 7.4.10 Examination of Failures in Aluminum Conductors...............................................7-35 8 INSTALLATION AND SERVICE BREAKS ............................................................................8-1 9 PROCEDURE FOR EXAMINING CABLE FAILURES...........................................................9-1 9.1 General ...........................................................................................................................9-1 9.2 Equipment .......................................................................................................................9-2 9.3 Examination of Cable Failures ........................................................................................9-3 9.3.1 General Remarks ....................................................................................................9-3 9.3.2 Outer Armoring ........................................................................................................9-4 9.2.3 Polyethylene Sheathing (Jacketing) ........................................................................9-4 9.3.4 Metal Sheathing.......................................................................................................9-5 9.3.5 Outer and Inner Metallic Screens ............................................................................9-7 9.2.6 Electrical Conductors...............................................................................................9-8 9.2.7 Soldered Ferrule Joints ...........................................................................................9-9 9.2.8 Compressed and Indented Ferrule Joints .............................................................9-10 9.2.9 Welded Conductor Joints ......................................................................................9-11 10 CABLE FAILURE INDEX ...................................................................................................10-1 10.1 General Remarks ........................................................................................................10-1 11 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................11-1 11.1 Review ........................................................................................................................11-1 11.2 Future Work ................................................................................................................11-1
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1 Reagents for Chemical Polishing of Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths ................4-8 Table 4-2 Reagents for Macroetching of Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths .......................4-10 Table 4-3 Reagents for Microetching of Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths ........................4-12 Table 4-4 Typical Dimensions for Cone Expansion Testing Equipment ..................................4-19 Table 4-5 Sample Tensile Testing Dimension Options............................................................4-21 Table 4-6 Options for Hardness Testing ..................................................................................4-24 Table 5-1 Macroetching Reagents for Lead and Lead Alloy Solders and Plumbing Metals Containing Tin and Antimony ...........................................................................................5-12 Table 5-2 Microetching Reagents for Lead and Lead Alloy Solders and Plumbing Metals Containing Tin and Antimony ...........................................................................................5-14 Table 5-3 Dimensions of Test Pieces for Tensile Testing, in Inches .......................................5-23 Table 5-4 Dimensions of Test Pieces for Tensile Testing, in Millimeters.................................5-23 Table 6-1 Electrical Properties of Some Common Metals .........................................................6-1 Table 6-2 Other Typical Properties of High-Conductivity Coppers ............................................6-2 Table 6-3 Common Sizes of Continuously Cast Copper Rod ....................................................6-3 Table 6-4 Specified Tests and Testing Rates of Cu-ETP1 Continuously Cast Copper Rod.....................................................................................................................................6-4 Table 6-5 Chemical Composition of Cu-ETP1 Copper ..............................................................6-5 Table 6-6 The Mechanical Properties of Plain and Tinned Copper Wire Drawn on a Single-Line or Twin-Line Rod Drawing Machine ................................................................6-8 Table 6-7 Chemical Composition of Other High-Conductivity Copper Wire Likely to Be Used for Power Cable Conductors.....................................................................................6-9 Table 6-8 Electrical Properties of All High-Conductivity Copper Wire Including Cu-OF1, Cu-OF, Cu-ETP1, Cu-ETP, and Cu-FRHC (20C).............................................................6-9 Table 6-9 The Construction of Stranded Copper Conductors..................................................6-10 Table 6-10 Macroetching and Microetching Reagents for Copper ..........................................6-23 Table 6-11 Discoloration of Copper Conductors and Its Causes .............................................6-30 Table 7-1 Comparison of Properties of Copper and Aluminum .................................................7-2 Table 7-2 Chemical Composition of Aluminum Wire for Electrical Purpose ..............................7-5 Table 7-3 Specified Properties of Aluminum Wire .....................................................................7-6 Table 7-4 Modes of Failure in Joined Aluminum Conductors ..................................................7-18 Table 7-5 Macroetching and Microetching Reagents for Aluminum ........................................7-23 Table 7-6 Defects in Stranded Aluminum Conductors.............................................................7-31
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INTRODUCTION
This report provides detailed procedures for the examination of the metallic components in paper-insulated nonpressurized electrical power cables. The scope includes lead and lead alloy sheaths, splices and repair sleeves, plumbed wipes, and both copper and aluminum stranded and solid aluminum conductors. Examination of these components is usually required following equipment failure or breakdown due to faults developing from defective, incorrect, or adverse manufacturing, installation, or service conditions, and as a result of subsequent site damage or corrosion leading to water ingress and possibly electrical discharge. Although it is not specifically intended, many of these procedures could be employed for the examination of a range of other cables, including telecommunications cables and various other submarine, aerial, and underground cables that are gas- or oil-pressurized paper-insulated, polyethylene, or hybrid cables. The procedures are primarily intended for use with paper-insulated compound-filled power cables in the United States. They do not include the examination of paper-insulated pressurized gas- or oil-filled cables or their joints, or gas or oil reservoirs and accessories. Also not included in these procedures is the examination of termination accessories, transformers, or switching, crosslinking, and grounding equipment.
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REPORT ORGANIZATION
After general remarks in Section 3, the report has four sections devoted to specific types of metallic components: Section 4 Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths Section 5 Lead and Lead Alloys for Plumbed Wipes Section 6 Copper Conductors Section 7 Aluminum Conductors
The next three sections of the report discuss failures and failure analysis in terms of the cable itself, with numerous references to the component-specific information presented earlier: Section 8 Installation and Service Breaks Section 9 Procedure for Examining Cable Failures Section 10 Cable Failure Index
In the final section of the report, the author offers a historical perspective on the cable-making industry and his personal observations on the current situation and outlook for the future: Section 11 Conclusions
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GENERAL REMARKS
Samples for examination may be submitted in a variety of forms and conditions. It is important that at least some minimal information is recorded. This should include the following: The kV, the number of cores, and their size The owner of the cable, its route or identity, and the location of the sample The age of the cable and any history relevant to the section from which the sample was taken The reason for the examination and the nature of the failure The company or persons requiring the results
It should be noted that even with the most thorough examination, it is not always possible to establish the reason for the failure or breakdown of a cable. It is frequently the case that when an electrical breakdown occurs, much of the evidence associated with the initiation of the breakdown has been destroyed. The information that is required from the sample generally determines the nature of the examination and the order in which it is carried out. The size of the sample can also influence the sequence in which the work is undertaken. Whatever work is required, it is always good practice to plan the work and the order in which it is to be carried out. It is always good practice to carry out a thorough visual examination, record the results, and take photographs before any other work, including cleaning of the sample, is carried out. If there is likely to be a need for the examination or analysis of corrosion products, any cleaning methods should be carefully considered to prevent contamination or loss of the corrosion products. The notes, data, formulas, and procedures in this document are provided for information purposes only. It is the responsibility of the reader or others acting on the information to ensure that they use the correct and approved equipment in a safe manner with due regard to others in the vicinity. Some of the procedures detailed in these notes use hazardous chemicals, and where possible, warnings are given. It is the responsibility of the workers to ensure that they are properly protected and are working in a safe and approved manner. The regulations concerning the safe storage, use, and disposal of chemicals and materials including the handling of lead and lead alloys may vary from state to state, and the worker must be aware of, and comply with, the current and relevant statutory requirements. Lead is a cumulative poison, and good personal hygiene such as washing hands before consuming food must be practiced.
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LEAD AND LEAD ALLOY CABLE SHEATHS
This section of the report contains the following primary subsections: 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Visual Examination Determination of Sheath Dimensions Preparation of Samples for Metallographic Examination Macroetching Additional Preparation and Etching for the Microstructure Grain Size Determination Extrusion Flow Patterns Chemical Analysis Corrosion Cone Expansion Testing Tensile Testing Hardness Testing Typical Failures in Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths
4.1 Visual Examination

4.1.1 General Remarks Samples may be submitted as a length of cable, a length of lead or lead alloy sheath, or just a piece of lead removed from a cable, carefully or otherwise. The visual examination should be carried out with natural light or good-quality illumination and should initially be confined to the external surface of the sheath. Low magnification can be used if required, but if the samples are dirty the risk of damaging expensive equipment must be considered. The examination of the internal surface will be discussed later. Detailed notes of what is found should be recorded, including any information that is on the sample or sample wrappings. It is also worth taking photographs at this stage to record the initial condition of the samples. 4.1.2 Initial Examination If possible it is useful to seek some indication of the top or bottom of the cable as installed, or some other reference line or mark on the sheath that can be used to relate other marks to. The presence and pattern of any discoloration and staining should be noted, together with the 4-1
EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths
presence of accumulated debris, scoring, and evidence of mechanical damage. If corrosion has occurred, note the position and location. Is there a pattern to the corrosion? Does it occur in a line or in groups of discrete pits? Are there corrosion products present? How much and what color? Is it in the pits or around the edge of the pits? Are there many shallow pits, or a few deeper pits? Are the pits bright and shiny, or are they rough and coated with corrosion product? Can the corrosion product be recovered for chemical analysis and identification? If it can, note the location it is taken from. Care should be exercised, as the corrosion product could have been contaminated. 4.1.3 Cleaning the Sample When the initial examination has been completed the sample may be cleaned, if required. It is not possible to advise on specific cleaning techniques, as the contamination can arise from many sources. It is important to avoid scrubbing the sample; lead is very soft and site grit can cause a lot of spurious damage. Site grit and sand can be rinsed off with warm soapy water and the sample dried and then solvent cleaned. Again, the choice of solvent depends on the contamination; some common solvents are not as effective as others. Experience has indicated that kerosene (paraffin) or white spirit is better than acetone for removing bitumen and tars, and soaking a sample in scrap solvents is very effective if followed by a final rinse using acetone. The gentle use of soft-bristle brushes and soft, clean cloths is also beneficial in cleaning lead and lead alloy samples. 4.1.4 Examination of the Cleaned Sample Cleaned samples should be reidentified and examined, noting again the features recorded in the initial examination. It is useful at this stage to use low-power magnification (up to x10) and directional or collimated rather than ring lighting. Signs of straining in the form of what may appear to be grain structure or an orange peel appearance are visible. The extent of these areas and where they are in relation to the top of the cable or the site of the failure should be noted. It has been found useful to employ dye penetrant to enhance the presence of any fine-grain boundary cracking that may exist and to record the evidence with photography. The presence of any cracking on the external surface of the sheath should be noted. Recorded information should include the length and direction of the crack (longitudinal or transverse); the nature of the crackfor example, a single crack with or without branching, a group of cracks, or an area of fine cracking with or without straining; and the relationship of the cracking to the top or bottom of the cable or any other feature. If the opportunity exists, an attempt should be made to establish whether the cracking continues or reoccurs elsewhere along the cable. The edges of the crack should be carefully examined to establish whether they appear brittle and intergranular (intercrystalline) with no evidence of local ductility or necking. This would indicate the possible occurrence of slow straining, creep, or fatigue. Alternatively, the edges of the cracks may be knife-edged tapered and locally exhibiting evidence of ductility; this would indicate a relatively fast rate of straining.
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The inside of the sheath should also be carefully examined after the core has been removed. The removal of the core can be easy if it is loose, but tight cores may be difficult to remove, particularly on long and bent or damaged samples. Some advantage may be gained by reducing the length of long samples or by removing the core in pieces. It should be kept in mind that if force is used, the sheaths diameter may be increased. The internal surface of the sheath should be examined before and after cleaning. The presence of heavy impressions around the complete circumference of the sheath is indicative of a tight sheath. If the impressions are heavy on one side only, it could be indicative of tight winding of the cable onto the extrusion take-up drum, or a tight or difficult pull to install the cable. Straining and cracking should also be looked for on the internal surface of the sheath, and its presence, in relation to similar cracking on the external surface, noted. It is useful to determine if the cracking is more extensive on one side of the sheath than the other, as this may indicate the direction in which the cracking propagated. The inside of the lead sheath is a good indication of what was present at the time of extrusion and can sometimes show evidence of wrinkled, damaged, or torn paper. It is also useful to check for the presence of marker tapes laid along the cores of older cables prior to lead alloy sheathing. These tapes record the year of manufacture and the cable manufacturer and can be more accurate than the recollection of a site engineer. It is important to make notes of any observations at the time and not leave them to the end of the examination or the following day.
4.2 Determination of Sheath Dimensions

4.2.1 Sheath Diameter The dimensions of the sample should be recorded as early as is feasible. The diameter should be recorded after the external surface of the sheath has been cleaned. A diameter tape should be employed and care used to ensure it is a snug fit. If possible, more than one diameter should be measured and the minimum, maximum, and mean recorded. If the sheath sample has been removed by an oblique cut with a hack knife or similar cutting tool, then where feasible an attempt should be made to recircularize the sheath and record the diameter. Where a sample has been removed by cutting a rectangular section with a box cutter or similar tool, the width of the sample should be recorded together with the fact that the sample was removed in this fashion. The length and width of a window or small sample cut from the sheath should also be recorded. 4.2.2 Sheath Thickness The thickness of the sheath should also be measured as soon as possible. This can normally be done with a sample of lead after it has been cleaned. However, in the case of a cable sample, the thickness can only be satisfactorily measured after the core has been removed. A number of techniques can be used, including double ball-ended micrometers, ultrasonic thickness gauges, and a microscope graticule in conjunction with prepared sections, and are all acceptable, provided that care appropriate to the technique is used. The use of ultrasonic thickness gauges, even after calibration and on new smooth cable sheaths, has been found to give variable and unreliable results. At least seven equally spaced thickness measurements around both ends of a 4-3
ring sample should be recorded to ensure that the full range of sheath thicknesses are measured and again, the minimum, maximum, and mean values should be recorded. 4.2.3 Sheath Flattening It is also worth checking at this stage for evidence of any flattening of the sheath that may have occurred. Caution should be exercised in case flattening occurred after the sample was removed from the cable. Flattening is frequently found in three-core cables and can be caused during manufacture, installation, or service. In one case, evidence of multiple cables flattening was reported, and on investigation was found to have occurred, at a manhole access where the cables had been used as steps. It is sometimes found that straining and cracking can occur at the edge of flattened areas, and these areas should be carefully examined.
4.3 Preparation of Samples for Metallographic Examination

4.3.1 General Remarks The prime object of metallographic examination is to reveal the macrostructure, not the microstructure. The correct exposure of the macrostructure will reveal the following: The presence of heterogeneity in the structure The grain size distribution around the sheath The presence of extrusion flow lines and die support arm positions Variations in chemical composition, such as segregation The presence of extrusion defects and seams The depth of mechanical damage The depth and nature of any corrosion attack
Lead and lead alloys used for cable sheaths are soft, are easily strained, and will anneal (recrystallize and suffer grain growth) at ambient temperatures. Because of this, it is difficult to prepare sections for metallurgical examination without some straining and a Beilby or flowed layer. There are numerous references explaining how lead alloys should be prepared, polished, and etched, but none of them, including the following, can impart the practice and patience required or develop the personal techniques that come with time. It should also be noted that the metallographic examination of most lead sheath samples is for macroscopic, not microscopic, purposes. The following discussion is primarily intended to address the macroscopic examination, but reference to the microscopic preparation has been included for completeness. It is not necessary to go through each of the following stagesfor example, chemical polishing (Section 4.3.5) may not be necessary or required, but it has been included for completeness.
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4.3.2 Sample Preparation and Mounting Lead and lead alloy sheath samples may be presented in a number of shapes and sizes, ranging from a complete piece of pipe to a sheet removed from the cable by cutting to a smaller piece or a window. Depending on what information is required, a transverse or longitudinal section may be necessary. The most common section is the transverse section, for grain size, flow patterns, extrusion defects, laminations, and alloy segregation. Longitudinal sections are less frequently employed and are used for transverse defects and sometimes sections through plumbed wipes (see Section 5). From a length of sheathing, a complete ring provides the ideal section. Similarly, when a piece of lead has been cut from a cable, it is frequently better to carefully reform it on a mandrel into a ring and butt solder the joint. These solder joints should be made with a 70- or 120-watt electric soldering iron using a eutectic or similar solder (62% Sn, 38% Pb), with either a flux core or flux paste. The soldering operation should be carried out in the shortest amount of time feasible, to avoid excessive and extensive heating, and the soldered bead should have a smooth profile. The profile can be improved by filing once the solder has cooled. The length or height of the ring should be less than half the diameter, and never greater than 35 mm. Smaller pieces of lead alloy sheath can either be inset into a lead ring and secured with solder at the ends, or mounted in a cold-setting resin. The mounting of lead and lead alloy sheath samples in a conventional metallurgical sample mounting press with thermosetting resins is not advised, because the curing temperature of the resin is approximately 180185C, and grain growth and possibly incipient fusion of some or all of the microstructure will occur. The mounting of a sample is required either because the sample is too small or because it is needed for microscopic examination. In either case, there are a number of proprietary molding materials available. Most are two-pack systems, and curing time can range from 10 minutes to 24 hours. Preference should be given to clear epoxy resin-based systems with cure times of 410 hours. These systems provide very good adhesion to the sides of the section, allow time for bubbles to escape, and are sufficiently fluid to run into fine crevices. Vacuum-assisted impregnation can be used to improve filling very of fine crevices, together with gentle heat (up to 50C) from a 100-watt lamp. Placing the sample on a warm window sill or suspending it over a radiator will accelerate the cure. A suitable casting resin is manufactured by Ciba Geigy: resin MY753 (DTD900/4365 DGD QA/TS AFS 208) and hardener HY956 (DGD QA/TS AFS 122B), used in the ratio of 5:1. This resin is reported to have a limited shelf life, but is still usable for metallurgical purposes three years after its use by date. The sections with the face to be examined are placed face down in a greased and reusable plastic mold with a removable base (available in various diameters from most suppliers of metallurgical consumables), and the molding resin is poured in. The mold can then be placed in a vacuum desiccator and the vacuum gradually introduced. The full vacuum should be applied for sufficient time to remove all the bubbles and to ensure that the resin fills fine crevices. Air pressure should then be reintroduced gradually and the mold left on a level surface to cure. If accelerated curing is used, frequent checks should be made to ensure that overheating does not occur, particularly during the exothermic stage of the cure.
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4.3.3 Sample Machining When the resin has cured, the base of the mold is pried off and the mold pushed out. Both ring sections and mounted sections are treated in the same manner in this section. A lathe with a three-jaw self-centering chuck, capable of 6001000 rpm, and either an alloy-tool steel or tungsten-carbide-tipped turning tool with a sharp semicircular tip between 0.5 and 1.5 mm in radius and a minimum of 15 top rake are required. The advantage of using alloy-tool steel is that it can be regularly and easily resharpened. The tool is set with its centerline at right angles to the surface of the sheath to be machined. The headstock chuck should be sufficiently tightened to secure the sample without distorting it. The back of the ring or the mounted sample should be faced off until it is flat before the face to be examined is machined. A useful safety tip when machining ring samples is to clamp a bar in the tailstock chuck and advance the tailstock until the bar protrudes into the sample. In the event of the ring being thrown out or off the chuck, the operator is protected and damage to the sample is usually recoverable. Light cuts are necessary, particularly on ring samples, which are not gripped as firmly as mounted samples, which may rotate out of true, have a solder bead, and not be flat. Once the sample is flat, six cuts of 0.150.20 mm should be taken, with a suitable cutting lubricant applied with a brush between each cut. The cuts can be made with the tool traveling into the center and another cut made on the return. The depth of cut is then reduced to approximately 0.10 mm and ten passes across the end of the sample made, cutting only with the tool traveling into the center. The copious application of cutting fluid should be maintained. During the cutting, a machining burr may build up on the edge of the ring sample. This should be shaved off with a sharp knife or scalpel, and any other shavings and/or slivers should be removed at the same time. Mounted samples should be machined in the same manner using cutting fluid, although the tailstock bar will not be needed and shavings, slivers, and machining burrs will not occur. The sample should be removed from the lathe and degreased with a suitable solvent, such as acetone or methyl alcohol (methanol). It has been reported that milling has also been successfully used to prepare lead and low lead alloy samples for polishing, but this technique has not been tried by the author. 4.3.4 Sample Polishing Careful machining precludes the need for grinding on emery cloth, with the accompanying problems of pick-up on the papers and embedding of grit in the soft lead, even when kerosene, beeswax, or paraffin wax is used. Careful machining will reduce the flowed or strained layer on the surface and should also preclude the need for chemical polishing. It is now only necessary to polish both ring and mounted samples and, again, the same procedures apply to both sample forms. The following polishing procedure can be carried out manually using a piece of plate glass or other flat surface approximately 150200 mm square with a proprietary soft, short-nap pile polishing cloth or Selvyt cloth secured on it. Alternatively, a conventional metallurgical polishing wheel can be used, again with Selvyt cloth. Selvyt cloth is usually supplied in rolls or squares and can be cut to the required size. As Selvyt cloth is not supplied with an adhesive 4-6
backing, the circular platen of the polishing wheel will require a clamping band to secure the Selvyt to it. If a clamping band is unavailable, one can easily be manufactured. As an alternative to Selvyt cloth, there are a number of commercially available proprietary soft-nap polishing cloths with adhesive backings to suit the diameter of most polishing wheel platens. Two Selvytcloth-covered platens would normally be required, one impregnated with 5- or 6-micron polycrystalline diamond, and the other with 1-micron diamond. There is no preference for the use of diamond paste versus a suspension of diamond in a sprayable liquid, although the latter has the ability of achieving a more-even coverage. It is advisable to keep the lead sample polishing cloths only for lead and lead alloys and not use them for polishing other metals. When not in use, the cloths or cloth-covered platens should be removed from the polishing wheel and stored in a pinch-seal polyethylene bag to protect them from grit and airborne contamination. Used polishing cloths, whether utilized on platens or on glass plates, should be thoroughly remoistened with lubricant/extender before reuse. It is also good practice to use an old sample to ensure that the cloth is bedded down and free from grit and contamination before it is used for the current samples. On polishing wheels, the speed of platen rotation should be approximately 100180 rpm. The samples should be applied to the wheels or pad with fairly light hand pressure. Initial polishing should be carried out on the 5- or 6-micron polycrystalline-diamond-impregnated cloth, using either a proprietary lubricant extender or methyl alcohol, or a 50/50 methyl alcohol/ethylene glycol solution, dripped or sprayed onto the polishing cloth. Secondary polishing is carried out using the 1-micron diamond-impregnated cloth, the same lubricant extender and similar hand pressure. There are no hard-and-fast rules regarding polishing times, but typically 23 minutes on the 5- or 6-micron cloth and 5 minutes on the 1-micron wheel would be normal. Ring sections are moved in an orbital pattern in a counter-rotating direction. Mounted sections can be treated like normal metallographic samples and moved in a similar counter-rotating direction within a band of one-fourth to three-fourths of the wheels radius. Care must be taken to avoid knocking the side of the polishing machine with the ring sample. Scrupulous cleanliness must be maintained. After each polishing stage, both ring and mounted sections must be thoroughly cleaned by gently wiping the polished surface and sides of the sample with clean cotton wool soaked in water diluted with liquid soap to remove the polishing residues. The sample should then be washed and rinsed with isopropyl alcohol or acetone, or a similar quick-drying solvent, and dried in a flow of warm air. Care must be exercised to avoid touching the polished surfaces. A very successful alternative to the 5- or 6-micron and 1-micron diamond polishing is the use of a proprietary domestic metal polish such as Brasso or Bluebell. These polishes are liberally applied to a Selvyt-covered wheel and in the case of ring samples can be poured into the center of the ring. The advantage is low cost; both polishing medium and lubricant are all in one. This system has been extensively employed by the author with great success for the preparation of both macrosections and microsections and has also been unofficially recommended by one of the major suppliers of metallurgical sample preparation equipment. The main disadvantages are the very messy residues and nondraining sludge that build up on the sample and in the well of the polishing machine. Cloths, whether from polishing wheel platens or from plate glass, can be stored in pinch-seal plastic bags. If the cloths dry out, the residues can harden and form abrasive lumps, which renders them unsuitable for further use.
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4.3.5 Chemical Polishing Chemical polishing can be used instead of mechanical polishing (or less frequently, in addition to it), and may be fairly successful in removing thin or lightly strained layers, but prolonged chemical polishing to remove heavily strained layers has some disadvantages, such as pitting and/or severe loss of edges. There may also be problems with heavy discoloration, particularly with lead alloys containing antimony and/or tin. Based on experience, if repeated structural etching reveals fine strained grains, it may be more practical to employ chemical etching, which may also reveal the grain structure. It should be noted that chemical etching is not intended as a structural etching procedure. Table 4-1 lists some chemical polishing reagents that have been used with some success.
Warning The use of protective equipment, including gloves and safety glasses, is strongly advised. Workers should read and fully understand the relevant MSDS (COSHH) data sheets before working with chemicals. The data sheets should be available for reference, and appropriate safety equipment should be in place. The mixing of chemicals should never be undertaken unless their reactions are known. Table 4-1 Reagents for Chemical Polishing of Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths For Lead Alloys Containing Tin/antimony (E alloys) or BS EN 50307 alloys: PK021S, PK022S and PK023S Solution 10 ml hydrochloric acid (conc) 5 ml nitric acid (conc) 50 ml denatured alcohol (industrial methylated spirits) 50 ml water Caution Add the HCl and the HNO3 very cautiously to 350 ml of H2O with constant agitation, then when cool, make up to one liter with denatured alcohol. Antimony and tin/antimony (B and C alloys) or BS EN 50307 alloys: PK001S PK002S PK011S and PK012S Various ratios of these two constituents are quoted but the following is typical. 25 ml hydrogen peroxide 30% 75 ml glacial acetic acid Remarks Immersion times of 2030 minutes at ambient temperatures may be required. The surface will discolor and at intervals of 10 minutes the sample should be removed and dipped in concentrated nitric acid, rinsed in running water and returned to the etchant. A final mechanical polish using 1-micron diamond or Brasso is necessary. This is followed by a final etching in 10% silver nitrate solution using the swab and wash technique to remove any deposits. The procedure may have to be repeated several times to reveal a satisfactory structure. Immersion times of 10 seconds to 5 minutes are advised in various publications, but typically immersions of 20 seconds should be used, followed by a cold water rinse and inspection. Prolonged exposure will result in pitting and loss of edges.
It is possible that the hydrochloric acid/nitric acid solution will perform satisfactorily on numerous other lead alloys, but the author has no experience of their efficacy.
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It is recommended that mounted samples be immersed in the solutions. Ring samples should not be fully immersed, as the solution will be wasted in attacking the sides of the ring. It has been found practical to invert ring samples, with the polished surface facing down, and dip them in the solution for the requisite time. Care must be exercised to avoid touching the prepared surfaces of both the ring and the mounted sections. Experience has shown that the chemical polishing may reveal a grain structure that is acceptable, but because the chemical attack on the lead and lead alloy is fairly viscous, the finer details of the macrostructure will be lost and flow patterns not always revealed.
4.4 Macroetching
4.4.1 General Remarks It is frequently overlooked that it is the macrostructure that exhibits the grain size and flow patterns, and not the microstructure. Different etching reagents are required for the two. With small sections or ring samples, the most difficult part of the macroetching procedure is knowing when the true grain structure is revealed. The etching will initially reveal a fine grain structure typical of the deformed or flowed layer, and which will probably not be the true structure of the sample. It may be that a mixture of coarse and fine grain is visible or that lines of fine grain corresponding to scratches are visible. By repeating the final polishing and re-etching, possibly one or two times, the true grain structure will gradually develop. 4.4.2 Procedure The etching procedure for small or mounted samples is by conventional immersion, with the polished surface uppermost in a beaker or flat-bottom crystallizing basin containing the etching reagent. Ring samples, because of their larger diameter, require etching in larger-diameter flat-bottom crystallizing basins. Total immersion with the polished surface facing upward can be used, but a vigorous reaction can frequently mask the etching of the polished surface. Also, the sides of the ring sample are etched and the efficiency of the etching reagent will be unnecessarily reduced. It has been found that by holding the ring sample with the polished surface facing down and just immersing it in the reagent for a few seconds, then removing it and inverting the sample, the reaction on the polished surface can be observed. By using a rotary rocking motion, the meniscus of etchant can be run around the polished surface, and if necessary the dipping process can be repeated. Immediately after the required structure has been revealed, the sample should be washed under a copious flow of water, rinsed with acetone and dried in a flow of warm air. If the sample is not to be examined immediately, it should be placed in a desiccator with a suitable drying agent. Suggested macroetching reagents for lead and lead alloys are listed in Table 4-2. The reagents used for lead and lead alloys are usually two- or three-part solutions that have limited shelf lives 4-9
and usually have to be made up fresh. Attention is drawn to solutions 3A and 3B, which have been found by the author to be the most universal macroetchants for a wide range of lead alloy sheaths. Solution 4A has been found to be effective in the removal of etching stains and discoloration on some lead alloy samples caused by other reagents.
Warning The use of protective equipment, including gloves and safety glasses, is strongly advised. Workers should read and fully understand the relevant MSDS (COSHH) data sheets before working with chemicals. The data sheets should be available for reference, and appropriate safety equipment should be in place. The mixing of chemicals should never be undertaken unless their reactions are known. Table 4-2 Reagents for Macroetching of Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths For Lead Alloys Containing Lead and lead alloys with less than 1% Sb, and all other alloys in BS EN 50307 not listed below 1A. Solution 250 ml water 140 ml NH4OH (sp gr 0.90) 60 ml HNO3 (conc) 100 ml molybdic acid (85%) 400 ml HNO3 (conc) 960 ml water 100 ml glacial acetic acid 30 ml glacial acetic acid 40 ml HNO3 (conc) 160 ml water 1 ml glacial acetic acid 400 ml water Polish on Selvyt cloth with alpha (0.5 micron) alumina at 120150 rpm. Etch with solution 2A at 4042C, then repolish until bright. Re-etch with solution 2B at ambient temperature for 12 hours. Ring samples will need to be inverted and supported (drill two diametrically opposite holes through back of sample, put bar through holes, and place in a flat-bottom crystallizing basin, using the edges for support). Fill basin with solution 2B until polished face is just immersed, and examine periodically. If (NH4)2MoO4 does not dissolve completely, warm solution and cool. If precipitate reforms, add a few ml of NH4OH (specific gravity 0.90). Mix equal quantities of 3A and 3B immediately before use; etch at ambient temperature 12 minutes. This etchant can be revitalized with a few drops of H2O2 and has been found suitable for most lead alloys. It is the authors first choice for macroetching cable sheaths. Remarks Add 1A to 1B and let precipitate redissolve; warm gently if necessary. An insoluble precipitate will form if 1B is added to 1A. After precipitate has redissolved, add 1C to mixture of 1A and 1B.
1B. 1C.
Antimonial lead and lead alloys and BS EN 50307 alloys: PK001S PK008S PK081S PK089S
2A.
2B.
Lead and lead alloys with and without Sb
3A. 3B.
80 ml HNO3 (conc) 220 ml water 45 g ammonium molybdate 300 ml water
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EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths Table 4-3 (continued) Reagents for Macroetching of Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths For Lead Alloys Containing Mild etchant for most lead alloy cable sheaths but more useful as a brightener. 4A. Solution 10 g ammonium molybdate 25 g citric acid 100 ml water Remarks Immerse sample at ambient temperature until desired contrast is achieved, usually 25 minutes. The author has found this solution more useful as a brightener to remove stains and discoloration on lead samples caused by other reagents. This is essentially a chemical polishing/etching solution. The strongest H2O2 available should be used to minimize water content. Immerse sample at ambient temperature until desired contrast is achieved.
5A.
75 ml acetic acid 25 ml H2O2
After etching, the samples should be washed under a copious flow of water, rinsed with a solvent (acetone), and dried in a flow of warm air. Constant care must be exercised to ensure that the etched surface is not touched. It is also advised that the samples be examined promptly after etching, as the sample will discolor gradually by natural oxidation if not stored in a desiccator.
4.5 Additional Preparation and Etching for the Microstructure

4.5.1 General Remarks Samples for microstructural evaluation are usually small, to enable them to be placed on the stage of a microscope, and are prepared in the same manner used to prepare cold-cured samples, as discussed in Section 4.3. Provided the cloths are clean and care to avoid contamination is exercised, the above methods for the preparation of macrosections will give scratch-free finishes adequately suitable for microsections. If further polishing is required for the examination of microstructures at higher magnification, then the use of 0.5-micron colloidal silica or 0.5-micron gamma alumina may be necessary. Deionized water must be used as a lubricant. Both colloidal silica and gamma alumina will crystallize when allowed to dry, whether on the polishing cloth, the applicator, or in the container. The crystallized form of both these mediums will seriously score the surface of the section, and care must be taken to avoid this problem. It has been found that using a bulb pipette and taking solution from the center of the solution (not the bottom) and rinsing the pipette out with deionized water immediately after use is good practice. Manual or machine polishing can be used with Selvyt or a similar proprietary short-nap cloth, with the same hand pressure and speed of rotation. Cleaning with a liquid soap solution on a cotton wool wipe, solvent rinsing, and warm air drying also apply. The same care and attention to avoid touching or damage to the polished surface is required. Chemical polishing is unsuitable for this application, and the use of different etching reagents is required to reveal the microstructure.
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Etching must be carried out by immersion; the use of cotton swabs (wool buds) is not recommended. Many of the typical etching reagents listed below are variations of the acetic acid/hydrogen peroxide formulation, with the stronger mixtures or longer immersion times recommended for removal of the Beilby or flowed layer. For revealing microstructures, Solution 2 or 5% Nital, with 10% hydrochloric acid for stain removal, has been found to be generally satisfactory.
Warning The use of protective equipment, including gloves and safety glasses, is strongly advised. Workers should read and fully understand the relevant MSDS (COSHH) data sheets before working with chemicals. The data sheets should be available for reference, and appropriate safety equipment should be in place. The mixing of chemicals should never be undertaken unless their reactions are known. Table 4-3 Reagents for Microetching of Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths For Lead Alloys Containing Commercially pure lead Pb + <2% Sb and all lead alloys listed in BS EN 50703 Solution 75 ml acetic acid (conc) 25 ml hydrogen peroxide (30%) 60 ml acetic acid (conc) 30 ml hydrogen peroxide (30%) No. 1. 140 ml nitric acid (conc) 100 ml water No. 2. 8 ml acetic acid (conc) 8 ml nitric acid (conc) 84 ml glycerol Remarks Make up fresh, use at ambient temperature, total immersion, 615 seconds, general structure. Make up fresh, use at ambient temperature, total immersion, 815 seconds, general structure. Solution No. 1use cold to etch sample after machining and prior to polishing to remove excessive flowed layer and any embedded abrasive particles if grinding was employed. Solution No. 2use at ambient temperature, total immersion, approximately 30 seconds. Has been used as a microetchant with some success on low alloy leads after machining and polishing as outlined above. Make up fresh, use at 4042C (104108F), total immersion, 430 minutes depending on flowed layer thickness, remove stain with cotton wool under running water, general structure. Make up fresh, use at ambient temperature, total immersion, 615 seconds, general structure. Use at ambient temperature, total immersion, 540 seconds, remove stain by immersion in 10% HCl methanol solution, general structure. Use at ambient temperature, swab with cotton wool until surface goes slightly opaque. More suitable for general structure and lead calcium (battery plate) alloys.
Pb + > 2% Sb
5 ml acetic acid (conc) 20 ml nitric acid (conc) 80 ml water
75 ml acetic acid (conc) 25 ml hydrogen peroxide (30%) 5 ml nitric acid (conc) 100 ml ethanol or methanol (95%) Other Pb and unspecified Pb alloys 510 g silver nitrate 90 ml water
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4.6 Grain Size Determination

4.6.1 General Remarks It should be noted that there is no correct or specific grain size to which lead sheaths should conform unless included in a specification, and such an inclusion would be debatable. The initial grain size of a lead or lead alloy cable sheath depends on many factors. These include the alloy, the method of extrusion, the type of screw or ram press used, the temperature of the lead and the extruder, and the location of the water cooling, if any, applied to the lead as it emerges from the extruder. As stated earlier, lead and low alloy leads can recrystallize at ambient temperatures, and even slight straining such as winding or storage of a cable on a drum can exacerbate this. There is a belief that fine grain sizes are better than coarse grain sizes, but it is well documented that finer initial grain sizes have a greater potential to recrystalize and grow. The grain size is determined on a cross section through the sheath, preferably on a ring section where the complete range of grain size is displayed. The grain size should not be recorded close to a soldered joint in a reformed ring section. 4.6.2 Procedure There are a number of techniques for determining the grain size of materials, and a number of typical methods are detailed in ASTM E 112. These methods are fine, but they usually require finite areas or linear distances and magnifications that would not readily be encompassed with the wall thickness of the sheath. The lead sheath sample, whether a ring sample or a section from a sheath, should be prepared and macroetched in accordance with the procedures detailed in Sections 4.2.2, 4.3, and 4.4. It will also be necessary to use a low-magnification stereo microscope with a magnification range from x2 to approximately x35, and good lighting. Cold white light via an optical fiber bundle to either a directional collimator or a ring illuminator should be used. The use of a mechanical counter is optional, but a means of recording the results should be available. The actual magnification used is not important, but it is ideal if a magnification is used such that in one field the complete wall thickness of the lead alloy cable sheath and the grain size are clearly visible. The determination of the grain size is undertaken in at least five, preferably seven, positions equally spaced around the ring samples circumference. On other sections, the number of positions will depend on the sample size and the need for the grain size determination. At each of the selected positions, an imaginary radial line is drawn across the sheaths wall thickness, and the grains intersected by this line are counted. The first and last grains that lie on the internal and external surface of the sheath are counted as half grains. Twins are not counted as grain boundaries, and imaginary lines that cross triple points can be counted as 1.5 grains or moved to one side and the grains recounted. The mean grain size at each position is the number of grains counted, divided by the sheath wall thickness at that position. The overall mean for the sample is the mathematical mean of the counts at each position. It is sometimes required that the grain size
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area be reported. In this instance, the grains are assumed to be circular and the mean grain size at each position is the grain diameter. 4.6.3 Interpretation of Grain Size Results There are two aspects of the grain size that are important. One is consistency of the grain size around the cable sheaths circumference, and the other, a less important aspect, is the actual size. Due to manufacturing techniques, particularly with older cables and to a much lesser extent post-1965 cables, it was possible that a duplex grain size existed. This generally took the form of diametrically opposed zones of a coarse grain size with zones of finer grain size between. This resulted from bending strains on the inner and outer radii of curvature while the cable was on a drum and exposed to heating. The heating may have occurred during the vacuum drying of the papers after lead sheathing, during storage of the lead-sheathed cable in strong sun, or during service conditions. The strained grain structure when treated will recrystalize, and prolonged or excessive heating results in grain growth. The technique of drying paper insulation in leadsheathed cables has been terminated for this reason. The finer grains would be the original grain size and would occur close to the neutral axis of the bending. The creep resistance of lead and lead alloy sheaths generally improves with decreasing grain size, and in this respect finer grain sizes are preferred. The same applies to fatigue resistance, but sheaths with duplex zoned grain sizes are reported to have significantly lower fatigue resistance than those with coarse grain sizes. There is also evidence that when slow straining of a lead sheath occurs it is more likely to be located at the junction between the coarse and fine grain zones. A fairly typical grain size for most as-extruded lead alloy cable sheaths would be approximately in the range of 0.160.36 mm diameter or 0.020.10 mm2. There are examples of oil-filled cables operating satisfactorily for a number of years at 45 psi (gauge) with nominally 95-mm diameter lead sheaths of 2.85-mm wall thickness with an average grain size of approximately 0.93 mm in diameter. The report of the grain size results should include the sample identity, the type of sample (full or partial transverse ring or section), the number of intercepts used, the mean, minimum, and maximum average grain size measured, and any anomalies such as zoning, if found.
4.7 Extrusion Flow Patterns

4.7.1 General Remarks The flow pattern is revealed using the same techniques as those employed to show the grain size, as detailed in Sections 4.3 to 4.4.2. The flow pattern, if revealed, is caused by partial segregation of some of the alloying elements and is dependent on the alloy, the type of extrusion press, and the operating conditions. Thus, commercially pure lead sheaths with little or minimal alloying content are less likely to show a 4-14
flow pattern than more highly alloyed leads. Similarly, it is possible, with the correct extrusion conditions and a higher alloyed lead, to show little or no evidence of a flow pattern. It is more usual to examine a ring or partial ring (transverse) section for a flow pattern, but if one is present in the transverse section it will also be present in the longitudinal section, although probably less easily detected. 4.7.2 Interpretation of the Flow Pattern The type of flow pattern will vary according to the type and size of the extrusion press. Two, four, or six equally spaced die support (or spider) arm positions should be visible. These arms support the inner or core die over which the lead alloy flows. At these arm positions the flow splits, passes around the arms, and rejoins as a pressure-welded seam. If extrusion conditions are not correctly maintained or longitudinal lead oxides become entrained, these positions can be lines of weakness and result in longitudinal splits in the sheath. When viewed on the external surface of the cable they appear almost like long zippers, and their presence is confirmed by macrosections and etching. The pattern of flow between these die support arm positions can also vary significantly, depending on whether the extrusion was through a semicontinuous or continuous ram press or one of several types of continuous screw presses. All the flow patterns between the arm positions should be concentric and evenly disposed about a central point, even where a billet recharging tongue exists. There should be no evidence of a bright shiny phase indicative of gross alloy segregation or a split or run of a molten phase during the extrusion process. Neither should there be any evidence of longitudinal laminations in the sheath. Delamination of an extruded sheath can occur and may be visible on the external surface of the cable. Laminations that do not break the external surface will not be detected until the lead alloy sheath is removed and examined metallurgically. The reporting of the flow pattern need only state the number of die support arms, the concentricity (or lack thereof) of the flow patterns, the freedom (or lack thereof) of laminations, gross segregation, weld defects, and the absence (or presence) of inclusions and dross. If the method of extrusion can be deduced and is supported by the age of the sample, it is sometimes useful to record this information.
4.8 Chemical Analysis

4.8.1 General Remarks The chemical analysis of lead and lead alloy sheaths is a specialized subject, and beyond the scope of this document. There are, however, some guidelines that should be noted with regard to selecting samples for analysis, their preparation, and the analytical techniques used. It is important to use a laboratory that is experienced in the analysis of lead and low alloy leads, because not only will they have the knowledge, experience, and established methods, but they should also have the relevant reference standards with which to calibrate their equipment. The manufacturers of the lead ingots from which the cable sheaths are extruded are usually the best 4-15
laboratories for chemical analysis; they should be consulted regarding sample size and form, and what elements are required in the report. First, the reason for the analysis should be established. If there is plenty of material and a general composition of the sheath is required, it can be analyzed using an emission spectrometer or Quantamat. The smallest lead alloy sample size for this method is usually 20 mm in diameter and 10 mm thick. The thickness can be made up with a circumferential strip cut from the sheath and doubled over several times to achieve the thickness. This will provide enough material for several analyses. Small submitted samples can be left until all the other testing required or possible has been completed before being analyzed. Small samples can be analyzed by atomic absorption techniques, but these entail a more manual procedure requiring digestion of the sample and possibly several solutions and lamps of different wavelengths for each element reported. (The cost is usually based on the number of elements required.) Very small samples of 0.11.0 g can be analyzed by induction coupled plasma, and this is probably the most widely used technique for lead and lead alloys. If it is necessary to quantify the lead content, it is usually analyzed by classical wet methods. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive x-ray analysis is fine for qualitative analysis and approximate quantitative analysis of very small areas. The chemical analysis should record the following elements, which either individually or with up to two others form the specified alloying elements in lead alloy sheaths: arsenic (As), bismuth (Bi), calcium (Ca), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), antimony (Sb), tin (Sn), and tellurium (Te). Some of these elements, while specified in some lead alloys, are listed as impurities in other lead alloys, together with silver (Ag), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn). For example, lead alloy F3 contains 0.08 As, 0.05 Bi, and 0.06 Sn in alloy C (0.07 Cd, 0.2 Sn). Arsenic and bismuth would be regarded as impurities, and cadmium is an impurity in alloy F3. Most impurities do not exceed 0.05% and many others are specified as low as 0.0005%. In the analysis of lead alloys, lead itself is usually reported as the remainder. A new European standard, EN 50307:2002, has been issued, and many of the old alloys included under a different designation. Modern lead refining techniques can produce cleaner alloys than those of 20 years or more ago, and with the development of modern analytical techniques lower levels of impurities are now specified. It should be noted that some older cables, and therefore their compositions, might predate the current specified compositions. Analyses should therefore be checked against the specifications that were current at the time the cable was manufactured. From experience, the author has found that many old cables with compositions that do not comply with either the old BS 801 or the new BS EN 50307 specifications are still giving satisfactory service.
4.9 Corrosion
4.9.1 General Remarks In comparison with other types of service problems encountered with lead and lead alloy sheathed cables, corrosion represents a small percentage of problems. If corrosion of a lead 4-16
sheath has occurred, it is important that it is recognized at an early stage and samples are not scrubbed clean with a solvent and grit-impregnated cloth on site before being submitted for examination. The initial visual examination of the sample, as detailed in Section 4.1.2, should be followed. Samples of the corrosion product, if sufficient material exists, should be removed and retained for chemical analysis. It is also useful to record the color and nature of the corrosion product, although color contamination can result from the presence of other materials present. With a few exceptions, buried cables will be exposed to groundwater containing a variety of chemicals associated with the ground in which the cable is installed. (In the case of ducted cables, the water may originate from a more distant source.) Corrosion of lead and lead alloy cable sheaths can be caused by chemical corrosion or electrolytic corrosion. In addition to the following remarks, there is a more detailed discussion of corrosion in Section 4.13.5. 4.9.2 Chemical Corrosion Chemical corrosion occurs as chemical attack of the sheath caused by an aggressive environment that generally comprises water-soluble chemicals. The area where the corrosion attack occurs (loss of lead alloy) is the anode, and another part of the cable will become the cathode, with an electrical potential existing between them. It should be noted that in service, cables become heated due to the loads they carry, and in high-density ducts there can be a considerable increase in the ambient temperature. This can cause partial or complete evaporation of the water and concentration of the dissolved salts, which with the increased environmental temperature can create a corrosive environment that would not exist at lower temperatures and concentrations. Groundwater can contain, in addition to dissolved material, both inorganic and organic acids. At temperatures above 60C, some inorganic acids will attack lead and lead alloys. Many of these organic acids in their dilute forms will attack lead and lead alloys and can be more corrosive than in their concentrated form. Soft groundwater is more corrosive to lead and lead alloy sheaths than hard water, and because of the presence of dissolved air and carbonates in the water, white residues of basic lead carbonate and lead hydroxide are formed. The presence of carbonates can be checked with calcium carbonate or efflorescence in dilute hydrochloric acid. In one particular case, an old cable with rubber- and bitumen-impregnated hessian tapes over the lead displayed severe corrosion of the lead alloy sheath in a clearly defined 3-meter length of the cable. It was established that the cable route in a landfilled area was beside a coke plant where coal tar residues were removed as part of the process. It was believed that spillage of these residues had, over the years, resulted in corrosion of the sheath. The residues had in fact leached the preservatives out of the hessian and embrittled the rubber to an extent that the protection was ineffective, and corrosion was caused by drainage of groundwater into a nearby ditch.
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4.9.3 Electrolytic Corrosion The electrolytic corrosion reaction is driven by the presence of stray direct current (dc) electricity. This corrosion results from the leakage of stray dc, picked up by another part of the cables sheath, being lost or discharged to ground. The area where the current discharges to ground is anodic and is the site of the corrosion, and the presence of groundwater provides the common electrolyte. This type of corrosion is probably not as common as chemical corrosion and is usually illustrated by examples of the electricity in the ground return on tramway systems being picked up by the cable sheath at the cathode and discharged to ground at the anode, where the corrosion occurs. Modern tram systems are now grounded better but can still cause this problem. However, dc supplies to marinas and harbors, some cathodic protection systems, and emergency power supplies (particularly on automatic telephone exchanges) have been known to cause problems. It is possible to connect equipment to the cable while it is in the ground and detect both the flow of current and its direction to locate the source. This will work only if a current is flowing at the time of testing. This type of corrosion is frequently characterized by deep hemispherical and polished pits that are usually accompanied with lead peroxide and other lead oxides as the corrosion product. The identification of lead peroxide can be achieved with Trilates reagent, tetramethyl diaminomethane. This reagent is made up by dissolving 0.6 g of tetramethyl diaminomethane in 5 ml of 50% acetic acid. Dissolution is difficult, and the solution must not be heated above 35C. When dissolved, dilute to 25 ml with deionized water. To use, place a drop of the reagent on a clean white tile and add a few particles of the corrosion product. A dense cobalt blue color in the clear solution indicates lead peroxide. It is claimed that the red oxide of lead gives a similar reaction. In passing, it should be noted that an example of electrolytic corrosion of an aluminum-sheathed cable by stray alternating current (ac) being rectified to dc by the oxide layer on the aluminum was reported. No such problem with lead-sheathed cables has, to the authors knowledge, ever been recorded.
4.10 Cone Expansion Testing

4.10.1 General Remarks The cone expansion test is intended to assess the integrity of the lead sheath by gradually expanding a ring sample of lead alloy sheath until it splits longitudinally in a brittle or ductile failure. The expansion is achieved by forcing a series of 30 steel cones alternately into the opposite ends of a prepared ring sample of lead sheath supported on a series of steel plates with central holes. The test can also be carried out on a longitudinal sample that has been recircularized and soldered, but in this case the test is only valid if failure occurs away from the solder.
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4.10.2 Equipment The equipment consists of a table with a frame supporting a hydraulic ram that can extend down towards the tables center and retract. The hydraulic ram may be manually operated if only a few samples are to be tested, but if many tests were anticipated a motorized hydraulic pump would be advantageous. The hydraulic ram would need a stroke length of approximately 10 inches (25 cm). The maximum pressure required would be approximately 2 metric tons, but a pump capable of delivering 5 metric tons would be more than adequate. The hydraulic equipment is commercially available. The table and frame to support the ram will need to be manufactured to a drawing. It will also be necessary to machine a series of 30 steel cones that can be screwed onto the end of the ram, and a series of steel plates each with a different-diameter hole to support the samples as they are expanded. Typical cone and hole-plate dimensions are listed in Table 4-4. The hole in the hole-plate is not parallel sided but has a 45 chamfer.
Table 4-4 Typical Dimensions for Cone Expansion Testing Equipment 30 Cone Dimensions, Based on a Cone Length of 150 mm Small Diameter, mm 2 40 80 100 Large Diameter, mm 80.4 120.4 160.4 180.4
Hole-Plate Dimensions, Based on a Plate Thickness of 10 mm Hole Diameter Side x, mm 20 40 60 80 10 120 140 160 Hole Diameter Side y, mm 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
4.10.3 Sample Preparation and Testing The sample, comprising a ring of lead alloy sheath, can be either complete or reformed and soldered and should be filed or turned on a lathe to ensure that both ends are reasonably parallel, square to the sides, smooth, and free of saw marks, nicks, or other potential stress raisers. The 4-19
length of the sample is not critical but should be approximately 2 inches (50 mm). The ends of the ring should be labeled A and B, and the outside diameter of both ends measured and recorded. A hole-plate with the largest hole that will fully support the sample should be placed on the cone testing table centrally under the ram. A cone that will fit just inside the samples diameter should also be selected and screwed onto the end of the ram. A thin coating of light oil or grease should be applied to the inside of the sample and the sample placed on the hole-plate. The cone is lowered by the hydraulic ram into one end of the sample. The cone is retracted a short distance and the sample removed from the cone. If the sample has stuck to the cone, a hardwood punch placed along the cone and resting on the edge of the sample should be given a light blow with a hammer to release the sample. The sample is then inverted and the other end expanded by forcing the cone into the bore. If the cone selected contacts the hole-plate, the next larger size hole-plate must be used. Similarly, if the large end of the cone enters the sample it should be withdrawn and the next larger size of cone fitted to the end of the ram. Each end of the sample should be progressively expanded until one end starts to split or crack. The test on that end is finished. If the split or crack is slight, the other end can continue to be tested. The results are expressed as a percentage increase in diameter. If no failure has occurred, the result is expressed as the percentage increase with no failure, or as a greater than __% increase. Increases in diameter in excess of 90% can usually be achieved with good sheaths, but values in excess of a 50% increase in diameter are normally regarded as satisfactory. When failures occur, they usually develop as a brittle fracture along a die support arm position with frequently less than 10% expansion.
4.11 Tensile Testing

4.11.1 General Remarks The tensile (and compressive) strength and ductility of lead and lead alloys used for cable sheathing can be measured, but the results are of little value unless supported with information such as stress or strain rate, location of sample, and gauge length used. It has been well established that the tensile strength of lead is dependent on the alloy, its condition (annealed or cold-workedthat is, a circular sheath sample that has been roughly machined and handled), the rate of strain, the grain size, and the temperature of the test. It has also been demonstrated that longitudinal and circumferential samples cut from the same short length of sheath can give significantly different results when tested under the same conditions. There is some literature on compression testing of lead and lead alloys that is more related to extrusion conditions and the effects of parameters such as grain size, temperature, and alloy content. Test pieces used are relatively short and either cylindrical or square in section and employ slow strain rates. It is unlikely that compressive stresses will be experienced in service or result in service failures.
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4.11.2 Dimensions of Test Pieces The following comments regarding dimensions are based on European Standard BS EN 10002-1990 for tensile testing. Lead and lead alloy cable sheaths are essentially tubes, but for the determination of mechanical properties, a cable sheath when carefully flattened can be regarded as a flat sheet or strip, which simplifies the calculation of cross-sectional areas, particularly for longitudinal samples. The shape of the test pieces is usually required to be dog boned, namely a parallel central section of specified length with transition curves of specified radii (1220 mm) to wider ends that are gripped in the testing machine. There is also an added problem in that the above specification has different requirements for rectangular sections greater than 3 mm thick, and this in turn affects the width, the parallel length, and the gauge length. For thicknesses equal to or less than 3 mm, the minimum parallel length for routine testing is given by the expression Lcmin = Lo + (width/2) So , where Lo is the original gauge length and So
is the cross-sectional area of the test piece. If a test piece width of 15 mm were used, then the minimum value for Lcmin would be 57.5 mm; therefore, the use of a minimum parallel length of 65 mm would be acceptable. For thicknesses greater than 3 mm, the minimum parallel length for routine testing is given by the expression Lcmin = Lo + 1.5 So , where So is the cross-sectional area of the test piece. If a
value for Lo of 50 mm were used, then the options shown in Table 4-5 would be available for Lcmin.
Table 4-5 Sample Tensile Testing Dimension Options Parameter
Thickness
Width
So
Measurement in Millimeters
3.05
15
45.75
3.5
15
52.5
4.0
15
60.0
4.5
15
67.5
So
1.5
6.76
7.25
7.75
8.22
So
10.15
60.15
10.87
60.87
11.62
61.62
12.32
62.32
If Lo = 50, Lcmin =
Again, from the above equation and table it would appear that with a width of 15 mm and a gauge length of 50 mm, a minimum parallel length of 65 mm would meet all sheaths up to 6.67 mm thick.
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From the above, the following dimensional compromise can be, and frequently has been, used for all routine tensile tests for sheath thicknesses both below and above 3 mm: Width, b Gauge length, Lo Parallel length, Lc 15 mm 50 mm 65 mm
4.11.3 Preparation of Samples The following directions are based on the above-mentioned standard and preferred dimensions, and have been used regularly for routine testing of lead and lead alloy cable sheaths with thicknesses both above and below 3 mm. Samples of cable sheaths that have been removed from the cable have usually been roughly flattened, and it is easier to carefully and gently flatten a large piece of lead, then mark and cut the tensile pieces. The final flattening can be done gently in a vise while filing the edges square and parallel. Furthermore, in the case of lead and lead alloy sheaths, with the following procedure it has been found that it is not necessary to provide wide ends for gripping, or radiused transition curves. The cutting of tensile test pieces with the use of a punch may be suitable for polyethylene (polymeric) and paper samples but it is not recommended for lead and lead alloy cable sheaths. This method creates excessive cold working and an edge-shearing burr, which are both difficult to remove. It has been found more practical to use a vertical band saw fitted with a 610 teeth per inch blade, with frequent lubrication applied with a soap or tallow block to reduce friction and heating. The edges of the roughly parallel sawn edged sample should be filed along a 65-mm long central length, to remove the saw marks and achieve a parallel width of 15.0 1.0 mm with a tolerance of 0.15 mm over the parallel length. It should be noted that the thickness of the lead sheath may vary from end to end or from side to side, and some attempt to redress gross variations may be required, but care must be exercised to avoid excessive work hardening or heating in the process. The wider ends by which the test piece is gripped should each be 25 mm long but do not need to be filed or parallel. The transition between the parallel section and the ends needs to be radiused (not necessarily to exact or specified dimensions), but should be blended in without sharp corners and all burrs removed with a fine file or sandpaper (silicon carbide paper). 4.11.4 Tensile Test Procedure It is important that where possible the test conditions are standardized and recorded for all test results. Tests should be conducted within a temperature range of 1825C. It should be noted that the tensile stress results will be affected by the strain rate. Strain rates of less than 5 mm/min will tend to give a significantly lower, and nonlinear, decrease in the results and extend the duration of the test to over 15 minutes. Strain rates greater than 10 mm/min will generally give higher tensile stress values with a more linear relationship between stress and rate of strain. With roughly 7080 mm between the jaws gripping the tensile test piece, strain rates of 1015 mm/min will give a test duration of approximately 58 minutes, depending on the 4-22
ductility of the sample. The use of calibrated equipment is recommended, including the micrometer with which the thickness is measured. The dimensions of the test piece should be recorded. It has on occasion been found useful to record the thickness of circumferential samples at three positions along the parallel length and use the recorded dimension nearest the break to calculate the tensile strength. This should be done with caution, as other factors may have influenced the location of the break. The gauge length should be marked with a fine permanent marker pen and not scored. A 50-mm gauge length should be marked equidistant of the center of the test piece, but it is advisable to also mark the other side of the test piece with seven marks at 10-mm intervals. As the thickness of cable sheaths can vary around the circumference, tensile test failures may not necessarily occur in the center of the test piece but towards one end. The gauge marks at 10-mm spacings on the other side can then be used to record an elongation, but it will need to be qualified with either BOMHGL (broke outside mean half of gauge length) or BOGL (broke outside gauge length). Finally, if the test piece spans a die support arm position and that position is identifiable, it may be considered useful to mark that position on the test piece and record where the break occurs in relation to that mark. The use of a different-colored marker pen is often helpful.
4.12 Hardness Testing

4.12.1 General Remarks Hardness is a measure of a materials resistance to indentation and as with other tests on lead and lead alloys will yield continually under a constant high load. The hardness of the lead alloy can be determined using the Brinell hardness system with a steel or preferably tungsten ball indenter of diameter D and in accordance with BS EN ISO 6506 Parts 13:1999. It is also possible to use the Vickers hardness test as an alternative to the Brinell test. (See Section 4.12.4 regarding conversion from one system to the other.) There are a number of small handheld hardness testers that are currently available and that are claimed by their manufacturers to be capable of accurate and reproducible results in a wide range of different hardness units. Experience shows that some of these instruments give fairly accurate results, to within 5% of true hardness, if used under specified conditions on a large piece of material of homogenous structure and composition. These instruments are not considered reliable for testing lead and small sections of other metals. Also, if hardness values are reported it should be stated whether they were measured on a proper Brinell or Vickers hardness tester or measured on a handheld tester and then converted to Brinell or Vickers values. 4.12.2 Test Conditions It is usual to select a load that impresses the ball into the surface to give an impression of a diameter (d) between 0.25D and 0.6D, where D is the diameter of the ball. It is recommended that a ratio of load to ball diameter of 1.0 be used according to 0.102F/D2, where F is the load in Newtons. Using one of the options listed in Table 4-6 can satisfy the requirements for determining the Brinell hardness value of lead and lead alloys. 4-23
EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths Table 4-6 Options for Hardness Testing Hardness Symbol* HBS 1/1 Steel Ball Diameter D mm 1.0 Test Force F in Newtons (kg) 9.81 (1) Ratio 0.102F/D2 1 Comments For thin samples and small areas, but coarse grain size can affect the results A compromise that is widely used on larger areas For thick samples and coarse grain sizes
HBS 2/4 HBS 5/25
2.0 5.0
39.23 (4) 245.2 (25)
1 1
*The standard dwell time, the time the indenter is in contact with the sample, is 1015 seconds. If a different time is used, such as 30 seconds, it should be recorded as HBS (S for a steel ball) or HBW (W for a tungsten ball) -/-/30.
There are several other restrictions, namely that the thickness of the test piece must be greater than eight times the depth of the indentation, that no indentation should be closer than 2.5d from the edge of the sample, and that the distance between adjacent indentations should be > 6d. As the sample of lead or lead alloy will continue to yield slowly under the application of the indenter, various sources advise different times (up to two minutes), which is impractical if a number of determinations are to be made. The standard time for the indenter to be impressed into the sample is 1015 seconds on a properly set up and calibrated hardness tester. Times greater than the standard time will give softer (lower) results. 4.12.3 Test Procedure The test should be carried out at a temperature of 1825C. The surface of the sample should be smooth, clean, and free of contamination, oxides, and lubricants. The surface needs to be flat but not polished and at right angles to the direction of travel of the indenter. The sample must be firmly supported under the indenter and must not move during the application of the indenter. No evidence of the impression should be visible on the back of the sample. The use of multiple layers of the sample is not recommended. The diameter of the indentation should be measured to two decimal places at two positions at right angles to each other and the mean value taken for the calculation of the Brinell hardness or its determination from tables. The reporting of the results should take the form indicated in the footnote to Table 4-6. 4.12.4 Conversion of Hardness Results It is possible to measure the hardness of lead and lead alloy sheaths using the Vickers hardness system, which is probably more popular and widely used in Europe than in the United States and is detailed in BS EN ISO 6507-1:1998. The applied loads used are either 1 or 2 kg with the 4-24
standard diamond pyramid indenter. Similar restrictions regarding thickness and distance between adjacent indentations and the edge of the sample apply. The preparation of the sample will require a surface with fine score marks as achieved with a 600 or finer sandpaper. The conversion of hardness values from one system is not recommended, but a well established relationship between Brinell and Vickers exists, namely HBS (or HBW) = 0.95 HV. The accuracy of this relationship is claimed to be 2.5% using fully calibrated machines and standardized test blocks. It is also claimed that tensile strengths and hardness values can be interchanged. The relationship in unpublished correspondence is given by the expression HBS (or HBW) = 2.93Rm1 +1, where Rm1 is in kg/mm2 or HBS (or HBW) = 425Rm2 +1, where Rm2 is in pounds/inch2.
The accuracy of these relationships is claimed to be better than 10% of the tensile strength. Any conversion of hardness values into tensile strengths should be regarded with great skepticism.
4.13 Typical Failures in Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.13.1 General Remarks Some causes of failures in cable sheaths were discussed earlier to illustrate certain points. This section endeavors to identify some common faults and causes of damage during manufacture, storage, transit, installation, and service that can contribute to eventual failure in cables even after long satisfactory service. The causes of some failures may not always be obvious on initial examination. However, with careful examination, confirmation of reported evidence, and reasoned logic, the causes can generally be established. Cracking and fractures usually occur at right angles to the direction of the stress or strain that causes them. The fractures can display ductility with extensive local necking and knife-edged fracture surfaces but in other conditions can have abrupt-edged brittle fractures displaying no evidence of ductility. Some fractures that develop after a considerable period of satisfactory service may have been caused by a manufacturing or installation defect exacerbated by normal service conditions. There are more than a few examples of failures in lead alloy sheaths that have been described by competent electrical engineers as porous or crystallized lead. Porous lead generally means cracked lead, and in high-voltage oil-filled cables, oil leakage. Good lead sheathing is crystalline by nature and is not a fault or a deleterious condition. The failures discussed here are based on published information and the authors own experience but cannot include every possible cause or circumstance.
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4.13.2 Manufacturing Faults Weld Failure This defect occurs where the lead flow from two ports or around an inner die support arm position does not completely rejoin or pressure-weld together. This fault can occur in sheaths manufactured on ram and screw presses. The defect is radial, runs very straight along the sheath, is located at the conjunction of two flows, and may not be initially visible externally. When it occurs, it can appear like a zipper, has no evidence of ductility, may show some evidence of thermal discoloration, and could continue along a considerable length of sheathing. Seams These are straight longitudinal defects that can occur anywhere around the circumferential cross section of the sheath. They are usually associated with the flow pattern and the inclusion of oxides or air in the extrusion. These defects can occur in sheaths manufactured on both ram or screw presses. In ram or semicontinuous presses, the defect is more likely to break the surface near a billet charge tongue; in screw presses it may continue for longer lengths before becoming visible. The defect may consist of porous cavities, a light or dark gray powdery inclusion, or a mixture of both and some delamination of the sheath. Laminations These defects are also referred to as feathering or layering on ram press extruded sheaths but can occur on screw press sheaths due to different reasons. These are defects that tend to occur as narrow longitudinal zones running usually along the bore of sheaths and are caused by partial segregation of some of the alloying elements, in particular tin and/or antimony. The zone may be a series of blisters of a brighter or shinier metal or may appear as a continuous narrow band of ripples with possibly some dusty deposits underneath. The zones are usually 38 mm wide, generally less than 2 mm thick, and can continue for some distance or just fade out over a length of a few meters. Hot Short Cracking Lead alloys, like most other alloys, have low strength and ductility at elevated temperatures near their melting points or solidus. This condition is known as hot shortness and is more prevalent in the higher alloyed leads, particularly where coring of the structure can exist. The cracking can occur when the extruded sheath is excessively hot, or if insufficient water cooling is applied, and at the same time is subjected to strain. Bending strains caused as the cable loops out of the extruder will develop transverse hot short cracking, while oversized cores or an insulated conductor of a three- or four-core cable that has become displaced will cause longitudinal hot short cracking. In all instances the cracking is intergranular and usually associated with coarser grain sizes. The fracture surfaces may appear granular and either lighter colored than the surface of the sheath or thermally discolored. 4-26
Stop Marks These are also known as bamboo marks, and while their occurrence is generally associated with billet recharging on semicontinuous lead and lead alloy extrusion presses, it is also possible to produce the same effect on continuous presses in the unlikely event the extrusion is stopped. These defects occur where the lead or lead alloy is in contact with the die, and apart from some variation in the wall thickness and longitudinal rippling, the main problem is the grain growth that results from prolonged contact with the die. In severe cases some adhesion has occurred between the sheath and the die, resulting in damage to the sheath when extrusion is restarted. Spot Welding This is a form of damage that can occur on the external surface of the as-extruded bare lead and lead alloy sheaths as they are wound onto the take-up drum. The turn being wound onto the drum can be laid tightly against the previous turn, and the resulting abrasion and pressure on the freshly exposed metal at the point of contact can result in pressure welding. The same thing can be caused by overfilling the drums width and forcing a turn between the flange and the previous turn. The problem arises when the cable is undrummed and, because of the spot welding, the weld breaks or very slight pulling out of the sheath occurs. In most instances very little damage is done, but occasionally the plucked-out sheath is pressed back in when the cable is redrummed or served. In severe cases, tearing of the lead sheath can occur. Mechanical Damage This can occur at any time during manufacture, installation, or service. The most common cause of damage to the lead or lead alloy sheath during manufacture results from abrasion and scuffing of the bare sheath on the floor or on poorly maintained table ramps. Protruding nail heads on drums, tie staples on drum flanges or over winding steel hawsers, and shackles onto drum ramps can also damage sheathed cables, as can careless drum handling. 4.13.3 Faults Due to Storage and Transit Storage It would initially appear unlikely that damage could result from the storage of cables on wooden or steel drums, but problems have occurred resulting in damage to the cable due to deterioration of wooden drums. Rather than list the possible problems it is more practical to mention some of the basic storage requirements for cables, and the defects will be self-evident. All cables on wooden drums should be stored in a cool, dry, and shaded environment to prevent deterioration of the drums. The cables should be protected from direct sunlight and solar heating. Small wooden cable drums and steel cable drums should be stored directly on solid concrete/flooring that is dry and clean. Larger wooden and steel drums should be securely supported by spindles on spindle or axle stands on solid flooring and periodically rotated approximately 120 every 46 months. End caps, whether plumbed metal or heat shrink plastic, should be kept tied up to the 4-27
drums flange and not be permitted to drop or lie on the ground where water ingress could occur. It has been found that residual lengths of cable returned from sites for storage have had the wrong size or type of end cap, incorrectly fitted end caps, or no end caps fitted at all. Labels on returned drums have been lost or removed, and the residual lengths have been either incorrectly marked or not recorded. Ensure that the labels on the drum do not fade or are rewritten before they fade. Mass-impregnated and oil-filled cables should be periodically inspected and checked to ensure that they have been rotated and that they are not leaking compound or oil. In the case of oil-pressurized cables, the cable (and not just the drum tank and tank gauge) should be checked to ensure that it has a minimum positive pressure of oil in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. Transit All cable drums should be marked with the direction in which they should be rolled, and this instruction should be followed or the cable will progressively unwind and put a tensile strain on the inner tied end. Lifting of drums containing cable should be carried out in a safe and secure manner using the recommended techniques and equipment with sufficient capacity and reach. In one case, a dockside transfer of a drum of cable from a truck to a barge using an untested sling resulted in the cable and drum being dropped into an estuary. The initial damage was not serious, but this changed when an attempt was made to recover the cable and drum with the trucks hydraulic hoist and the truck toppled over and fell onto the cable. There are several well-documented examples of cables on drums being transported long distances by train and ship without the drums being properly secured. This allowed the drums to roll back and forth, resulting in the outer turns of cable alternately tightening and relaxing. The small stress reversals eventually resulted in fatigue failure of the lead sheath. It is not necessary for drums to roll during transit for there to be cracking and failure in the lead sheathing. Slack or loose turns or unsupported lengths of cable, particularly at the outer ends of the drums, can be subjected to vibrations. These vibrations can result from train wheels passing over joints in rails, heavy machinery, ship engines, and so forth, and will also result in the development of fatigue cracking and failure of the lead sheathing. 4.13.4 Faults Due to Installation The most common causes of damage to a cable are frequently believed to be occurrences that take place during the course of the cables installation. This is not always supported by the facts. However, damage to cables during installation can result, mainly from the following causes. Cable Pulls There are many reasons why cable pulls can go wrong, and the following are but a few common examples of what can occasionally happen: Pulling long lengths of cable into excavations without looping the cable at midlength Pulling cables around an excessive number of bends and obstructions
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Unlubricated pulls Exceeding the maximum recommended pulling load or not using a calibrated dynamometer to monitor the pulling load Using a bond pull on the cables sheath for convenience rather than a nose pull Pulling cables into ducts that are overfilled with other cables Pulling cables into damaged or broken ducts or ducts blocked with rubble
Poor Plumbing This issue is dealt with in greater detail in Section 5. In brief, poor plumbing can be caused by a number of reasons and will usually result in the ingress of water and the eventual failure of the cable. The ingress of moisture or water is possibly the most common cause of cable failures, but not all instances of water ingress are caused by poor plumbing. Mechanical Damage There are many ways in which mechanical damage can be sustained by cables during installation. The causes of mechanical damage include damage to and from adjacent cables in ducts during difficult installation pulls of new cables or other site work, insufficient lubrication of a cable pull, complex routes, and tight bends. Another potentially damaging practice is the use of cables as a means of support to hold other cables out of the way and provide more room to work in confined spaces, or as steps to move around on or as a means of exit. Cables should not be moved unless absolutely necessary, and those that have been displaced should be well supported and then pushed back into their original positions and not allowed to slowly sag or strain. In one case, mechanical damage to cables was claimed to have resulted from nails protruding from battens (wooden strips) removed from drums when a cable was delivered to a site. As a result of suspicious circumstances this was investigated in some depth. It was found to be almost impossible to puncture even a bare lead sheath by dropping a large and heavy cable onto a batten with a protruding nail or even placing the batten on the cable and jumping on the batten. In most cases the nail bent and the lead sheath was scored. It was concluded that for a nail to cleanly puncture a lead sheath it was more likely to have been deliberate damage. Cables buried directly in the ground and covered with sand and concrete tiles are particularly prone to mechanical damage from cable tile movement, pickaxes, shovels, and pneumatic tools. In one incident, when excavating a 275-kV oil-filled cable with a pneumatic jackhammer fitted with a bolster chisel, the operator cut cleanly through the cable, which was on low load. There was an arc as the cable was cut, which the operator reported as a blown fuse on his pneumatic hammer! More to the point, the cut ends had separated a distance of 84 mm due to tensile stresses resulting from sideways movement of part of the cables route down a high railway embankment.
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4.13.5 Faults Due to Service Conditions Creep With respect to lead and lead alloys, the term creep needs some explanation. If a load equivalent to 95% of its tensile strength is applied to a tensile test piece, it will cause the test piece to extend and break after a short period of time at that load. An identical test piece loaded to only 50% of the tensile strength would also extend and fail, after a significantly longer period of time. The extension under low loads is called creep and is accompanied by ductility at the fracture. In most metals, creep occurs at elevated temperatures, but with lead, because it recrystallizes at ambient temperatures, the term creep is meaningless, as it may not be accompanied by high extensions. With lead, it is more accurate to refer to this type of failure as slow straining, rather than creep. The resistance to slow straining in lead can be significantly improved by alloying with other metals but it cannot be eliminated. In high-voltage cables that contain oil under pressure, the lead sheath would distend and split longitudinally with knife-edged ductile creep failure if the lead sheath was not reinforced with metal tapes. In this instance the rate of straining would be relatively high, accompanied with very evident local ductility, and the fracture would be transgranular. This failure would correctly be identified as ductile creep failure. Slow straining is affected by the following conditions: As the rate of creep extension/hour increases, the stress and elongation at break increases. Conversely, as the creep extension/hour decreases, the stress and elongation at break decreases and hence brittle failure occurs. In general, fine grain sizes are more creep resistant. Increasing temperatures decreases creep resistance and increases creep ductility.
Where the rate of straining is very slow, there is very little deformation, there is no evident ductility at the fracture, and the failure is intergranular. The condition is called slow creep, or more correctly, slow straining. The difference is the absence of visible ductility in a ductile material. True creep in other metals is characterized by local necking at the fracture. It is more likely that this form of failure will be encountered in low- and medium-voltage cables. The fracture will be at right angles to the direction of straining. Where slow bending of the cable has occurred, the cracking will be transverse to the cables axis. One of the two most common causes of this type of failure occurs when compound-filled cables are laid down a steep slope or in a vertical run. Nondraining compounds will slowly flow downhill, and due to the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the profile slow straining will occur. The second common cause occurs when long, unsupported lengths of cable exist. Bending and tensile stresses will develop over long periods of time, with transverse cracking on the outer radius of curvature of the cables bend. This can happen at duct exits, in cables supported on widely spaced brackets, and when there is ground subsidence with or without the cable in ducts.
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Corrosion The causes of corrosion in lead-sheathed cables are numerous and frequently complex. Corrosion has already been discussed in Section 4.9, but some potential causes and examples are noted here. First, most lead and lead alloy sheathed cables are protected with either a seamless and continuous extruded sheath, or in the case of older cables with several layers of different materials including rubber and bitumen, coal-tar-based impregnated hessian tapes, or jute rope or string. As long as these materials retain their integrity the lead alloy sheath of the cable is protected. If the protection becomes defective or damaged, corrosion will occur. In this respect, drainage water containing automotive fluids and petrochemicals will accelerate natural deterioration of most extruded polymeric sheathing. It should also be noted that over a long period of time water could permeate modern extruded protective sheathing (jacketing). For corrosion to occur there are certain basic requirements, namely an anode and a cathode electrically connected and in a common electrolyte. If one of these conditions does not exist, corrosion will not take place. Anode and cathode areas can exist on a lead sheath and be either close to each other or separated by some considerable distance. In corrosion, a chemical reaction and a flow of electricity take place; if the chemical reaction predominates it is called chemical corrosion. If the electrical reaction is the driving force, the corrosion is electrolytic and is usually associated with direct current, although in a few rare instances alternating current has been involved and rectified by aluminum oxide to direct current. Corrosion of lead and lead alloy cable sheaths is caused by a number of different chemicals. The lead and lead alloys used for cable sheaths are resistant to most mineral acids in the dilute concentrations that are likely to be naturally encountered in ducts, troughs, and in the ground. Soft water containing oxygen will attack lead and lead alloys, and this is exacerbated by organic acids, derived from rotting vegetation and water containing soluble salts. Hard woods, if used to support bare lead alloy sheathed cables will, over a period of time, corrode the unprotected lead. It has been shown that lead and lead alloys are attacked by most weak organic acids in air or organic oxidants. In tests, 0.1 mole/liter of oxalic, tartaric, citric, and benzoic acids can corrode lead at the rate of 0.179.6 g/m2 per day. Attack by these acids exhibits initial pitting, from which intergranular cracking develops. Alkali compounds leached from freshly set concrete by rain water will attack lead and, if the concrete contains steel reinforcing, a galvanic cell will be set up and a direct connection between the steel and the lead will not be required. Apart from corrosion arising from chemicals in the ground, evidence of corrosion of cables buried directly in the soil can also result from differences in oxygen concentrations in the ground; this is known as differential oxygenation potential (DOP) corrosion. Two types of biological corrosion need to be mentioned. One type involves anaerobic bacteria, which require little or no oxygen in their metabolic process. The other type involves aerobic bacteria, which require oxygen, and is thus less likely to be encountered in buried cables. Both types can cause corrosion of lead sheathing. The most important anaerobic bacteria are sulfatereducing bacteria that reduce sulfate to sulfide according to the reaction SO42- + 4H2 S2- + 4H2O. The H2 can be evolved by the corrosion reaction or can be derived from decaying vegetation, cellulose, or sugars in the soil. This corrosion usually occurs in wet clays, marshes, and stagnant estuaries. The visual indication of this corrosion attack is usually a dense black 4-31
discoloration of the lead or lead alloy. The aerobic bacteria are capable of oxidizing elemental sulfur or sulfur-bearing compounds to form dilute sulfuric acid, to which lead and lead alloys are fairly resistant. Older cables that had wrapped corrosion protection of the lead sheathing that included bitumenimpregnated jute rope or woven hessian tapes exhibited corrosion attack in the form of pitting. The pitting was in a pattern that replicated the lay of the jute or the intersection of the warp and weft threads of the weave pattern of the hessian. It was believed that this corrosion was caused by the phenol in the tar of the unrefined bitumen, and the attack was incorrectly referred to as phenolic corrosion of the lead sheath. Subsequent investigations revealed two possible explanations. One was that the attack was chemical and due to the bacteriological deterioration of the jute or hessian and the impregnating hydrocarbons forming phenol in the process. The other was the mutual action of organic substances, soil bacteria, and oxygen at elevated temperatures of cables in ducts. The corrosion is now referred to as compounding corrosion. All the above causes of corrosion are chemically driven reactions balanced by a flow of electrons (electricity). The most common electrically driven corrosion is associated with direct currents and is frequently portrayed as the ground return on tram systems using the lead sheath as a preferred ground return system. The corrosion attack occurs at the anode where the direct current leaves the cables sheath. The common electrolyte is contaminated groundwater or drainage water containing dissolved salts. In addition to tram systems there are other, possibly more common, sources of direct current corrosion. These are boat marinas, standby electrical power systems such as telephone exchanges, and buried corrosion protection systems using sacrificial anodes, or more commonly, impressed current protection. Electrical equipment exists for the detection of stray currents picked up by cables, and it can detect both the direction and magnitude of the current, but only if the direct current is flowing at the time of testing. The corrosion of lead by direct current will produce a corrosion deposit that, if in sufficient quantity, can be analyzed. There are two lead compounds that will be present, lead chloride and lead peroxide. The chloride can be detected by dissolving the corrosion product in 10% nitric acid and then adding silver nitrate to the solution. A dense white precipitate indicates the presence of silver chloride. To test for peroxide, dissolve 0.6 g of tetramethyl diaminomethane in 5 ml of 50% acetic acid. Dissolution is difficult, and the solution must not be heated above 35C. When dissolved, dilute the solution to 25 ml with deionized water. Place a drop of the solution (Trilates reagent) on a white tile and add the corrosion product. A dense cobalt blue color indicates lead peroxide and possibly red lead oxide. The corrosion products normally associated with chemical corrosion of lead sheaths are lead carbonate and lead sulfate. A simple test for carbonates is to place a few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid on the corrosion product, which will cause brief efflorescence if carbonates are present. A more sophisticated method collects the gas evolved and tests it with calcium carbonate (calcite) for the presence of carbon dioxide. To test for sulfates, a 1-g sample of the corrosion product should be placed in 10 ml of saturated chloride free sodium carbonate solution and boiled for a few minutes. Filter the solution, acidify it with dilute hydrochloric acid, and add barium chloride. A white precipitate indicates sulfates.
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Fatigue Fatigue is a form of failure that results from the application of a repeated cyclic stress or strain to a lead sheath. The total stress may be well below that required to produce plastic flow and may cycle between two positive values or between a negative and a positive value with a mean other than zero. Fatigue data are usually recorded as stress plotted against the number of cycles to failure, and these plots are known as S-N graphs. With many other metals there is a stress below which failure will not occur, regardless of the number of cycles. This is usually referred to as the endurance or fatigue limit. Lead and lead alloys do not exhibit a true endurance limit, for the same reasons that true creep values are difficult to determine. For this reason, the fatigue or endurance limit is frequently quoted as the stress at which the sample will withstand 103106 cycles. In other metal systems the stress at which 108 cycles is achieved is frequently quoted as the fatigue limit. The fatigue characteristics of lead sheathing alloys are affected by the following principles: At the same stress or strain, the endurance limit increases as the cyclic frequency increases. At the same stress, the higher the cycles per minute the higher the number of cycles to failure. An increase in temperature reduces the number of cycles to failure. Generally, finer grain sizes are associated with higher fatigue limits and more cycles to failure. The fatigue resistance is increased if the sheath is covered with bitumen, oil, grease, or water, compared to air. Alloy composition can also influence the fatigue limit.
Fatigue cracking in lead alloy sheathing is usually visible as an area of multiple intergranular cracking that is often transverse in nature and appears to be brittle, with no evidence of local ductility or deformation. Longitudinal fatigue cracks can also occur, but these are not necessarily extensive around the sheath. In cable situations, it is more usual for a cyclic stress to be imposed on a static or creep stress, and this can significantly further reduce the number of cycles to failure. There are several fairly common service situations that can lead to fatigue failure. These can be divided into two groups, those due to thermal conditions and those due to mechanical conditions. Thermal Conditions Changes in electrical (current) loading can cause fluctuations in the cables temperature, resulting in expansion and contraction of the cables length. Ideally a cable should be slightly snaked when installed. The increase in length due to thermal expansion should be accommodated by slight flexing evenly distributed along the length of the cable. In constrained conditions such as in crowded ducts, troughs, and cable trays where other cables are present, evenly distributed flexing may not be possible. As a result, all the thermal expansion occurs at a bend in the route 4-33
or where the cable is free to flex. The flexing or cyclic loading can be concentrated in a small length of cable and involve high rates of strain. The same thermal effects can be caused by other cables in the duct or trough and also by solar heating. It is usually accepted that two thermal cycles per day can result from electrical loading, and superimposed on this could be other solar and load demands. Mechanical Conditions It should be appreciated that relative movement between two adjacent parts of the same cable is required to generate a stress. If one part of a cable length is firmly supported and the adjacent length is forced or permitted to move, then fatigue failure is possible. A complete length of cable subjected to the same frequency of vibrations and the same stress will not fail by fatigue if no relative differences in frequency and stress exist. Examples of this have occurred where unsupported lengths of cable connected to a transformer were subjected to frequency vibrations from the transformer and at the other end of the span the cable was securely clamped. Also, a number of cables laid on the steel deck of a railway bridge were subjected to flexing at the midspan of the decking when trains crossed, and fatigue cracking occurred above the steel girders supporting the bridges decking. A third example of fatigue cracking was found where cables were installed on racking that was bolted to air conditioning supports, at the end of which was a large fan. The supports contained vanes to guide the airflow, and fluctuating air pressures caused the supports to vibrate and cause fatigue cracks in the lead alloy sheathing. Tensile Tensile failure results from progressively increasing the stress in a relatively short period of time, and results in a ductile failure with knife edges and transgranular failure. Once a cable has been installed it is unlikely that true tensile failures of the lead and lead alloy sheath will be encountered. Normally, slow movement or straining or very slow increase in the stress occurs, and this is correctly referred to as slow strain (see Section 4.13.5). The only occasions when true tensile failures have been encountered are likely to have involved sudden or quick local movement of the environment, such as landslides. Other cases of tensile failures in cable sheaths have been caused by heavy construction equipment crossing over buried cables without the use of temporary steel decking, or traffic damage to cable supports and bridges. Rodents This would seem to be an unusual cause of failure, but not infrequent evidence has been found, particularly at plumbed wipes and cable end caps. The damage appears as a depression or shallow hole through the sheath, plumbed wipe, or end cap, with multiple scoring consisting of two short parallel grooves 13 mm wide and up to 6 mm long around the sides of the depression. The score marks will be clearly visible to the unaided eye. These have been caused by rodents gnawing the lead to either sharpen their teeth or to gain access to the residues of tallow used by some joiners to smooth and cool plumbed wipes.
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Termites and Marine Borers With the restrictions in use of insecticides and pesticides, including those added to the outer polymeric sheathing, there has been an increase in problems associated with failure of buried land cables and cables partially submersed in rivers and estuaries, especially those in hot climates. Some insects, particularly termites, make small holes in the outer sheathing and then excavate large areas of the lead sheath before breaking through and consuming the paper insulation. This problem was found when a conductor shorted out to ground three months after the cable passed a 5-kV test. The presence of fine particles of lead and fine score marks visible at x20 magnification, caused by the termites mandibles, was evidence of the damage. Marine borers will usually penetrate the outer sheathing, and in some instances the lead, with small holes that are usually surrounded by a white deposit composed mainly of calcium carbonate, and failure is caused by water ingress.
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LEAD ALLOYS FOR PLUMBED WIPES, JOINTS, AND REPAIR SLEEVES
This section discusses low- and medium-voltage paper-insulated unpressurized lead-sheathed cable joining sleeves and plumbed wipes. Because the lead and lead alloy cable sheath is an integral part of the joint, and as the portion adjacent to the joint is affected by the joining operation, it has been included in this section. The discussion also includes repair sleeves fitted by plumbing to lead and lead alloy cable sheaths in response to any damage sustained by the sheaths. The discussion is not intended to provide instructions on joining procedures, filling the sleeves with compound, or protecting the sleeve and cable on completion of the work. The scope does not include high-voltage or pressurized cables. The primary subsections are as follows: 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 General Remarks Visual Examination Determination of the Plumbed Wipe Dimensions Preparation of Samples for Metallurgical Examination Chemical Analysis Corrosion of Plumbed Wipes Nondestructive Testing Peel Tests The Break or Three-Point-Bend Test Hardness Testing Tensile Testing Defects in Plumbed Wipes
5.1 General Remarks

In many instances, a fault that develops in a joint or repair sleeve in a low- or medium-voltage cable results in an electrical discharge. A repair is made either by remaking the joint where minor damage has occurred, or where more extensive damage exists, by cutting out the damaged portion and inserting a short new length of cable and two joints. In the former case, few if any samples are submitted for examination, and in the latter, samples are submitted but the evidence is frequently destroyed in the failure. The failure could be in the joint sleeve, in the plumbed wipes at the end of the sleeve, or in the cables lead or lead alloy sheath adjacent to the plumbed wipes. The cause could be faulty materials or manufacture, faulty installation, poor workmanship, or adverse site and service conditions.
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EPRI Licensed Material Lead Alloys for Plumbed Wipes, Joints, and Repair Sleeves
The materials used for joining and repair sleeves may vary according to the utility companys requirements, if specified, or according to different installers joining instructions. The most commonly used metals include commercially pure lead, lead alloys of the same or similar composition as the cable sheath, lead with antimony, and copper. Lead-antimony and copper are used for their strength, particularly on cables that are internally pressurized. In the UK and elsewhere in Europe, the use of lead sleeves for repairing higher-voltage and gas- or oil-filled pressurized cables is being replaced by the use of split copper sleeves. Where internal oil or gas pressures exist and lead and lead alloy sleeves are fitted (although this has become less frequent), the sleeve will need to be armored, usually with close-laid turns of tinned copper wire or sometimes with tin bronze tapes that are bonded to the lead-sheathed cables reinforcing system. Because the sleeves and wipes are applied at the same time, it is logical to deal with them and the adjacent lead alloy sheathing together in this section of the report. When a new low- or medium-voltage cable is installed or an old cable is cut and reinstalled, a joining sleeve, in the form of a seamless lead or lead alloy tube, is frequently used, as it can be slid over the end of one of the two cables before the conductors are joined. These sleeves do not require a longitudinal joint to be made. Repair sleeves are also fitted over cables to repair damaged sheaths where the opportunity to cut the conductor and slide on a repair sleeve in the form of a tube does not exist. As a consequence, repair sleeves are usually formed from a tube that is longitudinally split open, fitted around the cable, and then longitudinally joined and plumbed at the ends. The longitudinal joint is normally made by tinning the edges, overlapping them, and plumbing a longitudinal wipe along the joint. In the case of split copper repair sleeves, the sleeve is made in two halves, and the longitudinal joints along opposite sides are usually brazed with a silver solder. It is the practice of some installers to plumb a lead/tin alloy wipe over this brazed joint should porosity exist or develop in the brazed joint. The ends of the copper repair sleeves are still plumbed onto the cable sheath. In many cases the lead alloy sleeves and sheaths are scraped with a knife blade or scratched with a wire brush to remove the oxidized lead and expose new clean lead. The lead sheath and sleeve are tinned with either a conventional tinning (tipping) metal such as an Sn63Pb37 alloy, or are plumbed without tinning, with or without flux, depending on the particular companys joining instructions. The lead alloys used for making plumbed wipes are generally alloys of lead and tin, or lead, tin, and antimony. These alloys contain 6570% lead, 3035% tin, and the antimony alloys 12% antimony. The lead tin plumbing alloys start to melt at 183C, the antimony alloys start to melt at 185C, and all are fully molten at temperatures of 243255C. These alloys have a melting range of 6070C which makes them suitable for hand forming (wiping) and plumbing wipes. The usual method of heating these alloys employs a large soft flame from an oxyacetylene, oxypropane/butane, or conventional propane/butane torch. It is important to note that both the tinning and plumbing procedures require the application of heat to the lead or lead alloy sheath. The heating will result in recrystallization and possibly some grain growth of the sheath. It may also result in an immediate problem developing such as intergranular hot short cracking due to residual stresses, or less likely, liquation of the grain boundaries due to the formation of a low-melting-point alloy or phase. If a repair to an existing plumbed wipe is required, it is important to establish that the fault is in the wipe and not in the heat-affected zone of the lead or lead alloy sheath adjacent to the wipe. If there were a fault in 5-2
the cables sheath reheating and rebuilding, the plumb would predispose the sheath fault to a premature failure. The option is normally to extend the sleeve, but care should be taken to ensure that it is extended onto sound cable sheath. The techniques for forming and plumbing the ends of the sleeve to the cable sheath vary. The ends of some repair sleeves are dressed down onto the cable sheath, and only a few turns of lead strip are used to fill or pack the small annular gap between the sheath and the ends of the sleeve. The circumferential sealing wipe in these instances tends to be more spherical when viewed from the side, and the wipe is sometimes referred to as an apple wipe. The other extreme is little or no dressing down of the ends of the sleeve, with considerably more turns of lead packing strip used at each end of the sleeve to fill the annular gap between the inside of the sleeve and the cables sheath. The profile of these plumbed wipes tends to have a more vertical, S-shaped profile when viewed from the side. During the making of both the longitudinal and circumferential wipes most jointers use pads of paper lubricated or impregnated with tallow or paraffin wax to assist the wiping. Also, when the wiping has been completed, the block of tallow or wax is frequently wiped along or around the wipe to assist its cooling. This often leaves a film of wax on the wipes and the adjacent sleeve (see Section 4.13.5 regarding associated rodent damage). The sleeve may be protected/insulated with several layers of self-adhesive or self-amalgamating tape and insulating tape, or with a heat shrink sleeve or a two-part epoxy-resin-impregnated bandage or molding. These outer servings should normally extend along the length of the sleeve, over the wipes, and onto the cable insulation or jacket that has previously been cleaned and lightly abraded to improve the bond. It is common practice to extend this protection for at least 50 mm along the cables outer polymeric sheathing or jacketing. Statistics indicate that a substantial number of failures result from insufficient preparation, overlap, or sealing of the reinstated servings onto the cables jacket. Failure of joints and repair sleeves on low- and medium-voltage cables usually only becomes evident when water ingress has occurred and an electrical fault has developed. This will only occur if both the outer protection and the wipe or repair sleeve have failed.
5.2 Visual Examination

5.2.1 General Remarks It is most likely that the longitudinal wipe along the sleeve or the circumferential wipes at the ends of the sleeve are the site of the problem. It is unusual for the outer servings to be submitted with the sleeve and wipe samples, but if they are available they should be examined to establish where they failed, what caused the failure, and how it relates to the failure in the sleeve or wipe. The nature of the samples from a faulty joint or repair sleeve can vary from a complete sleeve, with all the wipes and cable sheath still attached, to a longitudinal segment or transverse section through a plumbed wipe. Where an electrical breakdown has occurred, the damage can range from minor localized arcing damage to a major electrical breakdown with extensive fusion of the lead and lead alloys and widespread carbon deposits. Care must be taken to avoid the assumption that the center of any electrical breakdown is the location of the initial fault. In some instances 5-3
the fault position may be evident and marked, but often it is not. The presence of a crack, split, or deformation of the plumbed wipe or sleeve may be indicative of a possible reason for the failure, or it may be the consequence of the electrical breakdown. It should be noted that in being removed from the cable, the sample or samples may have been extensively distorted and a potential weakness in the joint, sleeve, or sheaths developed into an apparent fault as a result. 5.2.2 Initial Visual Examination The visual examination of a joint or repair sleeve and wipe must be carefully carried out initially, without any cleaning. Samples of corrosion product, if present, should be removed and retained for possible future analysis before they become contaminated, dissolved, or washed away. Evidence of partially bonded wipes, fissures, inclusions, cavities, and/or porosity, or good wipes that have debonded should be noted. Loose debris should be removed and if possible identified either as original material reasonably expected to be in the sleeve, or as adventitious material that has become included as a result of the failure or subsequent to it. Notes, photographs, and sketches should form a detailed record of the examination. Gentle hand cleaning of areas and picking off of loosely attached debris should follow, using a short, fairly stiff-bristled brush, a blunt plastic probe, and plastic-tipped tweezers. A limited application of solvents such as acetone or alcohol will assist in removing any grease and burnt compounds. In some instances the use of warm soapy water has been found useful in removing the carbon deposits where electrical discharges have occurred. If a crack on the external surface is identified, the visual examination should seek a continuation of the crack on the internal surface. The continuation of a crack may not take the shortest path, particularly through a wipe where the flowed nature of the wipe may influence the direction of the cracks path. The direction and nature of the crack should be noted, together with any unusual feature in the shape of the wipe, such as eccentricity or circumferential necking, thin sections, and poor bonding to the sleeve, sheath, or packing tapes. Evidence of discoloration, staining, water staining, and tidemarks on the external and internal surface of the wipe should be recorded. If water was present it will be necessary to establish whether it was present before the fault developed, or only after the failure. 5.2.3 Cleaning Plumbed Wipes Following the initial examination, the sample may require thorough cleaning. Cleaning plumbed wipes can cause problems, especially if the samples are large or awkward in shape. The cleaning is best achieved in an ultrasonic bath containing a beaker of warm water to which a few drops of liquid soap have been added. If a suitably large beaker will not fit into the ultrasonic bath, consider the use of a strong polyethylene bag containing the sample and filled with warm water and a few drops of liquid soap. Small samples can be fully immersed in the soapy water; larger samples can be immersed one at a time for about 5 minutes, removed, dried, inverted, and reimmersed. Additional local cleaning, again with a fairly stiff-bristled brush and solvents, may be necessary. The contents of the beaker or plastic bag used for the ultrasonic cleaning should be examined, as the cleaning may dislodge material that would not normally be included in the construction of the joint or repair sleeve. If warm soapy water is not effective, there are 5-4
proprietary surfactants that can be effective in cleaning oil, grease, and carbon from lead and lead alloys. These can be used in an ultrasonic bath or in a plastic bag in the bath. Care must be taken if volatile flammable solvents are used in a plastic bag in large quantities or in a warm or heated ultrasonic cleaning bath. By using a warm medium such as soapy water, some ingress of the water into small cavities and cracks will occur. The residual heat will dry off the surface water, but water retained in cracks, cavities, and pores will be slower to dry and may leave a stain, which could be confused as the presence of site water. 5.2.4 Examination of the Cleaned Sample The plumbed wipe, unlike a cable sheath, may not be smooth and will have crevices still containing material after cleaning. The visual examination must be carried out with good illumination including both ring and directional or collimated lighting, and low-power magnification. Identifiers such as top of joint that may have been removed by the cleaning should be remarked. During and after cleaning, care must still be exercised to ensure that evidence such as water staining, tidemarks, and discoloration are not removed before their presence and pattern are noted and recorded. The pattern and distribution of the discharge debris and the presence of material not associated with the cable, sleeve, or plumbed wipe constructions should also be noted. The use of a red-dye liquid penetrant, as used in nondestructive testing to detect cracks, has been found useful, but because of the multiple crevices on the inside of a plumbed wipe it is probably better to apply the dye to the external surface rather than the internal surface (see Section 5.7). Because of the layered nature of the wipe and its bonding to the sleeve or sheath and the lead strip, care has to be exercised to ensure that crevices and fissures are not mistaken for cracks. It is also possible that the tinning layer, if used, or the plumbed wipe was not fully bonded to the sheath or sleeve and has debonded due to dewetting during the making of the wipe, and not as a result of an electrical discharge during the final stages of the failure. Where dewetting occurs, a fine, dark gray, almost powdery deposit of oxidized metal on the mating faces exists and can easily be confused with black carbonaceous deposits from an electrical discharge. A similar effect can result from failure of successive layers in the wiped plumb due to the entrapment of oxides and other debris, although in this case the discoloration is usually a lighter colored gray (see Section 5.13). In such circumstances an analysis for the presence of carbon rather than metals and oxides may be required, using a scanning electron microscope fitted with a beryllium window and using energy dispersive analysis of x-rays. This is expensive. It has been found that most faults in jointing and repair sleeves are associated with the plumbing and are frequently on the underside of the wipe or where access and good visibility are restricted due to other cables. The underside of the plumbed wipe is also where control of temperature during plumbing is difficult, and it is more likely that lower temperatures and therefore poor bonding and defects in the wipe will be found (see Section 5.13). 5-5
Where tinning of the sheath and the sleeve is used, dewetting of the tinned layer can occur during plumbing and is not an uncommon occurrence (see Section 5.13.3).
5.3 Determination of the Plumbed Wipe Dimensions

5.3.1 General Remarks Plumbed wipes come in various shapes and sizes, as discussed above, but all will have the same basic requirements, namely that they should be well bonded to the sheath and the sleeve, and be of sufficient thickness and integrity to withstand normal service conditions for an acceptable period of time. Some dimensions of plumbed wipes may have to be made to dimensional specifications or a profile template. If the wipes being examined have been made in accordance with these requirements, then their dimensions must be checked using the same specified parameters. The size of other plumbed wipes may be restricted by the size of the ducts into which they are installed. In many instances the dimensions of a plumbed wipe are left to the jointers discretion. The tools required to dimension a plumbed wipe are calipers, a steel rule, and a diameter tape. All diameters should be measured with a diameter tape, and all thicknesses should be measured with dial-gauge calipers or a ball-ended micrometer. Some dimensions can be determined on the joint or repair sleeves plumbed wipe in situ, but other dimensions can only be determined after the joint has been cut open. There are usually four principle positions where dimensions are recordedon the top, on each side (the sides may have to be identified other than just left and right), and on the underside of the plumb. Where no guidance is given, the principal dimensions should be recorded. These are diameter and thickness of lead sheath at both ends of the repair sleeve; diameter, thickness, and length of the repair sleeve; and number of turns, if any, and thickness of the lead-strip packing used to fill the gap between the sheath and the sleeve. The length of sleeve overlap onto the sheath should be recorded, together with the outside diameter of the plumbed wipe and the length of bond of the wipe to the sheath and the sleeve. Where the wipe is bonded to the sleeve and the sheath, it may be necessary to make a visual distinction between the overall length and the bonded length. The dimensions can best be recorded in a sketch.
5.4 Preparation of Samples for Metallurgical Examination

5.4.1 General Remarks Because plumbed wipes are made by wiping the semimolten plumbing metal around or transverse to the cables axis, it is usual to examine longitudinal sections through the wipe/sleeve/sheath. It is also useful to compare the profile and quality of the wiped metal on the top, bottom, and both sides of the wipe. This is achieved by cutting the plumbed wipe in a vertical plane and the two halves in a horizontal plane to provide four longitudinal sections. This will also facilitate the dimensional survey (see Section 5.3). The preceding does not preclude the
5-6
use of transverse sectioning if there is evidence to justify the need. The objective in preparing the sections is to reveal the profile of the plumbed wipe at various positions and the possible presence of the following: Gross heterogeneity in the wipe Porosity, inclusions, and dross in the wipe Laminations and cracks and fissures within the plumbed wipe itself Lack of bonding of the tinning to the sheath or sleeve and of the wipe to the tinning
If a complete joint or repair sleeve with a fault is submitted for examination, it will be necessary to establish the location of the fault before the assembly is cut open. If the fault is in one of the plumbed wipes or adjacent sheaths, careful cutting of the sleeve at its midlength position and removal of the conductor(s) and insulation will be required. Care needs to be used in removing the insulation and conductors, as evidence such as insulation or servings trapped in the plumbed wipe may be lost or damaged if they are forcefully removed. The components of the joint should be kept together in case they are required for later examination, and their position with respect to the sleeve/sheaths should be noted. The cutting of the plumbed wipe can be carried out with a hacksaw or a band saw. If a lubricant is needed, then a dry lubricant such as a bar of soap is usually adequate. The four quadrant sections should be identified to retain their relationship to each other. Where possible, it is generally advantageous to include a short length of the lead alloy sheath and the sleeve at either end of the section through the plumbed wipe. Apart from providing a reference point, this also ensures that the start of the wipe and the tinning, if present, are available for examination. It is also useful to retain samples of the cables lead alloy sheath and the sleeve, if available, should it be necessary to carry out any chemical analysis or grain size determinations of the structure at and remote from the heat-affected zone adjacent to the plumbed wipe. 5.4.2 Initial Sample Preparation It is not necessary to prepare both faces of all four sections. It is sufficient to select only two diametrically opposite sections and prepare both faces of these two sections. This will provide a profile of the plumbed wipe at each of four positions around its circumference. If the ends of the lead sheath and the sleeve are included in the sections, they will be long and thin, and because of their shape may be difficult to grip for grinding and polishing. Sections of reasonable size and thickness can be hand held for preparation, but small thin sections or sections for examination on a microscope will have to be embedded in a cold-setting epoxy resin. The degree of preparation depends on what evidence is being sought. For most purposes a macroexamination will be sufficient and quicker to prepare.
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5.4.3 Sample Mounting A conventional hot compression mounting press operating at 180185C must not be used, as plumbing metals will melt during the hot curing process. If samples need to be mounted, the only method is by use of a two-part cold-setting epoxy resin system. Many manufacturers of metallurgical consumables manufacture a range of epoxy resin systems. For the purpose of mounting lead and lead alloy sections, a clear epoxy resin system with good fluidity, capable of vacuum impregnation, with an exotherm that does not exceed 80C and a cure time of 35 hours should be sought. A suitable resin used by the author is manufactured by Ciba Geigy and is a casting resin consisting of resin MY753 (DTD900/4365 DGD QA/TS AFS 208) and hardener HY956 (DGD QA/TS AFS 122B). The two components are mixed in a ratio of 5:1. Curing of the resin can be accelerated with heat but needs to be monitored and cooled if the exotherm temperature rises above 70C. This resin is reported to have a limited shelf life but is still usable for metallurgical purposes three years after its use by date. The samples to be mounted will need to be placed in a mold to contain the resin. Suppliers of metallurgical mounting resins also supply cylindrical polyethylene reusable molds in diameters of 25, 30, 32, and 40 mm (1 to 1.5 inches), with push-out bases that are ideal for small samples. The molds need not be taller than 2530 mm (11.25 inches). For larger samples, molds can be manufactured from a range of materials such as plastic drainpipes or aluminum or copper tubing. One end of these molds will have to be turned or filed flat and placed on a flat metal base plate. To secure the mold to the base plate, a modeling clay or plasticine will be needed, and the inside of the mold and base plate will need greasing to enable the sample to be removed when the resin has cured. Rectangular and square molds, if necessary, can be made from four pieces of brass plate stood on edge and treated like the drain-pipe or metal-tubing molds above. The face of the sample to be examined should be fairly flat, saw marks should be removed with a file, and before mounting the sample should be thoroughly cleaned in an ultrasonic bath and rinsed with a volatile solvent. The sample is placed face down in the center of the mold, and there should not be excessive space between the sample and the mold wall, as this wastes resin and can be the site of curing cracks in the resin due to the exotherm. The two components of the resin should be accurately measured and well mixed without entrapping air. The resin should stand for five minutes to allow any air bubbles to escape and should then be carefully poured into the mold until the top of the sample is approximately 5 mm (0.2 inches) below the surface of the resin. The mold should be topped off as the resin runs into the interstices of the sample. To ensure complete impregnation of the sample with resin, the mold can be placed in a container and a partial vacuum applied. Care must be exercised to ensure that any trapped gas does not suddenly escape and flood the resin out of the mold. It is useful to retain some of the leftover resin in its disposable mixing container, normally a waxed-paper or polystyrene cup, to use as an indicator as to the progress of the curing process. If available, a twisted wire thermocouple placed in the residue will act as a warning of the onset of the exothermic reaction. When the resin has cured, the mounted sample can be removed from the mold. The sharp edges resulting from the meniscus between the resin and the mold wall should be removed with a file. An advantage of mounting the sample is that it can be turned in a lathe to remove the sharp edge 5-8
and to face off the side of the sample that is to be examined. This can eliminate a few coarse grinding stages and give a flat surface to work on. 5.4.4 Sample Grinding Although plumbing metal is harder than lead and lead alloy sheathing, it is still very soft and will tend to clog tools, grinding and sanding belts, and sandpaper. The nodules of clogging metal will score the surface of the sample and make it difficult to get a smooth flat finish. Tools such as files should be lubricated with chalk or kerosene and regularly cleaned with a wire brush. There are two procedures for preparing sections through plumbed wipes, depending on whether the sample is mounted or not. Unmounted samples will need to be filed or ground flat on sanding belts or machines and then proceed on to progressively finer wet and dry sandpapers that are lubricated with kerosene. The coarse grinding, to remove and level the face to be examined, can be carried out on 60 or 80 and 120 grit sandpaper. If possible, the initial grinding should be carried out on a metallurgical grinding wheel fitted with a 200-mm (8-inch) diameter rotating platen to which adhesive-backed sandpaper is fitted. The lubricant can be applied with a squeeze bottle. Large unmounted samples that cannot be rough-ground on a rotating platen can be initially ground (and subsequently fine-ground and polished) on sheets of sandpaper. Selfadhesive sheets of approximately 300 x 200 mm with the same grit size can be used, placed on a large flat surface such as a sheet of plate glass. For safety, the edges of the plate glass should be ground off. If only nonadhesive papers are available, moistening the back of the papers will help them to stick to the glass. Mounted samples, whether circular or rectangular, can be turned in a lathe or milled to produce a flat surface, and can proceed directly to the following fine grinding stages without requiring the initial coarse grinding. Both mounted and unmounted samples must be fine-ground using the above techniques but on progressively finer wet and dry sandpapers of 240, 320, 400, and 600 grit, using kerosene as a lubricant to avoid clogging. (On the 320 and finer papers, water can be used as a lubricant.) Where samples can be fine-ground on a rotating platen, a speed of 250 rpm should be selected, and a pressure of 11.5 kg (23 lbs). Grinding on one paper should be continued until all the scratch marks of the previous paper have been removed and then for at least another 30 seconds. When grinding on sandpaper on plate glass, the sample should be ground in a linear direction, taking care not to rock the sample and around the edges. The sample should be rotated through 90 on the next finer paper and ground until all the previous papers scratch marks have been removed. When grinding on one grit-size paper has been completed, whether on a rotating platen or plate glass, the sample should be washed with dilute liquid soap (if possible in an ultrasonic bath), washed with water, and rinsed and dried with acetone or methanol. 5.4.5 Sample Polishing Polishing is carried out using diamond, either as a paste or in a water suspension. The author has used both equally successfully but finds the paste more economical to use. Coarse polishing is carried out using 9- and 6-micron diamond on synthetic silk or nylon nap-free cloths, either on a rotating platen or plate glass and using the same techniques as above. It will be necessary to use 5-9
a proprietary lubricant on the diamond polishing cloth just before it starts to drag. It may not be possible to obtain sheets of suitable cloths for use on plate glass, and Selvyt cloth with a deep nap can be used as an alternative. Again, the sample must be scrupulously cleaned between the sandpaper grinding stage and the diamond polishing stage, and between each change in diamond. For macroexamination, it is only necessary to polish on 6-micron diamond before visual inspection and macroetching. For microexamination, it will be necessary to fine-polish on 1-micron diamond and final-polish on 0.3-micron aluminum oxide powder (alpha alumina) or a noncrystallizing 0.06 or similar colloidal silica suspension. For micropolishing, a Selvyt-covered platen rotating at 150 rpm and a pressure of 1 kg (2 lbs) on the sample will be sufficient. There are currently some relatively new metallurgical grinding and polishing techniques available from most of the metallurgical consumable material suppliers. These include the use of magnetic and self-adhesive platens, honeycombed diamond and colloidal silica polishing discs, and special grinding and polishing schedules for various metals on programmable grinding and polishing machines. The author has used them for special materials such as composites and plasma coatings on hard and soft metals but has not tried them on very soft metals such as lead and low alloy leads or plumbing metals. These techniques are extremely effective for specific materials but will require some modifications to work well for grinding and polishing macrosections of lead and lead alloys, including plumbed wipes. 5.4.6 Examination of Sections After Polishing Before the prepared sections from a plumbed wipe are exposed to chemical polishing or etching, they should be cleaned to remove all polishing residues without damaging the polished surfaces. It is usually in this condition that much of the significant evidence is visible. Chemical polishing and etching will preferentially attack areas of residual stress and penetrate crevices, causing pitting and staining, and can alter the visual evidence or result in bleed out, which will obscure detail. The defects likely to be detected in polished sections through plumbed wipes are porosity, inclusions, laminations, and lack of bonding. These defects are described and discussed in detail in Section 5.13. 5.4.7 Chemical Polishing The chemical polishing of plumbed wipe sections is not advised, because their irregular shapes and crevices will trap the chemicals, which may be difficult to remove, and because they comprise two or three different lead alloys that will react differently to the chemicals. Furthermore, because most of the mechanical preparation has been done, there would appear to be little point in introducing chemical polishing at this late stage in the preparations, since it is unlikely to achieve completely satisfactory results.
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If chemical polishing is required, then the procedures and reagents that are detailed in Section 4.3.5 should be used. One additional procedure recommends the following: 20 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide 80 ml glacial acetic acid 510 seconds immersion at ambient temperature, alternating with immersion in the following solution: 10 g molybdic acid 140 ml ammonium hydroxide 240 ml water To this solution add 60 ml of concentrated nitric acid. The author has no experience with these procedures or their effectiveness on plumbed lead alloy wipes, but trials with etching reagents of similar composition have resulted in gross pitting of low alloy lead sheath samples. 5.4.8 Macroetching Some defects may be visible in the polished section taken through the plumbed wipes before etching. The presence of porosity, lack of bonding, seams, fissures, cracks, and inclusions may be more easily seen before etching. It is therefore advised that the as-polished section be examined before macroetching. If any features are observed before etching, they should be recorded, either in a sketch or as a photograph. With some alloys, ghosting of the structure may be evident. This is caused by relief polishing leaving the harder, tin-rich phase protruding slightly. The function of macroetching is to reveal any heterogeneity in the structure, and it should not require viewing at magnifications greater than x20. Table 5-1 gives information on reagents. The macroetching reagents for lead and lead alloys are usually two- or three-part solutions that have limited shelf life and must be made up fresh. Note that solutions 3A and 3B have been found by the author to be the most universal macroetchants for a wide range of lead alloy sheaths. Solution 4A has been found to be effective in the removal of etching stains and discoloration on some lead alloy samples caused by other reagents.
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Warning The use of protective equipment, including gloves and safety glasses, is strongly advised. Workers should read and fully understand the relevant MSDS (COSHH) data sheets before working with chemicals. The data sheets should be available for reference, and appropriate safety equipment should be in place. The mixing of chemicals should never be undertaken unless their reactions are known. Table 5-1 Macroetching Reagents for Lead and Lead Alloy Solders and Plumbing Metals Containing Tin and Antimony For Lead Alloys Containing Lead and lead alloys with less than 1% Sb 1A. Solution 250 ml water 140 ml NH4OH (sp gr 0.90) 60 ml HNO3 (conc) 100 ml molybdic acid (85%) 400 ml HNO3 (conc) 960 ml water 100 ml glacial acetic acid Remarks Add 1A to 1B and let precipitate redissolve; warm gently if necessary. An insoluble precipitate will form if 1B is added to 1A. After precipitate has redissolved, add 1C to mixture of 1A and 1B. Use at ambient temperature. Apply copiously with cotton wool swab for 1020 seconds, cold water rinse, examine, and repeat if necessary. Etch with solution 2A at 4042C for 1020 seconds, then repolish until bright. Re-etch with solution 2B at ambient temperature for 1020 minutes. The long etching times and large surface areas will deplete the activity of the etchant. A means of supporting the sample in an inverted position with the polished face only just immersed in the etchant will need to be devised. The use of flat-bottomed crystallizing dishes is best for this purpose. During the etching, the surfaces of the samples should be examined periodically. On completion of etching, rinse with water and dry with acetone/warm airflow. If (NH4)2MoO4 does not dissolve completely, warm solution and cool. If precipitate reforms, add a few ml of NH4OH (specific gravity 0.90). Mix equal quantities of 3A and 3B immediately before use; etch at ambient temperature 12 minutes. This etchant can be revitalized with a few drops of H2O2 and has been found suitable for most lead alloys. It is the authors first choice for macroetching cable sheaths.
1B. 1C.
Antimonial lead (>2% Sb) and lead alloys
2A.
30 ml glacial acetic acid 40 ml HNO3 (conc) 160 ml water 1 ml glacial acetic acid 400 ml water
2B.
Lead and lead alloys with Sb (<2% Sb) and without Sb
3A. 3B.
80 ml HNO3 (conc) 220 ml water 45 g ammonium molybdate 300 ml water
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EPRI Licensed Material Lead Alloys for Plumbed Wipes, Joints, and Repair Sleeves Table 5-1 (continued) Macroetching Reagents for Lead and Lead Alloy Solders and Plumbing Metals Containing Tin and Antimony For Lead Alloys Containing Mild etchant for most lead alloy cable sheaths but more useful as a brightener 4A. Solution 10 g ammonium molybdate 25 g citric acid 100 ml water Remarks Immerse sample at ambient temperature until desired contrast is achieved (usually 25 minutes). The author has found this solution more useful as a brightener to remove stains and discoloration on lead samples caused by other reagents. This is essentially a chemical polishing/etching solution. The strongest H2O2 available should be used to minimize water content. Immerse sample at ambient temperature until desired contrast is achieved.
5A.
75 ml acetic acid 25 ml H2O2
After etching, the samples should be washed under a copious flow of water, rinsed with a solvent (acetone), and dried in a flow of warm air. Constant care must be exercised to ensure that the etched surface is not touched. It is also advised that the samples be examined promptly after etching, as the sample will discolor gradually by natural oxidation if not stored in a desiccator. 5.4.9 Microetching It is unlikely that the microstructure of plumbed wipes will need to be examined, but should the need arise it is probable that the section will be small and will be mounted in a cold-setting epoxy resin and prepared as detailed earlier in this section. The sample should be examined in the unetched condition first, because some lead tin structures are visible in the unetched condition. Samples that have been chemically polished are not suitable for microetching, as they will have rounded edges and may be pitted. It should be noted that some joints and repair sleeves contain antimony to provide a harder alloy and a stronger sleeve. The presence of antimony will affect the etching. Only if the sleeve itself is being examined and is known to contain more than 2% antimony should the etching reagents suitable for Pb + Sn and Sb (antimony) >2% be used. If it is microsections of the plumbing metal or tinning and sheath being examined, and none of them contain antimony, then either the pure lead or Pb + <2% Sb etching reagent should be used. It should also be noted that the etching reagents are alloy-specific and the selection will depend on what alloy is to be examined. Other alloys present might not be etched, or could be badly stained or attacked in the process. If these alloys also need to be examined, the sample may have to be repolished, starting at the 9-micron stage as detailed in Section 5.4.5. Table 5-2 gives information on reagents.
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Warning The use of protective equipment, including gloves and safety glasses, is strongly advised. Workers should read and fully understand the relevant MSDS (COSHH) data sheets before working with chemicals. The data sheets should be available for reference, and appropriate safety equipment should be in place. The mixing of chemicals should never be undertaken unless their reactions are known Table 5-2 Microetching Reagents for Lead and Lead Alloy Solders and Plumbing Metals Containing Tin and Antimony For Lead Alloys Containing Commercially pure lead Solution 75 ml acetic acid (conc) 25 ml hydrogen peroxide (30%) Remarks Make up fresh, use at ambient temperature, by immersion or cotton wool swab, 610 seconds, examine, and repeat if necessary. Suitable for general structure. Make up fresh, use at ambient temperature, by immersion or cotton wool swab, 810 seconds, examine, and repeat if necessary. Suitable for general structure. Use at ambient temperature, by immersion or cotton swab, approximately 1020 seconds, examine, and repeat if necessary. This reagent has been used as a microetchant with some success on low alloy leads after machining and polishing as outlined above. Make up fresh, use at 4042C, total immersion, 410 minutes depending on flowed layer thickness, examine, and repeat if necessary. If surface is stained, remove stain with cotton under running water or using 5% solution of nitric acid. Suitable for general microstructure. Make up fresh, use at ambient temperature, total immersion, 1020 minutes depending on flowed layer thickness, remove stains with 50% nitric acid on cotton swab. Suitable for general structure. Make up fresh, use at ambient temperature, total immersion, 615 seconds. Suitable for general structure. Use at ambient temperature, total immersion, 540 seconds, remove stain by immersion in 10% HCl methanol solution. Suitable for general structure. Use at ambient temperature; swab with cotton until surface goes slightly opaque. Suitable for general structure. This reagent is more suitable for lead calcium (battery plate) alloys.
60 ml acetic acid (conc) 30 ml hydrogen peroxide (30%)
8 ml acetic acid (conc) 8 ml nitric acid (conc) 84 ml glycerol
Pb + Sn and Sb up to 6%
15 ml acetic acid (conc) 20 ml nitric acid (conc) 80 ml water
100 ml acetic acid (conc) 10 ml hydrogen peroxide (30%)
75 ml acetic acid (conc) 25 ml hydrogen peroxide (30%) 5 ml nitric acid (conc) 100 ml ethanol or methanol Other Pb and unspecified Pb alloys 510 g silver nitrate 90 ml water
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Plumbed wipes are made by wiping lead alloys at temperatures between the alloys solidus and liquidus. Under ideal conditions, when the plumbing metal is slowly cooled from the fully molten state to the fully solid state, the structure at ambient temperature will consist of dendrites of primary lead in a eutectic matrix. The matrix will consist of an intimate mixture of lead- and tin-rich phases that may exhibit some lamellar formation of the lead-rich phase. Because the plumbed wipe has not been fully molten, and during solidification has been hot-worked, the ideal structure will not be evident but may show some fine dendritic formation, extensive evidence of flow, and possibly some slight segregation. Some grain size may also be evident in larger plumbed wipes where longer heat retention has occurred. The defects that are likely to be revealed by microetching are the same as those revealed by macroetching and are generally examined at higher magnification.
5.5 Chemical Analysis

5.5.1 General Remarks A full discussion on how to analyze lead and lead alloys is beyond the scope of this report. It is, however, worth restating the importance of ensuring that the analytical laboratory used has the capability and experience to analyze lead and lead alloys of the alloy compositions likely to be encountered and has the necessary reference standards for calibration purposes. If an independent approved laboratory is available and competent to undertake the work, it should be used, particularly if it is likely that the results will be disputed. An alternative is to use the analytical facilities of the manufacturer of the solders, plumbing metals, sleeves, or sheaths, provided the manufacturer is not likely, at a later date, to contest the results. It is necessary to know if the analytical techniques used will destroy or significantly change the sample, making it unsuitable for other tests. If this is the case and insufficient sample material is likely to exist, careful planning of the work will be required, and it may be necessary to leave the analysis to the end of the examination. Plumbed wipes are not homogenous, and a suitably large sample for analysis must be taken to ensure that it is representative of the whole wipe and at the same time does not include the tinning, sheath, or sleeve. Normally, spark emission spectroscopy would be used for speed and convenience, but care should be taken to ensure that a suitably large and representative sample is taken. It is useful to establish what minimums (diameter, thickness, or mass in grams/size) the laboratory requires for spark emission spectroscopy. Normally a sample size approximately 1520 mm in diameter and 35 mm thick (after machining of a flat surface) is required. The laboratory may be able to collect shavings, slivers, and the like by pressing or fusion, preferably in a vacuum, so that it can be analyzed by spark emission spectroscopy. Because of the inhomogeneity, spark emission spectroscopy using a preburn facility is preferred. At least three burns will need to be made, and the results of each recorded and a mean value reported. Other analytical techniques include induction coupled plasma (ICP) and atomic absorption (AA). Both of these methods require the sample, usually a smaller amount as clean drillings or 5-15
shavings, to be digested into a solution; this can be time-consuming and expensive. In addition, AA requires a range of lamps of different wavelengths, one for each element, and the test facility may not have lamps for all the elements required. This method is manual and time-consuming, and is usually charged on the basis of cost per element which, if the composition is unknown or a large number of elements are required, can also be expensive. Scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive analysis of x-rays (SEM/EDX) is not considered to be sufficiently accurate for analyzing macrosamples. However, it can be useful for very small or thin layers such as sections through tin coatings, or where the presence of tinning has to be established. Flat polished samples are ideal for analysis using SEM/EDX and are one of the few reasons for preparing microsections from plumbed wipes.
5.6 Corrosion of Plumbed Wipes

5.6.1 General Remarks The comments on corrosion of lead and lead alloy sheaths (see Section 4.9) apply equally to corrosion of joints, repair sleeves, and plumbed wipes. Samples of corrosion product should be taken at an early stage if they are to be analyzed and identified, before they are diluted or contaminated with cleaning solvents. It should be noted that in the standard emf series of metals, the electrode potentials of tin and lead are respectively -0.136 and -0.126 at 23C. Theoretically, tin is more reactive and will corrode in preference to lead. In practice, there is very little difference between the two, and numerous other site conditions will have more significant effects on what does and does not corrode. Joints and repair sleeves are usually manually wrapped with several layers of insulation or a polymeric resin cast into disposable molds fitted around the sleeve after the ends have been plumbed. If the insulation is sound and water is externally present, there will be little effect on the sleeve or plumbed wipes for a number of years. With time, however, water will permeate the polymer insulation and cause discoloration and eventual corrosion of the lead and lead alloy under the insulation. The sleeve, because of its larger diameter, will cause a blockage in the duct and assist in retaining water. It is also worth noting that at joint and repair sleeves the protection applied during the cables manufacture has been replaced by hand-applied protection. Furthermore, the shape of the wipes and changes in diameter do not lend themselves to evenly applied layers of tape, and gaps may exist. The protection can also be less than the specified amount in terms of thickness and length covered. If movement of the cable/sleeve has occurred, the insulation may become damaged and present less of a barrier to water ingress. It is also equally important that the joint/repair sleeve insulation continues for a sufficient length onto the cables sheath and is properly bonded to it. The rate of water penetration will depend on the thickness of the insulation, the temperature, the depth of water, the chemical content of the water, and the type of polymer. With other conditions being equal, PVC is more permeable to the ingress of water than medium- and high-density polyethylene. In ducting under roads, vehicle emissions, drainage water containing automotive fluids, and fuel spillage will seriously compromise the insulation, particularly where self-adhesive or thermally amalgamating tapes have been used. In older systems, less-sophisticated coverings, including bitumen and rubber tape, are particularly prone to some modern effluent chemicals. 5-16
In practical terms, the microstructures of most plumbed wipes are inhomogeneous and may contain dendrites of lead-rich solid solution surrounded by the eutectic structure. When exposed to a corrosive environment, it is more likely that the tin-rich portions of the inhomogeneity or the eutectic structure are attacked preferentially, leaving the lead-rich dendrites in a porous matrix. Another feature of plumbed wipes that should be considered is the fact that the plumbing operation involves heat, and both the cable sheath and the sleeve adjacent to the plumbed wipe become annealed in the process. Normally, annealed areas are less susceptible to corrosion than worked areas or areas of residual stress. If, after making the wipe, the joint or repair sleeve is not properly repositioned and the cable from the sleeve is left unsupported, bending stress will develop and can result in several types of failure. One type is simple bending stress that will be imposed on the upper surface of the sheath adjacent to the wipe in the heat-affected zone. As the cable bends, the servings become stretched and pull away from the sheath and, in severe cases, split open. This exposes the wipe to the environment and the possibility of water ingress. A related failure mechanism is that the bending stresses themselves can make this part of the cable sheath more prone to corrosion. In one case, severe corrosion of the underside of an unprotected plumbed wipe and short length of cable inside a transformer house occurred, with copious white corrosion products. The cable route from the transformer passed up to the PVC-sheathed portion that was supported in galvanized cleats and exited the building into a trench via packed concrete ducts. Heavy rainfall resulted in the trench flooding, and water entered through the ducts and ran down the cable to drip off at the plumbed wipe, the first barrier in an otherwise smooth curved profile. The white corrosion product was sulfate from the new concrete trenching.
5.7 Nondestructive Testing

5.7.1 General Remarks Nondestructive testing (NDT) includes dye penetrant testing with a colored dye (or a fluorescent dye and ultraviolet lighting), magnetic particle inspection, ultrasonic inspection, and radiography. Magnetic particle inspection is not possible on most nonferrous alloys and lead and lead alloy sleeves and plumbed wipes. All the other methods have been used with limited success, in some instances on plumbed wipes and sleeves. Ultrasonic testing is difficult and inaccurate because of the heterogeneous nature of the plumbing and the irregular shape of the wipe. 5.7.2 Radiography Although lead is used as radiation screening, radiography of lead and lead alloy cable sheaths and sleeves has been successfully carried out by the author in a specially constructed room, an operating factory, and in public areas, using isotopes and x-ray generating equipment. Because the energy levels required to penetrate lead and lead alloys are high, special techniques and trained (certified) workers are necessary. Detailed discussion of this topic is beyond the scope of this report, but it should be noted that radiography is a procedure that can be used. It will show 5-17
the profile of a lead sleeve, the plumbed wipe, and the cable sheath, and their positions with respect to the conductors. The technique may not be sufficiently definitive to show individual papers in the insulation but has been used to assess the depth and effect of external mechanical damage to the sheathing and sleeves on paper insulation. Radiography has also been used to examine the position and clearances of conductor joints within a repair sleeve and also the alignment and concentricity of joints in the conductors without requiring removal of the joint sleeve. 5.7.3 Dye Penetrant Testing The most practical NDT technique used for cable examination is the dye penetrant procedure, employing a red dye and a white developer. Fluorescent dyes are also available, but these require a darkened room and ultraviolet lighting and are not ideally suited to site work. The advantage of the red dye system is that it can be used both in the laboratory and on site, and the materials are usually conveniently packaged in separate aerosol cans (solvent/cleaner, dye, and developer). The instructions for the correct and proper use of the dye penetrant system are generally supplied with the system and vary slightly from manufacturer to manufacturer. In principle, the area of the sample to be examined is cleaned with the solvent or the red dye penetrant remover (which is also a solvent). The area is dried, the red dye is applied and left for a period of time (usually 15 30 minutes), and then the dye is removed with a solvent-impregnated cloth or wipe. (The solvent should never be applied directly to the area after the dye has been applied.) When all the dye has been removed, the developer is applied and left for 1015 minutes before the sample is visually examined. Dye that is retained in crevices and cracks is drawn out by the developer and leaves a red stain on the usually white developer. Larger defects will show first. If excessive bleedout of dye occurs, it may mask finer adjacent indications, so observation of the surface should begin as the developer is applied. Smooth surfaces respond best to this procedure and are easy to clean. Rough surfaces are difficult to clean, may also retain some of the dye, and may give spurious indications. Similarly, excessive cleaning or spraying the solvent/cleaner directly onto the area to be examined could remove all the dye from the crevices and cracks and give a weak indication of a fault, or no indication. This technique, properly used, shows small surface imperfections that must be further examined. The same dye penetrant system has also been used to trace the route of a leak path through a plumbed wipe. The sample is initially thoroughly cleaned to remove grease, fluxes, and waxes, and then immersed in the dye (or the dye is sprayed onto the sample). With larger samples, which could be wasteful of dye or require a large container, a useful technique is to place the sample in a close-fitting heavy-duty polyethylene bag and spray the sample in the bag. The sample and bag can then be immersed in an ultrasonic bath or a partial vacuum applied to assist the penetration of the dye. After 30 minutes, the sample is removed from the bag and one side only is thoroughly cleaned of dye and the developer applied in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. If an indication of a crack or fissure exists, the area should be cleaned again and developer reapplied. This procedure should be repeated until no crack indication exists. Light air pressure should then be applied to the reverse side, still covered with dye, and the cleaned side covered with developer reexamined. If a trace of dye appears, a through-crack exists. If the sample is carefully bent open and cut, the presence of the dye on some of the cracked surface will illustrate the route of the crack or fissure. 5-18
The red dye system has the advantage that after the dye and developer have been removed for the detailed visual inspection, the developer can be reapplied and further residues of the dye drawn out to leave a trace without the accompanying area staining. The red dye will also better highlight the presence of a crack in a photograph. As a guide, for every aerosol can of dye used, it will be necessary to have five aerosol cans each of cleaner and developer.
5.8 Peel Tests

5.8.1 General Remarks Peel tests have principally been used to assess the bond between aluminum-sheathed cables and plumbed wipes. It should be noted that aluminum is significantly stronger than the plumbing alloy and can be peeled off without the aluminum breaking. It is most unlikely that the same test can be carried out on lead alloy sheaths and sleeves, as the strength of the plumbing and tinning metals are generally greater than that of the low alloy leads used for cable sheaths and sleeves. It is, however, worth outlining the procedures used, as they could be employed where the bond is likely to be very poor. The same test has also been used to assess solderability and usually employs phosphor bronze tapes that have been soldered together. 5.8.2 Procedure A longitudinal parallel-sided section (not a wedged shape) is cut from the plumbed wipe, either by sawing or by machining. It must include the sleeve and the sheath. The inner end of the sheath usually extends beyond the wipe and is used as one end of the test piece, and the longer length of sleeve is retained and after preparation is folded back over the wipe and used as the other end of the test piece. An analogy would be two 150-mm lengths of phosphor bronze tapes 20 mm wide x 0.02 mm thick laid flat, with one on top of the other and one end of the pair of tapes soldered together over a length of 50 mm. The end of one tape is then pulled back over itself, both ends gripped in a tensile testing machine and pulled apart, recording the load needed to peel the soldered join apart. Where the sample has been removed by sawing, it will be necessary to machine or file the sample to produce reasonably flat smooth surfaces on each side that are fairly parallel. The width of the section is usually 1520 mm; the actual width is not important, but it should be fairly parallel and the width measured. A variation of 0.5 mm is acceptable. In this type of test the rate of peel is usually slow, on the order of 0.5 mm/minute. In some instances the peel is initiated by making a fine saw cut, using a small hacksaw, at the sleeve/wipe interface. The load/crosshead separation is recorded on a chart recorder and the initial high load at the start of the test is usually ignored. Regardless of the quality of the bond, it is usual to record a highly fluctuating load. A good bond will give a more even, but still fluctuating, load, while a poor bond will generate a highly fluctuating load and numerous low spots. It is normal to assess the mean maximum and mean minimum values by inspection, recording the peel strength 5-19
as load per 10 mm width. It is also common to record the nature of the surface revealed by the test as a percentage bond, with the number and size of pores, and any other lack of bonding due to dross, flux, or dewetting of the lining. If the sheath/sleeve breaks, it is important to record the fact, as the bond is stronger than the tensile strength of the materials that are being bonded together.
5.9 The Break or Three-Point-Bend Test

5.9.1 General Remarks This test has been used to assess plumbed wipes on both lead- and aluminum-sheathed cables and is preferred by some as an alternative to the peel test. The author also considers this test to be more suitable than the peel test for assessing the quality of plumbed wipes on both lead and lead alloy and aluminum-sheathed cables. 5.9.2 Test Procedure The test requires a parallel-sided, longitudinal slice through a plumbed wipe, usually obtained by sawing or machining, that must include the sheath and sleeve. Unlike with the peel test, it is not necessary to include excess lengths of sleeve or sheath in the sample. As before, the sample has to be filed or machined reasonably flat to remove any saw marks that might act as stress concentrators in the test. The width of the test piece is not as critical, and measurements are not necessarily involved in the final assessment unless required. Normally a test piece thickness of 1015 mm is used, although thinner sections have been employed. The actual test is fairly basic but can be made more sophisticated if the desire and facilities exist. Essentially, and in its basic form, the flat test piece is supported vertically in a vise by gripping either the sheath or the sleeve and striking the exposed upper edge with a hammer in an attempt to laterally break the section open. The use of a punch applied to the exposed edge is an improvement. The preferred alternative is to carry out a three-point-bend test by supporting the sample on the edges of the sheath and the sleeve on two parallel supports. Using a 6-mm (1/4-inch) thick steel plate with a radiused edge placed on the opposite side, midway between and parallel to the two supports, a gradually increasing load is applied to bend the test piece. The radiused edge can be just the rounded edge of the plate or can be made larger, by welding a steel bar of the desired diameter to the edge of the plate, and carrying out a controlled bend. The interpretation varies according to the requirements of the tester; usually it is only necessary to bend the sample a certain amount without it breaking. This would be regarded as a good result. If the test piece broke without achieving a specified deflection, it would indicate a weakness or possibly a lamellar defect in the plumbed wipe. The fracture surfaces should be examined and the defects, if any are found, recorded. If required, it is possible to record the breaking load or load and deflection as a function of the test piece width.
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The above bend tests are usually carried out in a tensile testing machine. Some tensile testers do not have a compression facility, which is needed for bend testing. This can easily be overcome by making a simple compression cage using four plates and bolting; this can be mounted in a tension-only tensile testing machine. This test can also be carried out on transverse sections through the plumbed wipe, but the absence of parallel edges means that the full depth of the wipe cannot be tested. With longitudinal sections, the sheath and sleeve sections are fairly parallel, and with adjustable outer supports in the three-point-bend test they can be positioned under the extremities of the test piece. This allows the tinning, if present, and both the inner and outer layers of the plumbing to be tested. Normally, these outer supports are square-edged and not radiused, but if proper bend testing is to be carried out they must be radiused.
5.10 Hardness Tests

5.10.1 General Remarks Hardness tests can be carried out on prepared sections of plumbed wipes, but because of the possible inhomogeneity in the wipe it is necessary to use only the Brinell hardness test with a large area indentation. The Vickers hardness test makes a finer indentation, which could give a spurious result because of possible inhomogeneity in the wipe, thermal effects, and possible defects such as porosity, seams, and lamination. Much of the information on the test conditions for lead and lead alloys has been detailed in Section 4.12. The constraints that exist for lead and lead alloy sheaths and sleeves are different from those for plumbed wipes. Plumbed wipes, because of their alloyed composition, are relatively harder, and thicker sections are usually taken. There are a number of small handheld portable hardness testing devices available that use spring loaded indenters, ultrasonic signals, or electronic measurements of the rebound of a small indenter and record the hardness in one of several optional hardness scales. None of these devices have been found to accurately indicate the hardness of plumbed wipes, despite their manufacturers claims. Only a proper Brinell hardness tester should be used. 5.10.2 Test Procedure Ideally, the minimum section thickness of plumbed wipe on which a Brinell hardness test can be carried out is 6 mm. Depending on the equipment available, the hardness test can be carried out on a longitudinal or transverse section of the wipe. Unless a suitable means of support exists, a flat sample such as that described in Section 5.9 for the break or three-point-bend test can be used. The surface on which the Brinell tests are to be carried out should be flat and smooth, such as that produced by light filing or grinding on a 180 or 230 grit sandpaper. It is not necessary to have a polished surface.
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The most suitable test conditions are identical to those detailed in Section 4.12.2, with a preference for the 5-mm diameter steel or tungsten ball, a load of 245.2 Newtons (25 kg) and a dwell time of 1015 seconds. This combination will give a 0.102F/D2 ratio of 1.0 where F is the force in Newtons and D is the diameter of the ball in mm. As before, the results should be recorded as HBS (S for a steel ball) or HBW (W for a tungsten ball) (-/ -/ force and ball diameter, respectively). The indentations should be at least three indentation diameters from any edge and any other indentations. There is also a thickness requirement that the sample should be at least three times the thickness of the indentation, which should not pose a problem on a 6-mm thick section, as it might on a 2.5-mm thick lead alloy sheath or sleeve. Brinell hardness values will vary according to the composition of the alloy, its orientation, and the dwell time, hence the need to standardize the testing procedure. Typical dwell times for plumbing metals would be 10 seconds. Typical hardness values of plumbed wipes are likely to be 1015 HBS (or HBW). Some sources state that hardness (and tensile strength) values will change with time. This is true for lead/tin alloys containing 210% tin up to 48 hours after extrusion or casting, but is unlikely to be significant or accurately detectable in samples from plumbed wipes. 5.10.3 Conversion of Hardness Results The conversion to Vickers hardness values of hardness results determined by Brinell hardness tests on sections through plumbed wipes is acceptable, provided it is stated in the results. If conversion from Brinell to Vickers is required, the relationship is HV = 1.05 HB. The conversion of hardness values into tensile strength is not advised, because the results can be adversely affected by the presence of defects in the plumbed wipe, which may not be detected by the hardness test. Furthermore, such conversions must be regarded with great skepticism even on brasses, aluminums, and steels.
5.11 Tensile Tests

5.11.1 General Remarks Tensile testing of sections cut from plumbed wipes has been carried out, but it is difficult to undertake as well as to justify. For one thing, in small plumbed wipes there is usually insufficient volume of material from which even a small tensile test piece can be machined. The manner in which the wipe is constructed, namely by wiping successive layers of metal to build up the required thickness, will generate some directionality and influence the properties in the wipe. The direction in which the test piece section is taken can therefore bias the results. Furthermore, the presence of small lamellar defects and porosity in the wipe can significantly affect the test results of small samples.
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5.11.2 Tensile Test Procedure The shape of the tensile test piece can vary; square and rectangular sections have reportedly been used but require relatively longer ends for gripping in the tensile tester and are more complex to machine. To keep the test piece length to a practical minimum and for ease of manufacture, a cylindrical section test piece is considered the best compromise. There are some conventions on test piece dimensions, such as ratios of cross section dimensions to gauge lengths and minimum parallel lengths, but these have been found to be of little significance when tensile testing small samples from plumbed wipes. The use of threaded ends has been tried but there is a risk of breaking the sample during machining, or of stripping the threads during the test. To overcome this, the most practical solution is to use plain (unthreaded) dumbbell-ended test pieces and split collet chucks to grip the test pieces. A pair of split collet chucks for each end of the test piece size will be required, together with one pair of shear pins to secure the split collet chucks to the tensile tester. As the size of the plumbed wipe will determine the size of the test piece, four test piece sizes are provided in Tables 5-3 and 5-4. (Table 5-3 provides dimensions in inches, and Table 5-4 provides dimensions in millimeters.)
Table 5-3 Dimensions of Test Pieces for Tensile Testing, in Inches Aspect Overall length Length between shoulders Parallel length Gauge length Test diameter Overall diameter Radius A B C D E F R Test Piece 1 1.120 0.700 0.630 0.500 0.178 0.275 0.0313 Test Piece 2 1.586 0.986 0.894 0.750 0.252 0.390 0.047 Test Piece 3 1.930 1.390 1.264 1.000 0.357 0.550 0.063 Test Piece 4 3.173 1.973 1.790 1.500 0.505 0.775 0.094
Table 5-4 Dimensions of Test Pieces for Tensile Testing, in Millimeters Aspect Overall length Length between shoulders Parallel length Gauge length Test diameter Overall diameter Radius A B C D E F R Test Piece 1 28.45 17.80 16.00 13.00 4.50 7.00 0.80 Test Piece 2 40.3 25.00 22.70 20.00 6.40 9.90 1.20 Test Piece 3 46.50 35.50 32.00 25.00 9.07 14.00 1.60 Test Piece 4 80.6 50.00 45.00 40.00 16.50 19.70 2.40
Note: The metric dimensions are not all direct conversions of the dimensions in inches from Table 5-3.
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No tolerances have been given, but it is more important to accurately measure the critical dimensions, particularly D and E, rather than to machine them exactly to the values specified. It is also important to ensure that the parallel length is consistent in width and that it does not vary along its length by more than 0.03 mm. The test pieces should be machined to a fairly good surface finish, with care taken to ensure that the transition radii blend into the parallel length and there is no undercutting. The marking of the gauge length is important, as small errors can make a large difference on small dimensions. The most practical method of marking the gauge length is to mark the area of the gauge marks with a broad felt-tip marker pen, set dividers to the relevant dimension, and lightly scratch the gauge marks in the black felt-tip pen marks. For accurate dimensioning, the distance between the gauge marks can be measured with a traveling microscope before and after the test; alternatively, use can be made of the stage measuring facility on a standard microscope. 5.11.3 Tensile Test Procedure The test conditions should, where possible, be standardized and the test carried out using calibrated equipment. The test temperature should be between 18 and 25C. The strain rate is less important than with lead and lead alloy sheaths, and because the samples are generally smaller and have less ductility, the duration of the test is not lengthy. The use of the same strain rate as that used for lead and lead alloy sheaths, namely 1015 mm/min, is acceptable. As tensile test samples from the plumbed wipe tend to be short, there is no need to mark intermediate gauge lengths at 5-mm intervals as recommended in Section 4.11.4. In the record of the results, the diameter of the test piece should be documented, together with the maximum load, the ultimate tensile stress, the gauge length used, and the percentage elongation. It is good practice to record the location of the break with respect to the gauge marks. The use of the terms BOGL (broke outside gauge length) and BOMHGL (broke outside mean half of gauge length) is recommended, together with a description of the nature of the break. This would entail a brief note stating ductile failure with necking or brittle failure and discolored surfaces. The presence of other defects on the fractured surface, such as any porosity, inclusions, or dross, should also be recorded. No specific figures for the tensile strength of plumbed wipes are provided in this report, as the values vary according to the alloy compositions used, the amount of heating involved, and the orientation of the sample with respect to the axis of the cable. Typical values for solders would be in the range 4865 MPa (69609430 psi). As with hardness tests, there may be a very slight reduction in tensile strength with time. This reduction is likely to occur within the first few days after the plumbed wipe was made. Given the variations in results due to other factors, it is most unlikely that the decrease would be detected in production samples.
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5.13 Defects in Plumbed Wipes

5.13.1 General Remarks In comparison to faults and defects in lead and lead alloy sheaths, faults in plumbed wipes are relatively infrequent. Problems that do occur in plumbed wipes generally result from one of two sourcesfaulty plumbing, which includes tinning defects, or service conditionsor a combination of both. In the case of faulty plumbing, defects in the wipe are more likely to be found on the underside of the wipe, where accessibility and visibility during the construction of the wipe is limited and difficult in some instances. It is important to be specific as to the cause of the defect in a plumbed wipe. It has frequently been reported that water ingress was the cause of failure. While this may be the cause of the final electrical breakdown, it is more likely that water ingress has occurred because some prior fault developed and permitted the water to enter the cable. It is the correct identification of this prior fault that is required. 5.13.2 Problems with Plumbing Metals It is very occasionally reported from sites that a batch of plumbing metal bars, straps, or sticks are dry, are chalky, or melt off in lumps. Many of these claims are unjustified and occur due to poor practice, incorrect application of heat, or an unsuitable torch flame. There is, however, a condition that may be experienced with some bars of plumbing metal that melt off in lumps. This is caused by a condition known as coring and occurs in bars where coarse grain structure (large grain sizes) exists due to slow cooling. As the cast bar solidifies, the composition of the grain changes from the center of each grain to the grain boundary, where the constituents with lower melting temperatures are the last to solidify. When plumbing, the lower-melting material at the edge of the grains melts first, and the plumbing metal appears to melt off the stick in a lumpy manner. This problem is overcome by the manufacturer of the plumbing metal adding 1015 ppm of sulfur to the melt prior to casting the bars. The sulfur acts as a grain refiner, resulting in a fine grain size. Bars of plumbing metal made by extruding strip from billets are unlikely to exhibit this problem. Modern continuous casting techniques using chilled molds and a fast cooling rate provide a fine grain structure. To examine the grain size of plumbing metal, a transverse section is usually taken, mounted in a cold-setting epoxy resin, and prepared in accordance with the procedures detailed in Section 5.4. The microstructure of a slowly cooled plumbing alloy will have a coarse-structure color gradation from the center to the edge of the larger grains, indicating compositional differences within the grain. It is sometimes claimed that during the plumbing operation the tin separates or melts out of the plumbed wipe. If this were true, a simple tin refining technique would have been invented! Pure lead melts at 327C, pure tin melts at 232C, and the plumbed wipe, depending on the alloy, starts to melt at 183C and is fully molten at about 250C. Once the lead and tin are mixed, it is not possible for the two metals to separate. It is more likely that some overheating has occurred 5-25
in part of the plumb, and in wiping the plumb, the pasty metal has been wiped aside and some molten alloy has been pushed or wiped to the surface and dripped off. 5.13.3 Tinning Defects Tinning faults are self-evident from both their position and shape. Because they are tinning defects they are very close to the lead sheath or the sleeve, and their shape is identical to that of the sheath or sleeve. They may be straight or curved, depending on whether they are viewed from the longitudinal or transverse direction, and may be partial splits or complete delamination of the plumb from the tinning or the tinning from the sheath. One or both of the opposite faces of the mating surfaces may be discolored gray to black due to dewetting of the tinning and associated oxidation. Alternatively, the mating faces may be bright and fairly shiny due to lack of fusion resulting from insufficient heating to melt and bond the tinning to the sheath or sleeve or the plumbing metal to the tinning. While not strictly a tinning defect, it may be evident that the plumbing metal has not been fused or bonded to the lead packing. The plumbed metal should be bonded (fused or melted) into the outer edges of the lead packing. If the plumbing metal lifts away from the lead packing or shows impressions of some or all of the packing or no impressions of the packing, then it has not bonded, and this is not acceptable. Dewetting This is a condition that can occur infrequently in the tinned layer and has been reported in the initial plumbing layer on the lead or lead alloy sheath or sleeve. As the tinned layer, which has apparently bonded well to the sheath or sleeve, is remelted, it appears to withdraw from the surface it was applied to and dewet. This phenomenon is believed to be associated with the formation of complex tin oxides and leaves a dark gray discoloration on the tinned surface. When this is observed, the wipe is cleaned down and the surfaces reprepared and retinned. It is also possible for dewetting to occur unnoticed. 5.13.4 Plumbing Defects The plumbing process requires the end of a stick of plumbing metal to be heated and, when semimolten, deposited onto the hot tinned sheath. A number of these deposits of plumbing metal are applied before the wiping commences. The wipe is progressively built up by a process of depositing and wiping while maintaining the temperature to keep the wipe in a semiplastic condition. The wiping process works or kneads the successively applied layers of plumbing metal into a cohesive mass and can introduce a number of defects, such as laminations, porosity, and inclusions, into the wipe. Most plumbing defects will occur on the underside of the wipe, where access and visibility is limited. The examination should seek and record information on the following defects.
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Porous Cavities These are cavities in the plumbed wipe that are globular in nature but may be spherical or oval in shape. Their surfaces are usually smooth and clean, but may contain residues of the sample grinding and polishing stages. These cavities result from air, gas fumes, or even water being trapped in the wipe. Small isolated pores or groups of porous cavities are acceptable, but large cavities and strings of cavities are not acceptable, particularly if they provide a potential path from the inside of the sleeve to the outside. Inclusions Inclusions are matter that becomes trapped in the plumbed wipetypically, dross and oxides. They will be present as short films or as longer, elongated cavities containing an apparently powdery gray or black material, possibly associated with fine spheres of plumbing metal within the plumbed wipe and following the contours of the wiping. The inclusions can also be pieces of paper insulation or other debris picked up from the ground that have been included in the wipe. Because of the manner in which the plumbed wipe is made, some inclusions of dross and oxides can be toleratedbut only a few, of small size and remote from interfaces with the sleeve or the sheaths. Any other materials included in the wipe, or any inclusions of significant length, must be rejected. Laminations Laminations can occur within the plumbed wipe and are a lack of bonding between the layer being wiped and the part built plumbed. The lack of bonding can result from oxidation, low temperature of the partially built plumb, or fine contamination. Laminations appear as fine, usually smooth fissures in the plumbed wipe and are curved in the same contour as the wipe. The laminations can be contained within the plumbed wipe but under stress can propagate and provide a path for the ingress of water. One or two short-length laminations may be acceptable, but laminations are an indication of a plumbed wipe possibly made with insufficient heat and should generally be rejected. Lack of Bond A lack of bond (as distinct from a lamination) occurs between plumbed wipe and the tinning on either the sleeve or the sheaths, or more usually, the lead packing. Like laminations, it can be caused by contamination of one of the surfaces or an insufficient temperature such that when metal is wiped over the chilled surface it replicates the shape but does not form a bond. The result is a fine, smooth gap at the interface between the two surfaces. Care must be taken to differentiate between a lack of bond at an interface between the plumb and the sleeve or the sheath and an absence of plumbing metal in a corner of the wipe. A lack of bonding can be caused by dewetting of the tinned layer (see above). A common site for an absence of bonding occurs at the lead strip packing, where plumbing metal is wiped against the edge of the cold packing and solidifies before it bonds to the packing. If the plumbing metal is not pushed into the corner between the lead strip and the sheath or sleeve, it could be described as lack of bond 5-27
length. A lack of bonding can act as a stress concentration, and when subjected to stress the defect will propagate and seriously weaken the integrity of the joint and the cable. A minimum bond length should be established and any evidence of a lack of bonding be regarded as a serious weakness.
5.14 Service Failures

5.14.1 General Remarks It is unusual for faults to develop in soundly made plumbed wipes and joints/repair sleeves that are made from thicker lead and sometimes from harder antimonial lead. It is more usual for faults to develop in the lead sheath adjacent to the plumbed wipe, where the structure has been prestrained in handling and then annealed in the plumbing process. For the sake of convenience, within this discussion the lead sheath close to the joint/repair sleeve will be considered as part of the joint. 5.14.2 Slow Bending In both joining cables and making repairs, the ends of both cables are raised to facilitate access. On completion of the work, the cables should be placed back onto the ground, the bottom of the ducts, or their supports, or back into their original positions. If this is not possible, the cables should be resupported with a cement-bound sand mix. The cables should not be left suspended and in a position where slow straining can occur. If slow straining does occur, the sheath adjacent to the plumbed wipe will start to develop transverse intergranular cracks, because it is the weakest part of the system. Where large, single-core conductors exist, they can transfer the bending strain onto the plumbed wipe. When these bending stresses are imposed on the wipe, the first evidence of straining is a shallow transverse groove on the apex of the wipe. Local necking of the wipe due to the bending stress causes this groove. Alternatively, fine transverse intergranular cracks may develop on the plumbed wipe, particularly if its dimensions are minimal. Bending of cable joints can also occur where two cables are joined or a repair sleeve has been fitted in the middle of an unsupported length of cable. In this instance, the increased mass of the sleeve causes the cable to sag, and cracking occurs on the top of the sheath at the edge of the support and also on the underside of the cable at the lead alloy sheath/plumbed wipe interface. Another common location of slow bending failure is at cable terminations. In these circumstances the weight of the unsupported length of cable imposes a slow bending stress on the sheath and the plumbed wipe, and both will be subjected to slow bending. Transverse cracking will occur on the outer radius of curvature of the bend and in the component with the relatively higher strain. The fitting of a repair sleeve without providing adequate support will predispose the repair to an early failure in the same mode.
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5.14.3 Tensile Failure Tensile failure is a fairly unusual occurrence in plumbed wipes but occurs more often in the adjacent lead alloy sheath. The circumstances and causes are related. Two sample cases of known failures are described below. In one instance, downward movement of a length of single-core cable, due to subsidence of the ground and troughs in which it was installed, imposed a tensile stress on the cable. Some movement of the lead alloy sheath relative to the insulation and conductor occurred, tightening the grip of the sheath on the insulated conductors and pulling the conductor and joining ferrules into the cable. When the conductor joint became wedged in the end of the cable, it transferred the tensile pull to the uphill plumbed wipe, which commenced to yield and crack. The other instance was in a substation where the cable was supported in a vertical run with wooden cleats. The cable had, over a period of time, slipped approximately 1015 mm down through the cleats, slightly creasing the PVC sheathing above the cleats. This imposed a tensile load on the joint sleeve and plumbed wipe, resulting in annular necking of the plumbed wipe, which was visible at an early stage because it was not insulated adjacent to the indoor sealing ends. It was possible that the cleats had not been fully tightened during installation, but it was more likely that the wooden cleats had been fitted wet and had dried out in the warm environment, becoming slack and failing to properly grip the cable. 5.14.4 Cyclic Loading This problem is sometime referred to as cyclic bending or thermal cycling; these terms are valid, but the primary cause is cyclic loading that results in the cyclic bending or thermal cycling. When a cable is on load, it expands both radially and longitudinally; the radial expansion is negligible but the longitudinal expansion can be significant. Normally, the linear expansion is accommodated by slightly snaking the cable during installation or by letting the cable snake naturally. When the cable comes off load it cools and contracts, returning more or less to its original position. In practice, some ducts and troughs become overfilled with cables and joints and natural snaking is prevented. Another problem, experienced particularly with railway trackside cables laid in ground-level covered troughs, apart from additional cables installed in the troughs, is the ingress of trackside grit and earth. When the ducts and troughs become filled, the natural sideways snaking of the cable is prevented, and to accommodate the expansion, the cable bends upwards. On cooling, the cable attempts to return to its original position and is progressively prevented by the further ingress of dirt or the movement of other cables. The problem becomes more acute in long straight runs of cable where linear expansion is prevented by overfilling and becomes concentrated at bends or changes in the direction of the route. The presence of a joint or repair sleeve can provide this slight change in direction, particularly if the joint or sleeve is installed on top of existing cables.
5-29
With cyclic loading, the radius of curvature of the local bend expands and contracts, resulting in transverse intergranular cracking on the outer and inner radius of the bend. The cracking will be more pronounced on the outer radius of curvature and can be located on the top of the lead alloy sheath at the junction with the plumbed wipe. The cyclic bending can be acute and can dislodge tiles from the troughing and facilitate the ingress of more dirt. 5.14.5 Corrosion It is more likely that corrosion will occur in sleeves and plumbed wipes than in lead and lead alloy sheaths. This is not so much due to the different compositions or possibly different environments as it is to the fact that hand-applied protection is difficult to apply over a plumbed wipe, is thinner than factory-extruded protection, is applied in layers, and is more prone to damage. In a duct, the sleeve will create a larger barrier and tend to retain more water and debris and therefore be exposed to the corrosive environment for longer. The different types of corrosion encountered on plumbed wipes and sleeves will be the same as those likely to occur on lead and lead alloy sheaths. Without repeating all of the details found in Section 5.7, some review of the various forms of corrosion that could be encountered is provided below. Coarse grain structures, such as those that will exist in the sheaths, sleeves, and wipes close to plumbed wipes, will be more susceptible to corrosion than finer grain structures. It should be noted, however, that fine grain structures in lead alloy sheaths have a greater propensity to recrystalize and grow than coarse grain structures. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that in general, coarse grain structures have a poorer resistance to corrosion than fine grain structures. Furthermore, areas of the sheath, sleeve, or wipe where access to oxygen (air) is restricted, such as under extruded servings or more likely under damaged hand-applied servings, will be anodic relative to areas where free access to oxygen exists. Metal dissolution occurs at these anodic areas and will be the site of corrosion pitting; this process is referred to as differential oxygenation potential or DOP. Static or cyclic stress imposed on a sheath, sleeve, or plumbed wipe subjected to a corrosive environment will greatly accelerate the rate of corrosion. Given the above factors, the differences in the compositions of the various lead alloys used for sheaths, sleeves, and plumbed wipes are unlikely to significantly affect the rate of corrosion. It was reported that in one instance that corrosion of a plumbed wipe occurred by preferential attack of the eutectic matrix, leaving the wipe porous but still apparently intact. This is possible, and in fact was confirmed by photographic evidence. The environment was believed to be a dilute organic acid, and the effect was similar to the dezincification of brass. The environments that are liable to result in the corrosion of lead alloys are extensive. Corrosion of lead and lead alloys will occur with higher concentrations of most inorganic acids, particularly at elevated temperatures. Fortunately, it is unlikely that these acids will be encountered on site, other than in very dilute forms, and there are many other site materials that would react with these acids before they came into contact with lead alloys. Most weak organic acids in the presence of air or organic oxidants will attack lead and lead alloys. Similarly, rotting vegetation, frequently the source of some organic acids on site, will also attack unprotected lead and lead alloys. The phenolic corrosion, or more correctly the compounding corrosion, of lead was 5-30
mentioned in Section 4.13.5. This corrosion is unlikely to be found on joining sleeves and plumbed wipes, as the jute servings would have been removed for joining purposes and replaced with several layers of self-adhesive or self-amalgamating insulating tape. The evidence indicates that alkali compounds and ammonia in concentrations greater than 1220% and at elevated temperatures are likely to attack lead and lead alloys. Corrosion of bare lead and lead alloys in soil will occur if the pH is above 10. Calcium carbonate will strongly attack unprotected lead and lead alloys, and for this reason lead and its alloys should not be brought into contact with fresh mortar, cement, or concrete. Water that has drained through fresh concrete or cement will, in the presence of air, behave similarly. Additions to accelerate the setting of concrete will also accelerate the corrosion of lead and its alloys. Water will corrode lead, but this requires the presence of oxygen. The process has been demonstrated using distilled water containing air. Soft water containing air will also corrode lead. The presence of carbon dioxide in the air can inhibit the corrosion process by forming lead carbonates, but there is a complex reaction between water, carbon dioxide, and calcium from the ground and limestone that can produce carbonic acid, which will dissolve lead. Water that does not produce calcium carbonate will also corrode lead and its alloys. It therefore follows that alkaline waters are less aggressive than acid waters. As mentioned in Section 4.13.5, there are two basic types of biological corrosion. One type involves anaerobic bacteria, which require little or no oxygen in their metabolic process. The other type involves aerobic bacteria, which require oxygen. Both types can cause corrosion. The most important anaerobic bacteria are sulfate-reducing bacteria that reduce sulfate to sulfide according to the reaction SO42- + 4H2 S2- + 4H2O. The H2 can be evolved by the corrosion reaction or can be derived from decaying vegetation, cellulose, or sugars in the soil. This corrosion usually occurs in wet clays, marshes, and stagnant estuaries. The visual indication of this corrosion attack is usually a dense black discoloration of the plumbed wipe. The aerobic bacteria is capable of oxidizing elemental sulfur or sulfur-bearing compounds to form dilute sulfuric acid, to which lead and tin are fairly resistant. The stray direct current corrosion attack of lead and lead alloys was also briefly discussed in 4.13.5. As a reminder, it is important to appreciate that besides tram systems, which are a common source of potential stray direct current, there are many other sources. These include boat marinas, standby power systems used in automatic telephone exchanges and networked computer systems, and impressed current corrosion protection schemes. It has been reported that induced voltages from high-voltage power distribution systems have been rectified to direct current by the aluminum oxide on aluminum-sheathed cables, resulting in the initiation of corrosion in adjacent lead alloy sheathed cables. Water Ingress Water ingress into a low- or medium-voltage cable usually results in the imminent failure of the cable and is frequently reported as the reason for the failure. This may be true, but it is not the initial cause of the failure, as the water should not have entered the cable in the first place. Water can only enter a cable system if the cables protection has been compromised or has failed. It is therefore important that the origin of the water ingress is found and the cause of the leak 5-31
identified. For example, it would be more accurate to state that slow bending occurred, with the development of transverse cracking in the tinned area on top of the cables sheath, adjacent to the plumbed wipe, permitting the ingress of water, and subsequent electrical failure. In other words, the failure was caused by slow bending of the cable.
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COPPER FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
This section outlines the production of copper for use as an electrical conductor and identifies some of the problems that can occur and give rise to service faults. The following primary subsections are presented: 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Copper as an Electrical Conductor Manufacturing of Copper Conductors Properties of Copper Conductors Faults and Defects in Copper Conductors
6.1 Copper as an Electrical Conductor

Copper has been used for the manufacture of the vast majority of power conductors since 1879, mainly because of its electrical properties but also for its cost and relative ease of production. Europes first power station was opened in 1883, with its output being carried by underground cable. Copper is still being used and being developed to improve its electrical conductivity. Table 6-1 compares some of the metals used for electrical conductors.
Table 6-1 Electrical Properties of Some Common Metals Metal Silver High-conductivity copper, annealed High-conductivity copper, hard-drawn Tinned copper Electrical conductivity aluminum, annealed Electrical conductivity aluminum, half hard/hard Sodium Mild steel Lead Relative Conductivity (Annealed Copper = 100) 106 100 97 9599 61 5960 Electrical Resistivity at 20C, Ohm m x 10-8 1.626 1.724 1.777 1.7411.814 2.803 2.8442.826 Temperature Coefficient of Resistance, per C 0.0041 0.0039 0.0039 0.0039 0.0040 0.0040
35 12 8
4.926 13.80 21.4
0.0054 0.0045 0.0040
6-1
EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors
There are a number of different coppers in use; most are oxygen-containing coppers such as electrolytic tough pitch copper, either Cu-ETP1, Cu-ETP, or fire refined high-conductivity copper (Cu-FRHC). These coppers have a minimum specified electrical conductivity of 100% at 20C and will contain some oxygen, normally between 100 and 300 ppm. Oxygen-free coppers (Cu-OF) are designated as such by test and will contain some oxygen, usually less than 20 ppm; while suitable for cable conductors, they are made in significantly smaller quantities. Oxygen-free coppers are used for wave-guides, electronics, and through glass conductors such as light bulbs. Sodium was included in Table 6-1 because it was used as an electrical conductor with the first patent filed in 1905. In the 1960s, interest in sodium as an electrical conductor reawakened in both the United States and the United Kingdom, with the development of polyethylene for electrical insulation. The term tough pitch goes back to cast copper ingots and wire bars that had a smooth, level set cast surface like cold bitumen (pitch), which occurred when the oxygen content had been reduced to less than 0.03% or 300 ppm. The following discussion provides a brief outline of the production of copper rod and wire for electrical conductors for low- and medium-voltage cables. For completeness, typical values for the other properties of copper are shown in Table 6-2.
Table 6-2 Other Typical Properties of High-Conductivity Coppers Property Coefficient of thermal expansion/C x10-6 at 20C Melting point Thermal conductivity Ultimate tensile stress Annealed Half hard/hard Elongation on 200 mm gauge length Annealed Half hard/hard Hardness Annealed Half hard/hard Elastic modulus Fatigue stress endurance limit at 108 cycles C W/cm C MPa 245 350415 % 3035 23 HV 50 75105 MPa MPa 26 65 Units Value 17 1083 3.8
6-2
6.1.1 Production of Continuously Cast Copper Rod Most of the copper used today is from solvent-extracted electrowon cathode copper deposits, a small amount is from mined ore using flotation techniques, and some is from recycled scrap. Using a series of concentration processes, including froth flotation, the crude copper is cast into anodes. The anodes are electroplated onto starter sheets, which electrolytically refines the copper to form high-purity cathode copper sheets, known as Cu-Cath-1. The cathode copper is charged into the top of a vertical shaft furnace, where it is melted under a balanced gas/air mixture. The molten copper emerges from the bottom of the furnace under gas cover and, via a holding furnace, into a tundish where the rate of casting is carefully controlled by a tapered pin. Currently there are two types of large-capacity continuous casters in commercial use. One is a development of the Properzi wheel caster known as the Southwire cast rod process, and the other is the Hazelett twin-belt caster. The emerging cast bar from the Southwire process is roughly V-shaped with the base removed, and the bar is rectangular and approximately 55 x 120 mm. Both continuously cast bars have cross sections of approximately 6600 mm2 (10.2 in2), and are cast at 1135C and at rates of up to 85 metric tons per hour. At the end of the caster the corners of the bar are shaved to remove casting belt flashes. The cast bar is water quenched when cast and as it emerges from the caster. The bar passes through flying shears and a homogenizing oven to enter the rolling mill. Depending on the size of the cast bar and the final rod diameter required, up to 13 alternate horizontal and vertical pairs of shaped rolling stands reduce the cast bar to 8-mm diameter rod at approximately 580C. The remaining oxide on the rod is either removed by in-line sulfuric acid pickling or reduced with alcohol and cooled to 65C. The rod is coated with a very thin film of preservative wax and wound into normally 3.5- to 5-metric ton coils at a rate of 5 metric tons every 812 minutes or 1525 feet/second. The designation of the most commonly made copper rod is Cu-ETP1. Other, less pure coppers (see Table 6-7 in Section 6.1.5) are also made by these processes and similar processes. All have 100% minimum electrical conductivity. The sizes of continuously cast rod that are normally produced are shown in Table 6-3.
Table 6-3 Common Sizes of Continuously Cast Copper Rod Rod Size, mm 8.0 9.5, 10.0 12.5, 13.0 Equivalents in Inches 0.315 0.374, 0.394 0.492, 0.512 5/16 3/8 1/2
For wire drawing, 8 mm is the preferred rod size; the other sizes are used for shaped and segmental conductors used in higher-voltage cables and fluid-filled cables and large-section transformer windings.
6-3
6.1.2 Properties of Continuously Cast Copper Rod In addition to specifying the properties of 8-mm Cu-ETP1 rod, the current European Standard BS EN 1977:1998 also specifies the sampling rate for testing. This is in recognition of the fact that the production of the rod is continuous and that it only has to be cut for convenient packaging into coils for dispatch. Tests and testing rates are listed in Table 6-4.
Table 6-4 Specified Tests and Testing Rates of Cu-ETP1 Continuously Cast Copper Rod Property Diameter Elongation Tensile strength Oxygen Conductivity Analysis Annealability or Spiral elongation Specified Requirement BS EN 1977:1998 8.016 0.4 mm 30% on 200 mm gauge length Not specified but <260 MPa 400 ppm maximum 101% at 20C minimum 20 specified elements, 65 ppm maximum 350 minimum Sampling Rate Minimum Every 60 metric tons Every 500 metric tons Not specified Every 60 metric tons Every 200 metric tons Every 500 metric tons Every 200 metric tons Typical Every coil 1 coil in 25 1 coil in 25 1 coil in 5 or less 1 coil in 25 1 coil in 25 1 coil in 50
In practice, most manufacturers of Cu-ETP1 copper rod test more frequently, particularly for oxygen. The annealability of Cu-ETP1 copper or spiral elongation test is specified in BS EN 12893:2000. This is a test for assessing the ability of the copper to anneal at low temperatures after a specified amount of cold work, and is intended for transformer windings. The specified chemical analysis of Cu-ETP1 in BS EN 1977:1998 is shown in Table 6-5.
6-4
EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors Table 6-5 Chemical Composition of Cu-ETP1 Copper Element Bismuth Selenium Tellurium Arsenic Cadmium Chromium Manganese Phosphorus Antimony Lead Sulfur Cobalt Iron Nickel Silicon Tin Zinc Oxygen Silver Bi Se Te As Cd Cr Mn P Sb Pb S Co Fe Ni Si Sn Zn O Ag Individual Maximum, ppm 2 2 2 5 4 5 15* 10 400 25 400 25 20 5 15 65 excluding oxygen 15 Group Maximum, ppm 2 3 3
*Note: With some currently available solvent-extracted coppers, the presence of sulfur in excess of 10 ppm, particularly when lead is present, has been found to adversely affect the annealability of the copper.
The chemical composition of Cu-OF1 is identical to that of Cu-ETP1 except that oxygen is not specified. Other tests carried out on the rod by the manufacturer will include the following: Reverse twist and twist-to-failure tests to assess the surface quality of every coil Surface oxide test using the Popps Hennessey test twice daily to assess the surface oxides
These and other tests are carried out to assess the surface quality of the rod and grade it for specific uses that require top surface quality, fine wire drawability, etc. 6-5
In terms of general quality, the copper rod used for the production of power cable conductors is not always rod with the best surface quality or rod that is selected for its drawability to fine wire sizes. In fact, the copper rod frequently used for drawing copper wire for power cable conductors is usually unsuitable for other, more critical applications. The rod may have more than 400 ppm of oxygen and be designated Cu-ETP but still have a conductivity greater than 101% at 20C. (The chemical compositions of other high-conductivity coppers used for power cable conductors are given in Table 6.7 in Section 6.1.5.) 6.1.3 Copper Wire Drawing A coil of rod is placed behind the rod drawing machine and the top end passed over a goal post to allow the turns to drop out and via a kink detector and straightening rolls into a rod drawing machine. The bottom end of the rod coil is available, so either flash butt or cold pressure welding can join it to the top end of the next coil. Rod drawing machines are usually single-line machines; however, twin-line machines (that is, one machine drawing two rods at the same time to the same size, through two sets of dies and capstans on the same spindles) are now commonplace. Most of the dies are synthetic polycrystalline dies, sometimes with a tungsten carbide die at the start to accommodate shock loads and welds, and a natural diamond finishing die. The drafting of the die set must be matched to the slip characteristics of the drawing machine and the relative speeds of the capstans. The dies will have specific profiles, are highly polished, and depending on their composition, will have finite lives. The capstans are ceramic and highly polished. The drawing operation is carried out fully submerged in an approximately 1012% water soluble synthetic oil emulsion. As the rod is drawn through successive dies, it is reduced in diameter and its speed increases. The peripheral speed of the capstans pulling the wire through the die must run slightly faster than the wire speed to generate slip and therefore grip. Sintered tungsten carbide dies wear out more quickly, but are cheaper and easier to refurbish. A rotating diamond die may be used for the final size to provide a smoother and more polished finish. The typical size reductions achieved in an 11 or 13 die machine are 8 mm down to 1 mm at speeds of 2540 meters/second finished wire size. The output from the rod drawing machine can be in one of two conditions, either hard-drawn or annealed. In the hard-drawn condition, the wire passes over the annealer and directly into the spooling units via a tension controller. It is more usual to anneal the wire, which, after passing through the tension controller, enters the in-line annealing unit where it is heated in an enclosed inert environment to a sufficient temperature to soften it. The wire is cooled and passes into the coiler, where it is wound onto a variety of steel spools of 250 to 1000 kg capacities. When one spool is filled with wire, the wire feed is cut and automatically transferred to a second empty spool that is rotating at the correct speed to receive the wire. With twin-rod drawing, a duplicate take-up spooler is necessary. The complete drawing, annealing, and spooling operation is, like the casting process, continuous and only stops if the machine is switched off, the rod supply runs out, or a wire drawing break occurs.
6-6
6.1.4 Tinned Copper Wire In old, natural-rubber-insulated plain copper conductor cables, blackening of the copper occurred due to the sulfur in the unvulcanized rubber. To overcome the sulfide staining, the copper was coated by hot dipping with tin, which did not discolor in the presence of sulfide. When tinned copper wire is required today, the old hot-tinning process has been replaced with electrotinning. The normal input to the electrotinning process is annealed plain copper wire of approximately 1.322.62 mm diameters. In the electroplating line the wire is degreased and pickled in methane sulfuric acid, which is also used as the electrolyte for plating the tin from high-purity tin anodes onto the wire. (There are three tin thicknesses given in BS EN 13602:2002 A, B, and C, respectively: 0.3 m, 0.6 m, and unspecified.) The tinned wire, and plain wire, can then frequently be redrawn to very fine sizes, such as 0.064 mm, in two more drawing operations. The tinned coating as plated is light gray in color, can be slightly rough and dusty on a microscopic scale, and is a protective finish to prevent discoloration of the copper and will have no claims to solderability. 6.1.5 Properties of Copper Wire The properties of copper wire are specified in BS EN 13602:2002 and relate only to wire as supplied, not to wire samples removed from a stranded conductor. This is because manufacturing the conductor will affect the properties of the wire. The requirement for diameter tolerance in the size range from 0.4 mm up to and including 5.0 mm is 1.0% for the mean diameter, with a maximum of 2% for circularity. Other properties are dependent on size, tinning, and the type of drawing machine, namely single wire or multiline machine. Multiline wire-drawing machines are intermediate or fine wire-drawing machines drawing 2, 4, 8, 12, or 16 wires to usually from <0.2 mm to >0.04 mm at the same time; they are not used for power cable conductors. Some of the information from the tables in BS EN 13602, specifying the relevant mechanical properties of the variously processed wires used, is summarized in Table 6-6.
6-7
EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors Table 6-6 The Mechanical Properties of Plain and Tinned Copper Wire Drawn on a Single-Line or Twin-Line Rod Drawing Machine Sizes, mm Condition Plain Wire Tensile Strength, MPa Minimum (200) (200) (200) (200) (200) 460 440 430 420 400 Elongation, % on 200 mm Gauge Length, Minimum 22 24 26 28 32 Tinned Wire Tensile Strength, MPa, Minimum (200) (200) (200) (200) (200) 460 440 430 420 400 Elongation, % on 200 mm Gauge Length, Minimum 20 22 24 26 31 -
Less Than
Up to and Including
Annealed
0.32 0.50 1.00 1.50 3.00
0.50 1.00 1.50 3.00 5.0 1.12 1.50 2.00 2.40 3.00
Hard-drawn
0.16 1.12 1.50 2.00 2.40
Note: The figures in parentheses are for guidance only and are not mandatory. Minimum elongation values are specified for annealed wires, and tensile strengths are specified for hard-drawn wires.
The chemical composition of the wire will be the same as that of the rod discussed in Section 6.1.2. However, it is possible that coppers of other compositions may be used for manufacturing wire for use in power cable conductors. These coppers could be Cu-OF1, Cu-OF (although most unlikely), and Cu-ETP or Cu-FRHC. The composition of the Cu-OF1 is the same as that of Cu-ETP1 except that the oxygen content is not specified but has to be controlled by the manufacturer to a sufficiently low value that it passes the hydrogen embrittlement test. The compositions of the other coppers are summarized in Table 6-7.
6-8
EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors Table 6-7 Chemical Composition of Other High-Conductivity Copper Wire Likely to Be Used for Power Cable Conductors Composition % Copper Type Copper 99.90 99.90 99.95 Bismuth 0.0005 0.0005 Oxygen 0.040 0.040 Lead 0.005 0.005 Other Elements Total 0.03 0.04 0.03 Ag Ag, O Excluding Ag, O
Cu-ETP Cu-FRHC Cu-OF
Min Max Min Max Min Max
Silver is counted as copper in these analyses. In Cu-ETP and Cu-FRHC, oxygen up to 600 ppm is permitted by agreement. The total other elements with the exception of Cu shall be the same as in Cu-ETP1. In Cu-OF, no oxygen is specified, but as in Cu-OF1, a requirement to pass the hydrogen embrittlement test is specified. The electrical properties of these coppers are dependent on temperature, diameter, condition, and tin coating and are listed in Table 6-8.
Table 6-8 Electrical Properties of All High-Conductivity Copper Wire Including Cu-OF1, Cu-OF, Cu-ETP1, Cu-ETP, and Cu-FRHC (20C) Diameter, mm Over Up to and Including 1.50 5.0 Condition Volume Resistivity x mm2/m Max Plain copper wire 0.32 1.50 Annealed Hard-drawn Annealed Hard-drawn 0.01724 0.01493 0.01724 0.01776 0.1533 0.1594 0.1533 0.1579 58.0 55.8 58.0 56.3 100.0 96.2 100.0 97.1 Mass Resistivity x g/m2 Max Conductivity MS/m Min % IACS Min
Tinned copper wire with either unspecified or >0.3 to < 0.6m of tin coating 0.32 1.50 1.50 5.0 Annealed Hard-drawn Annealed Hard-drawn 0.01741 0.01811 0.01741 0.01793 0.1548 0.1610 0.1548 0.1594 57.4 55.2 57.4 55.8 99.0 95.2 99.0 96.2
6-9
The following comments pertain to Table 6-8: The electrical properties of all coppers are specified at 20C. If the property is determined at some other temperature, then that temperature must be accurately measured to the nearest 0.5C and a correction factor applied. The location of the correction factors will either be at the back of the relevant standard or the standard will indicate where it is recorded. Mass resistivity is calculated using a density of 8.89 g/cm3. The density of copper is specified as 8.89g/cm3. The density of copper depends on the impurities and oxygen present in the copper, with current refining techniques these are very low and the true or technical density of copper is 8.932 0.004 g/cm3. In the International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), it is stated that copper with a volume resistivity of 0.01724 .m at 20C is defined as corresponding to a conductivity of 100%. With Cu-ETP1, and to a lesser extent, Cu-ETP, it is possible to achieve conductivity values up to 102%.
6.2 Manufacturing of Copper Conductors

Copper conductors, regardless of their size, are made on a stranding machine in a predetermined pattern. The pattern consists of a center wire around which six wires of the same size are placed to form the first layer. Around these seven wires are placed an additional 12 wires, again of the same size, to form the second layer, and if necessary another layer of 18 wires is added. Hence, a conductor is made up of the numbers of wires shown in Table 6-9.
Table 6-9 The Construction of Stranded Copper Conductors Layer Number of wires Total number of wires Center 1 1 First 6 7 Second 12 19 Third 18 37 Fourth 24 61 Fifth 30 91 Sixth 36 127
In some of the compacted sector and segmental conductors, the center wire may be left out. The stranding machine has a number of carriages on which the spools of wire are mounted. The first carriage will take a minimum of six spools of wire, the second carriage will hold a minimum of twelve spools, and so on. The single center wire is usually fed from a spool on a stand at the back of the stranding machine. Each carriage will rotate in the opposite direction to the carriage in front, to strand the wires in alternate opposite lays. The wires pass from the spools through guide dies down and along through the center of each carriage to a closure die or rollers that either guide or shape the wires into a conductor. The standard conductor shapes are concentric round, compacted concentric round, compacted sector (3-core) and segmental (4-core). The compaction die or rollers may rotate to pretwist the compacted conductors or to polish the round conductors and remove any burrs. Minimal lubrication may be used, and usually the degree of compaction increases with the number of layers, the outer layers being more compacted than the first layer. The conductor is pulled through the stranding machine by one or a pair of capstan wheels or a caterpillar belt. The strand may be paper-wrapped to keep it clean and is wound onto a wooden drum or steel drums if the conductor is to be batch annealed. 6-10
The stranding and compaction will work-harden the wire and adversely affect the conductivity. If specified, the bare conductor on a steel drum can be annealed in an inert atmosphere or a vacuum. Currently, if annealed wire is used the strand is not annealed. The next stage of cable production is the insulation and laying-up of the conductors, followed either by impregnation with a lead alloy sheathing. 6.2.1 Joining Copper Wires The spools of wire on the stranding machine contain finite lengths of wire, and when one spool of wire is emptied it has to be replaced with a full spool and the ends of the wire joined. These joints, unlike those joining the ends of the copper rod or rejoining broken wires in the drawing process, are not drawn down and will exist as welds in the conductor. Several aspects of joining wire after drawing to final size need to be appreciated. Despite detailed quality procedures, there is less need for the operator to make a good joint for stranding, as the stresses on the wire are less onerous, and provided the wire passes through the stranding machine without breaking there is no perceived problem. Also, when a stranding machine carriage is loaded up with full spools of wire, they all tend to empty at more or less the same time, and some conductors will have a high frequency of joints in a short length or possibly more than the maximum specified. Furthermore, spools are seldom completely emptied, and when a sufficient collection of empty spools has accumulated, the scrap wire is wound off the spools onto an empty spool that becomes filled with a single length of wire containing numerous joints. This is used in the next stranded conductor, usually as the center wire. There are two methods of butt joining copper wire: resistance butt welding, sometimes known as flash butt welding, and cold pressure welding. For resistance butt welding there are probably three sizes of welder, one for welding rod and large wire, one for wire sizes from 14.5 mm, and one for sizes less than 1 mm. These machines require the rod/wire to be prepared with square ends, fully aligned and butted in the jaws of the welder. The weld is made by passing current though the butting ends to heat them to approximately 850C while at the same time applying pressure to force the ends together. The resulting flash has to be removed by filing. Because of the current required and the heat generated, resistance welding machines need frequent maintenance. If poor joints are made, the operator will frequently adjust the controls until an acceptable weld is achieved. In cold pressure welding, the ends of the rod/wire are placed in opposing dies, which tightly grip the wire, forcing the ends together. The ends of the rod/wire are mushroomed outwards, and the interfacial friction welds the ends of the wire together. The dies are designed so that they will also remove the majority of the flash. While the rod welding machines are servo hydraulically operated, the machines for all wire sizes less than 3.5 mm are either pneumatic or hand operated; no electrical current passes through the butting wire ends. No preparation of the wire, apart from degreasing, is required, and minimal effort is usually required to dress the weld. The disadvantage of cold pressure welding is that one set of dies will only grip a small range of wire diameters. Because little dressing of the weld flash is needed, a poorly welded joint is not always detected by the operator handling the weld. 6-11
Breaks can also occur during the stranding operation, usually in the compaction die. While these breaks are detected and it is possible to butt weld the ends together and accommodate the excess wire by manually back-winding the spool, this is very time consuming. The usual procedure for a wire break in any layer except the outer layer is to cut out any kink and tuck the wire end into the strand at the compaction die/roller. More breaks can occur in the outer layer, where greater compaction is carried out. These wire breaks are repaired by splinting the broken wire ends between the two adjacent wires and securing them with solder. Any excess solder or out-ofdiameter wire is dressed down by filing and sandpaper to make a flush repair. As some conductors may be insulated with extruded polyurethane (EPR), extruded polyethylene (XLPE), or other insulators, it is necessary to use a higher melting temperature solder that will not soften in the hot polymer extrusion operation and permit the wire to desolder and spring out of the strand. 6.2.2 Joining Stranded Copper Conductors The oldest technique employed to join stranded copper conductors was the use of weak-back copper ferrules, and in some instances this technique is still used. The ferrules are essentially a thick-walled copper tube, split longitudinally and with an external groove and slot along the opposite side. The wires at the ends of both conductors to be joined are solvent cleaned, and if noncircular, are reformed into a circular shape with gas pliers. Using a basting technique and flux, the ends of both conductors to be joined are tinned with solder. The ferrule is similarly tinned and while still hot the conductor ends are butted inside the ferrule and the ferrule is manually closed and basted again with solder. The assembly is allowed to cool while ensuring that it remains topped up with solder. The joint is allowed to cool to ambient temperature, then cleaned and dressed. These weak-back soldered ferrules will protrude from the conductor. Another technique uses a compression ferrule. These ferrules are annealed thick-walled copper tubes with internal circumferential corrugations, serrations, stepped bores, or plain bores. Again, the ends of the conductors are solvent cleaned, and if not circular are recircularized and butted together inside at the center of the ferrule. Stepped-bore ferrules will require the conductor to be similarly stepped by cutting away the layers of wires at prescribed lengths. The ferrules are then compressed, using a hydraulic press and dies, to a predetermined diameter, depending on the size of the conductor. These ferrules are generally used on larger conductor diameters, and the ferrules are compressed flush with the conductors. There are now available a complete range of compound-filled shaped ferrules and end terminations, into which the conductor ends can be fitted. With the conductor(s) inserted, one or more conical-dome shaped indentations are made into the ferrule and the conductor, to ensure good electrical contact and mechanical strength without the need for soldering and skilled operators. An old technique that was used for joining tramcar and railway lines, called the Thermite welding process, has been improved and is gaining popularity in the cable installation industry. It is now known as the Cadweld process. This process employs reusable graphite dies that are fitted around the conductor. In the dies above the conductor is a chamber with copper foil and a proprietary copper-rich powder and a starter/primer powder. The primer powder is ignited and burns; this initiates an exothermic reaction in the copper powder, which in turn melts. The molten copper melts the foil, runs down into the bottom chamber, and fuses the conductor wires 6-12
into a solid mass within the mold. A run-off for excess molten metal and dross is provided under the mold. Little dressing of the cast joint is required, other than cutting off the header and the run-off underneath the weld.
6.3 Properties of Copper Conductors

It is not possible for cable manufacturers to make cables to precise cross-sectional areas, and each manufacturer selects a wire size based on the specified requirements and the companys manufacturing process. With electrical conductivity usually greater than 101%, the cable manufacturer can use wire close to the minimum diameter tolerance and still meet the electrical resistivity required. Manufacturers therefore adjust their wire sizes and manufacturing processes to keep just below the specified maximum resistance rather than specifying an area. The only significant factor is the electrical resistivity of the conductor. It should be noted that because of the lay, the outer wires in a stranded conductor are longer than the conductors length, and because of the greater compaction, will have an increased resistance. Many cable specifications identify the properties of the materials that are to be used in the construction of the conductor, and with the exception of circular noncompacted stranded conductor and chemical analysis, there are no other tests that can be carried out. Wire from circular noncompacted stranded conductors can be tested for compliance with the tensile or elongation values specified in the relevant wire standard (see Table 6-6). Care should be taken when testing this wire, as flexing and bending during subsequent manufacturing and installation can work harden the wire and reduce its ductility. A conservative estimate of a 23% loss in ductility would be reasonable. Mechanical tests on wires from compacted conductors cannot be performed, because of distortion, compaction, and the impressions from the opposite lay of alternate layers of wire. Measurement of electrical resistivity requires the temperature of the conductor to be accurately determined. It may be difficult to achieve without a Kelvin bridge and oil bath, or may require time to stabilize the conductors temperature before measuring resistivity in a production environment. It is therefore not uncommon for the weight of a length of conductor to be determined, the sample length measured, and the grams per meter value to be used, both as a quick alternative test and for calculating mass resistivity. Although it is not specified, the conductor should be bright and clean. Very occasionally one, some, or all the copper wires in a new cables conductor may be discolored. This discoloration may range from a barely perceptible tarnishing or slight iridescence when one wire is compared to neighboring wires, to a blue or dull brown color and in some cases black. In older cables, some discoloration of the copper conductor may exist if it has been exposed to oxidation. This can be accelerated if the cable has been operating above normal service temperatures. Slight discoloration of wires or the conductor may be undesirable from an aesthetic standpoint, but it should not cause a serious problem even when joining conductors. Intense or deep discoloration along a length of conductor is serious and should be investigated before a circuit is reenergized. It is possible that an electrical fault has caused some overheating and discoloration of the conductor, and it is necessary to establish the cause. 6-13
6.3.1 Testing of Stranded Copper Conductors and Joints The tests specified for stranded copper conductors and joints are limited. Apart from determining the dimensions and mass or weight per meter, the only other significant tests that can be carried out on stranded copper conductors, with and without a joint, are the determination of electrical resistivity and chemical analysis. Care should be taken when testing samples from old cables, as the specified requirement, applicable at the time the cables were manufactured, may have changed in the light of experience and modern practice. Other tests, such as the tensile strength of joints and hardness testing, can be undertaken within limits, and metallographic examination of conductor joints may be found useful. The following notes are provided for guidance. 6.3.2 Dimensions In production, the dimensions of the stranded conductor are usually recorded on a sample at the start and finish of a production run. During the course of the production run, checks will be carried out on conductor while it is on the stranding machine and under some tension. This can provide erroneous results unless the tension is substantially backed off or removed. Alternatively, the dimensions can be measured after the last capstan or caterpillar and before the take-up drum. It is also good practice to use the same sample as the one intended for determining the electrical resistivity. The sample should have copper wire binders or tapes applied at both ends before it is cut from the conductor. The dimensions should be determined first. The dimensions should be recorded at three places along the samples length and not closer than 250 mm from the cut ends. At the three positions, the dimensions of circular conductors, both compacted and noncompacted, should be measured at two positions at right angles to each other and both measurements recorded. The measurements should be made with either a calibrated micrometer or digital calipers reading to two decimal places. On shaped conductors, the principal dimensions are depth and width. The corner radii on the sides and bottom are specified, as is the top radius, but these are difficult to accurately measure. 6.3.3 Weight per Meter This is a simple test, usually employed by the cable maker. It serves as both as a quick check that the correct number and diameter of wires have been employed in the construction of the stranded conductor, and as a source for data to calculate the mass resistivity. It is not a mandatory test but provides useful information when used in conjunction with dimensions and electrical resistivity. It is important that the ends of the copper conductor are cut square. For this, a length of steel angle iron, cut square at both ends, can provide a useful and simple saw guide, but because the ends will become damaged with use it should be periodically checked. Provided the ends of the sample for the measurement of electrical resistivity have been squarely cut, are clean, and are substantially free of metal dust, it can be used for this test. The weight should be recorded to a minimum of four digits. This test is not suitable for joined conductors.
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6.3.4 Electrical Resistivity The electrical resistivity can be determined on a stranded copper conductor with or without a joint. When testing joints it is useful to take sufficient length so that a sample of adjacent conductor without a joint can be tested for comparative purposes. The joint should be located in the center of the resistivity test sample length. There are two basic ways of determining the resistivity of a conductorthe routine method and the precision method. Both are suitable, and both have their advantages and disadvantages. The routine method employs a 1.5-meter (60-inch) length of sample, a meter bridge, a calibrated null point ohmmeter, and an accurate thermometer. The power connections, usually 3 volts dc to the sample, should be made at least 100 mm (4 inches) outside the meter bridge contacts with large, clean, and strong clamps. The ohmmeter should be switched on and a period of several minutes should elapse before the first measurement is made. Some ohmmeters have built-in calibrations, and all operate on the Wheatstone bridge principle, where a null point galvanometer is balanced by adjusting a variable resistance in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. The resistance of copper varies with temperature, and resistances measured at tC, usually between 18 and 28C, have to be corrected to 20C. Tables that are available in standards or with the ohmmeter provide the correction factor. The factor is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance. For copper, the factor is 0.00393 per C. The following formula provides an accurate conversion:
R20 = Rt
where R20 Rt t l = = = =
254.5 1000 / km 234.5 + t l

conductor resistance at 20C ( / km ) measured resistance at tC ( / km ) conductor temperature, C cable length, usually 1 meter ( m)
The main problems encountered with the routine method for determining resistance are usually poor electrical connections, small cross section wiring, and disparity between the temperature of the environment and the conductor. All connections should be clean and proper terminations, that is, spade or banjo connectors, soldered to wires of minimal length and good cross section to minimize resistance. It is also advisable to place the sample by the meter bridge in a stable, temperature-controlled environment for 34 hours to equalize in temperature. If possible, the test should be housed in a temperature-controlled room, with time allowed for the temperature of the sample to be stabilized. For accurate determination of resistance, a Kelvin Precision conductivity bridge is used, with a 965-mm (38-inch) long sample of conductor weighed to two decimal places (see Section 6.3.3). The sample is placed on the bridge with contact points at 801.5 mm (31.55 inches) and immersed in a nontransforming oil. The sample should remain immersed for at least 30 minutes for the temperature of the conductor and oil to stabilize before the resistance of the sample is measured. Using the Wheatstone bridge principle, the resistance is determined in accordance with the 6-15
manufacturers instructions, and the temperature of the oil is accurately measured. The same temperature correction factor has to be used to convert the resistivity at tC to 20C. The only difference between the two methods outlined above is stabilizing and knowing the temperature of the conductor to the nearest 0.5C at the time its resistance was measured. It should be appreciated that even a small copper conductor can take a considerable period of time to stabilize its temperature with its environment. The author installed a meter bridge in an adjacent paper and textile testing laboratory where testing of paper and textiles had to be carried out at 50% 1% relative humidity and at a temperature of 23.0C 0.5C. 6.3.5 Chemical Analysis The chemical analysis of high-conductivity copper requires specialty equipment and calibration standards usually available only to the high-conductivity copper producers. Because of this, the laboratory that can undertake this analysis will be one that regularly carries out this work and will probably be associated with a plant that manufactures high-conductivity copper rod. This is an acceptable situation. The complete analysis can be carried out on a 2030-gram sample. The oxygen and sulfur are usually determined separately by two similar instruments. The oxygen is determined by fusion of the sample in a graphite crucible using helium as a carrier gas, and the oxygen, as CO2, is measured by infrared. The sample used for oxygen analysis should be pickled, usually in sulfuric acid, by the analyst, to remove surface oxides prior to the determination of its oxygen content. The sulfur is determined in a flow of oxygen using a ceramic crucible and is measured as SO2 by another infrared detector. The range of these instruments is usually 0.05 ppm to 2.5%. All the other elements are determined in a direct reading emission spectrograph using carbon electrodes and both ac and dc current. Once the analyzers are set up and calibrated, the analysis is completed in a few minutes, with automatic printing of the results. It is not unusual to request an analysis of just oxygen, which is probably the most frequently determined element. If a full analysis is required, the request should specify including oxygen and sulfur. 6.3.6 Tensile Tests Tensile tests can be carried out on wire from any conductor, but only the results on wire from noncompacted conductors can be related to the properties of the wire used for the construction of the conductor. Normally, a slight increase in tensile strength and a 22.5% loss in elongation (that is, from 30% down to 27.528%) will result from work hardening during stranding. Wire from stranded and compacted conductors will be significantly distorted by compaction and indentation of wires in the layers both under and over the layer from which the sample was selected. If wires were to be tested it would be beneficial for the purposes of comparison to use the same gauge lengths of 200 or 250 mm (8 or 10 inches). It should be noted that usually the mandatory requirement is elongation for annealed wire and tensile strength for hard-drawn wires. It is sometimes necessary to determine not only the tensile strength of complete conductors and of joints in conductors but also the load/strain relationship. The load/strain relationship is important during cable installation, as it is necessary to ensure that the maximum load applied to 6-16
the cable does not reach or exceed the elastic limit above which permanent extension of the conductor occurs. The main problem in carrying out these tests is gripping the cable ends in the tensile testing machine. Various methods of preparing the cable ends are recommended and range from simply gripping the ends of the stranded conductor to fitting pulling grips to the conductor. All the methods have advantages and disadvantages. Gripping the bare ends usually results in breaks in outer wires where the serrated jaws of the tensile tester grip the sample. Sometimes the pulling grips exceed the diameter of the gripping capacity of the jaws, so grips cannot be used. A practical, quick, and simple method for tensile testing conductors and joints in conductors is to solder the ends of the conductor, but care must be used to prevent prolonged or excessive heating, which will anneal hard-drawn conductors. A sample length of approximately 330 or 380 mm (13 or 15 inches) will be required, 50 mm (2 inches) at each end for soldering and gripping and 230 or 280 mm (9 or 11 inches) between the jaws for testing. Before the ends can be soldered, they should be eased open and two 0.50.8-mm diameter copper binding wires applied to each end of the test sample, approximately 10 and 40 mm (0.38 and 1.7 inches) from each end and not overtightened. The ends of the sample should be immersed in a warm solution of 10% ammonium persulfate for 3040 seconds, removed, rinsed with water, and using a volatile solvent such as alcohol or acetone, thoroughly dried. Ideally, the length of conductor that is soldered should be slightly longer than the gripping length of the tensile testing machines jaws but should not extend to within 15 mm of the samples gauge length. It is useful to mark the maximum length at both ends to which the solder is permitted to run. A suitable liquid flux or a flux paste, heated to ensure good fluidity, and a pot filled to a depth of 50 mm with tinning (tipping) solder of 50% Sn, 50% Pb at 220240C will be required. One end of the test piece should be partly dipped in the flux, excess flux shaken or tapped off, and the end dipped in the solder. Flux will float on the solder, and capillary action should draw the flux and solder up the strands to the marks. The end is removed and the binder wires tightened before the solder has solidified. The end can then be quenched in water. The other end should be similarly treated. The time each end is in the solder should not exceed 1 minute and should not affect annealed or hard copper stranded conductor. The binder wires can be removed for testing, if required. This technique has been used for stranded conductors made from hard-drawn copper wire, and provided the breaks occur away from the soldered ends, the results can be considered acceptable. The test piece should be placed in the tensile tester so that the solder protrudes through the inner face of the gripping jaw by 25 mm. Serrated V-shaped jaws should be used for round and shaped conductors, and the rate of straining should not exceed 50 mm per minute. The above sample preparation works well in most cases, but problems may occur on larger conductors and to some extent be partly dependent on the shape and size of the V-shaped jaws. Two alternatives should be considered. If the V-shaped tensile tester jaws are biting excessively into the conductor and solder and initiating failures in the jaws, the use of a coarse emery cloth with 60 or 90 grit lining the jaws has been found effective in resolving this problem. The grit facing should be in contact with the copper conductor. The other alternative is to circularize the conductor, if it is not already circular, and sleeve it with clean copper domestic water supply tubing that has been pretinned before soldering, as described above. The tubing should be a good close fit without excessive solder. The use of binding wire before soldering or the use of gas
6-17
pliers to lightly crimp the tube onto the conductors into a compact circular shape before the solder has solidified is recommended. For tests where a simple breaking load is required, gauge marks should be placed on the sample at 50-mm intervals over a 200- or 230-mm gauge length, using an indelible marker. These enable elongation values to be quoted on 50- and 100-mm gauge lengths as well as the specified 200-mm gauge length. If a load/extension relationship is required, the same gauge lengths will need to be marked on the sample, and an extensometer fitted to the sample once it has been loaded into the tensile tester. A small tensile load of 220 kN should be applied to assist the gripping and straightening of the sample. Most extensometers have either point or knife-edged contacts. Care must be taken to ensure that contact is made with more than one wire in the strand, and not with the gaps between two wires. This problem can be resolved by sticking copper pads 35 mm square to either side of the sample with a thin strip of self-adhesive tape or similar material, and placing the extensometers pointed contacts on these pads. The contacts should be sufficiently tight to firmly hold the pads in place during the test. (Domestic water piping makes very good contact pads.) The test is undertaken either by applying the load slowly and noting the extension at regular intervals or noting the load at regular increments of the extensometer. During the progress of the tensile test, as the applied load increases, the lay of the wires will increase and the diameter/dimensions of the conductor will reduce, causing the extensometer to fall off. The extensometer should be attached by a piece of string or a suitable spring to support it and prevent it from falling to the floor should it lose contact. Alternatively, elastic bands (one at each end) may be wrapped around each set of extensometer contact points to help them maintain good contact. The extensometer must be removed before the sample is broken. Some tensile testers have chart recorders that automatically plot loads against extension. If the extension is recorded as cross-head travel, the relationship will be less accurate than that recorded by an extensometer fitted to the sample. Other tensile testing machines have a facility whereby the extensometer drives the chart recorder, and care must be exercised to ensure that the minimum requirements of the set-up and calibration are satisfied. When a graph of load versus extension is plotted, the point at which the plot deviates from the straight line is an indication of the limit of proportionality. Because the lay increases with applied load, the elongation of a stranded conductor should not be related to elongation of the constituent wires. The elongation of the stranded conductor will entail both material elongation and elongation due to construction. Any tensile failures that occur at or close to the soldered ends in the jaws of the tensile tester should be regarded with suspicion. The soldering may have annealed the copper, or there may have been excessive solder in the prepared ends, and the test results should be disregarded. Joints in stranded conductor, whether soldered or crimped, are prepared and tested in exactly the same manner as unjoined stranded conductor. The joint should be located in the center of the test length. There is little advantage in determining the elongation, because a joint, even in an annealed conductor, is not a homogenous uniform sample, and yielding will occur in the weakest 6-18
part. There is no known specification for the strength of joints but in-house values of a minimum of 80% of the unjoined parent materials strength are not unreasonable. Many of the same inhouse specifications also require a minimum of 60% of the unjoined parent material elongation, but this is not considered reasonable, as the majority of the elongation may only occur in part of the test piece that was annealed or not work-hardened. The method of failure is as important as the breaking load. The typical failure mode in unjoined stranded conductor is a quickly progressive cascade failure at least 10 mm from the jaws. One wire breaks, followed by two, then several more, and then the remainder breaking in the space of a few seconds, with the load falling from a maximum value at the first wire break. With soldered ferrule joints, several modes of failure can occur. The strand can break at the end of the ferrule, inside the ferrule, or remote from the ferrule and the jaws. All these failures can be considered acceptable, depending on the load and the specified requirements. If the strand breaks at the soldered ends in the jaws of the tensile tester, the method of sample preparation was unsatisfactory. An alternative failure is the complete strand pulling out of the ferrule; the assessment of this failure depends on the size of conductor, the load, the specified requirements, and whether or not excessive solder existed in the ferrule. 6.3.7 Preparation of Metallographic Samples of Copper Conductors The primary purpose of preparing sections through stranded copper conductors and joints is to carry out hardness tests. The other objectives are to carry out visual examinations of the effects of compression on the wires in the strand, the extent of solder filling the interstices of the joint and, in the case of welded joints including Cadwelded joints, the integrity of the joint and freedom from defects. A cold-setting mounting resin will be required, regardless of whether solder is present or not. The hot compression mounting of transverse sections through compacted copper conductors is risky, because axial distortion of the wires and compression can result with insufficient penetration of the thermoplastic or thermosetting resins. It is therefore recommended that mounting, of both transverse sections and longitudinal sections, be carried out using two-part cold-curing epoxy resins. Transverse sections can be mounted conventionally in proprietary reusable polyethylene molds with removable bases, using a thin-pouring two-part epoxy resin. Because transverse sections are short, approximately 1015 mm long, they need to be held together with two fine-wire binders before being cut from the conductor. The section cut from the conductor should be thoroughly degreased and dried before being placed in the pregreased mold. A low-viscosity proprietary metallurgical mounting resin or the Ciba Geigy resin and hardener specified in Section 4.3.2 should be used. The resin and hardener should be weighed out in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations and preferably be clear and pourable. The resin and hardener should be thoroughly mixed in a disposable plastic or waxed-paper cup, taking care not to include air when mixing. The mixture is then poured into the mold to cover the section to a depth of 5 mm. Time should be allowed for air bubbles to escape and the mold topped off with spare resin from the mixing pot if necessary. If a vacuum desiccator is available, it can be used and the vacuum gradually applied. (If full vacuum is applied immediately, the trapped air will cause the 6-19
resin to boil over out of the mold.) Once the section is fully filled and no trapped bubbles exist, the mold can be removed from the vacuum and allowed to cure naturally. According to the type of resin system used and the volume of unfilled resin, the cure may be accompanied with an exothermic reaction resulting in the generation of heat. The rate of curing can be accelerated by initial gentle heating under a light bulb or over a radiator, but care must be used to avoid excessive heating >85C during the exothermic reaction, because if not controlled by cooling in water, it will result in cracking of the mold. The excess resin left in the mixing cup can provide a useful guide to the curing process if placed in the same environment. When the resin has fully cured and cooled, the mount containing the section can be removed from the polymeric mold. Longitudinal sections from joints are long and narrow and will require a different molding technique than that used for transverse sections. Sections through compression joints present some additional problems. Unless there is a reason to do otherwise, they are usually cut just to one side of the centerline of the joint so that when finally prepared the center of the joint is exhibited. In cutting the longitudinal section, some wires may be pulled out of the strand or the joint; this is unavoidable. These joints can be filled with metallurgical mounting resin and cured before being sectioned. This can be achieved by applying binders to the sample and then cutting it from the conductor. If sections are cut from joints, about 35 mm of conductor should be left at each end of the jointing ferrule, if possible. Copper wire binders must be placed around the stranded conductor before cutting, to retain the wires and to help centralize the sample in the mold. The binders do not need to be excessively tight. One end of the sample should be filed square so that the complete joint will stand upright in a vertical cylindrical mold. Details of the resins, their mixing, the filling of the mold, and curing procedures are the same as those detailed above. A copper tube with one end sealed either to a base plate with plasticine (similar to clay) or soldered to a copper/brass sheet will provide an adequate mold. The inside of the mold must be greased using either a thin film of automotive grease or petroleum jelly (Vaseline) to ensure the release of the cured resin filled sample from the mold, which is accomplished by sawing off the sealed end and pushing out the sample. Longitudinal sections from the encapsulated sample can then be cut. To avoid pulling wires from the section, a fine-toothed saw blade should be used. If a deeper mount is required, especially for small-diameter or small-sized conductors, the sample should be placed to one side of the mold before the resin is poured or an ovalized copper or plastic pipe used. Instead of mounting the sample vertically, it is also possible to mount the sample horizontally and form a rectangular mold from two pieces of right-angle metal or plastic positioned on their edges. Molds made from two pieces will need to be held together with wire binders and the joints sealed with plasticine or similar material. Excess space should be avoided, as it not only wastes resin, but may also result in an excessive exothermic reaction. The bottom edges of the mold should be reasonably flat so that when placed on a base plate they are easily sealed with plasticine. The insides of the mold and the base plate should be lubricated with a thin film of grease to assist the release of the mold when the resin has cured. The section from the conductor should be placed in the center of the mold and may need some support to keep it horizontal. If the sample has been sectioned longitudinally before mounting, the cut face should be placed face down in the mold. It may be more difficult to achieve a good fill with resin using this technique, even if vacuum can be used. Alternatively, the section can be placed with the cut face upwards and the mold slightly overfilled, which will enable air bubbles to escape. 6-20
6.3.8 Grinding and Polishing Copper Conductor Samples for Metallographic Examination Once the resin has cured and cooled it can be removed from the mold and prepared for metallurgical examination by grinding and polishing. Longitudinal sections can be cut from the mounted sample at this stage. Transverse sections can be turned on a lathe. Longitudinal sections can be initially ground on a sanding belt. As water is not normally available on a sanding belt, care must be exercised to prevent the sample from becoming overheated and thus softening the cured impregnating resin. If facilities exist, longitudinal samples can be milled flat using an end mill. In turning transverse samples on a lathe, a finely radiused tool with a positive rake and fine cuts of 0.20.4 mm should be taken, cutting only from the outside into the center of the sample. In milling longitudinal samples flat, it is advisable to take fine cuts to avoid pulling wires out of the section. It is only necessary to turn or mill off sufficient material to reveal all the wires in the strand. The use of soluble oil is not advised, as some mounting resins have an adverse reaction to the oils and soften. If a lubricant is required, either water or a light mineral oil applied sparingly with a brush is usually adequate. When the sample has been faced off, it is advisable to reverse the section in the lathes chuck and remove the sharp corner/molding flash on the underside of the sample. In rectangular samples it is easier to use a file to chamfer the shape corners on the back and sides of the mount. After initial grinding, the sample can be wet ground on progressively finer grades of wet and dry sandpaper, using water as a coolant and lubricant. A recommended range of wet and dry sandpaper would consist of the grit sizes 90, 120, 240, 320, 400, and 600. If the sample has been faced off on a lathe, the grinding can commence on 240 grit paper. If the papers are used on a rotating grinding platen or grinding wheel, or on a wet grinding table, a constant supply of water should be maintained and a load of 1 kg applied to the sample. The direction of rotation of the sample should be opposite to the direction of the wheels rotation. In the case of a wet grinding table, the sample should be turned through 90 with each change of grit size. The grinding time per paper should be approximately 3045 seconds or at least until the grinding marks of the previous paper have been removed plus an additional 20 seconds. The sample should be washed with soapy water, rinsed with clean water and acetone, and dried in a flow of warm air after each change of grit size. Polishing is carried out on a polishing wheel rotating at 250300 rpm, using initially a 3-micron and then a 1-micron diamond paste or a diamond in water suspension automatically or manually applied. The initial polishing can be carried out on a silk cloth (hard cloth with no nap) or one of the magnetic textured discs now gaining popularity, on a rotating platen. The 1-micron diamond polishing is normally carried out on a softer cloth with a nap or Selvyt. Polishing times of 5090 seconds are usually adequate, with the sample being rotated in the opposite direction to the wheels rotation. A load of approximately 1 kg applied to the sample is sufficient. It may be necessary to apply a proprietary lubricant extender to the paste-impregnated wheel or one or two applications of the diamond suspension. The above polishing procedures can be used for transverse and longitudinal sections through single copper wires, stranded copper conductors, and welds in copper wires and strands. Where large sections, usually longitudinal, are involved, it may not be possible to safely grind and 6-21
polish them on rotary grinding and polishing wheels. This can be resolved by removing the platens from the grinding/polishing machines, placing them on the bench and hand grinding/polishing in a linear manner, remembering to turn the sample through 90 at each change of grit size. Alternatively, the use of plate glass to provide a flat surface and standard sheets nominally 200 x 300 mm (8 x 12 inches) of wet and dry sandpaper of the same grit sizes can be used, as previously described. Grinding should continue on a given grit size until all the scratch marks of the previous grit have been removed. Polishing of larger samples on plate glass should follow the same steps, but it should be noted that the processes will take longer. The manufacturers of metallographic equipment can supply a diverse range of mounting, grinding, and polishing equipment, ranging from basic to complex, and a similarly wide range of consumables. The development of new procedures and techniques is ongoing, and some of the tried and tested traditional methods detailed above will be replaced in time. The choice of systems used must be based on costs, frequency of use, and flexibility. 6.3.9 Macroetching and Microetching of Copper Copper can be both macroetched and microetched. Macroetching will reveal grain boundaries and cracks, and differentiate between individual grains and wires in compacted stranded conductors. Microetching will also reveal the general structure but little additional information in pure copper, although it may be useful in examining the structure of welded joints where a dilute copper alloy is likely to exist. In pure copper, microetching will reveal an equiaxed grain structure possibly containing annealing twins, regardless of whether a transverse or longitudinal section was taken. In fully cold-worked wires, the structure in a transverse section may be difficult to distinguish because of its fineness, and in longitudinal sections the structure will be extensively elongated and equally fine. If microetching is carried out after macroetching, the sample will have to be partly reprepared by regrinding, as described above but starting on the 240 or 320 sandpaper. Table 6-10 lists some techniques that have been used with some success.
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EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors Warning The use of protective equipment, including gloves and safety glasses, is strongly advised. Workers should read and fully understand the relevant MSDS (COSHH) data sheets before working with chemicals. The data sheets should be available for reference, and appropriate safety equipment should be in place. The mixing of chemicals should never be undertaken unless their reactions are known. Table 6-10 Macroetching and Microetching Reagents for Copper Solution Macroetchant No. 1 Macroetchant No. 2 Macroetchant No. 1 30 ml hydrochloric acid (conc) 10 g ferric chloride 120 ml water or ethanol 10 ml nitric acid (conc) 90 ml water 10 ml hydrochloric acid (conc) 5 g ferric chloride 30 ml water 50 ml glycerin Remarks Immerse sample at ambient temperature for 24 minutes with agitation. Rinse with warm water and then acetone. Immerse sample at ambient temperature for 24 minutes with agitation. Rinse with warm water and then acetone. Swab the sample for 1560 seconds at ambient temperature. Rinse with water and dry with acetone. Substituting some of the water with glycerin can reduce the activity of the etching reagent. This reagent has been found useful for all pure coppers and most weak alloys of copper. Two drops of hydrochloric acid should be added just before use. Swab 1060 seconds at ambient temperature. Rinse with cold water then acetone.
Macroetchant No. 2
4 ml sulfuric acid (conc) 1 g potassium dichromate 50 ml water
Note: Where water is advised, the use of deionized, automotive battery top-off water or distilled water is recommended.
The etched samples can be kept in a desiccator for a limited period of time, usually one to two weeks, without repreparation. Alternatively, the samples can be preserved with a thin single layer of clear automotive varnish applied from an aerosol can. If other tests are to be carried out or photographs of the structure are to be taken, they should be done before the varnish is applied, or the varnish should be removed and the sample repolished. 6.3.10 Hardness Tests Hardness tests on stranded conductor are usually carried out on transverse sections of the conductor that have been mounted and polished. Hardness tests on sections through ferrules or welded joints, whether soldered or compressed, are generally carried out on longitudinal sections, which may be mounted for convenience and ease of handling. Because the wires in the sections may be compacted and difficult to identify, the sections may be macroetched to distinguish the different wires. The preparation of the samples is detailed earlier, in Sections 6.3.7 and 6.3.8. The aim of the examination is to determine the hardness of the wires in each layer and the extent and degree of compaction. The higher the hardness the greater the cold work 6-23
carried out. In sections through the joints, it is possible to compare the increase in hardness between the various sections of the ferrule and the layers of wire. Because of the small crosssectional area of the individual wires, the hardness is usually measured using a conventional Vickers hardness tester with a 2.5 or 5 kg load. Rockwell and Brinell hardness tests are not practical on these wire samples because of the size of the indentations and the need to accurately position the indenter in the center of the wire section. The Vickers hardness tests should be carried out bearing in mind the requirement that no indentation should be within three indentations of an edge or another indentation, and that the material thickness must be at least three times the depth of the indentation. This latter requirement is important when measuring the hardness of copper wires in longitudinal samples where the lay of the wire may result in minimum thickness at the end of an individual wires section. The size of the indentation will be determined by the load employed; if small cross sections are involved then smaller loads must be used and the accuracy of measuring across the corners of the diamond indentations will need to be increased. The recording of the hardness value must include the method and the load used. If it is necessary to convert the Vickers hardness to Brinell, the following relationship exists. It is accurate to 2.5% of the Vickers value. HB = 0.95HV A relationship exists for converting Vickers to Rockwell B scale; it works for hard copper but not for soft coppers. The calculated conversion should not be used; instead conversions made using tables should be used, with caution. It is strongly advised that, contrary to advice from many otherwise reliable sources, the hardness values should not be converted to tensile stress; the hardness tests are not a substitute for a tensile test. 6.3.11 Degree of Fill This is a requirement that is relevant only to compound-filled stranded conductors. It is a measure of the total space available for the compound and how much of that space has actually been filled with compound, expressed as a percentage. The work was carried out by the author on a special cable at the clients request, and although accurate measurements were made where possible, there were a number of areas where best attempts at accurate measurements, and dubious procedures specified, made the final accuracy very suspect. This test is therefore not considered viable unless there is very good justification for it to be carried out. In principle, the test consisted of determining the total unoccupied volume on the inside of the sheaththat is, the volume of the sheath empty, minus the volume occupied by the conductor, the insulation and screens, and the compound, divided by the volume of the compound present. The volumes were calculated from weight/volume = density, very accurate measurements of the sheath, and use of Soxhlet equipment to extract compound from the paper insulation, along with the establishment of an impregnation factor for compound in paper. 6-24
Again, the degree of fill was the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of compound present divided by the volume of the total space available for the compound to fill. A value of something in excess of 98.5% was reported; whether this was accurate or acceptable was never established, and neither was the need for the work.
6.4 Faults and Defects in Copper Conductors

6.4.1 General Remarks Faults in low- and medium-voltage power cable copper conductors are very infrequent, and most of those that do occur are located at or very close to joints or conductor terminations. Most, but not all, of the problems in conductors remote from joints are the result of a failure or breakdown of some component such as the lead alloy sheath, plumbed wipes, or insulation, or are caused by indirect mechanical damage or local site circumstances. These problems can result from the installation of, or rerouting or repair of, the cable, or from excavation and installation of adjacent utilities and cables, and they develop over a period of time before they result in an electrical breakdown. The period of time for this damage to develop into a fault may be short or may extend over a number of years. Direct mechanical damage to a cable or a serious accident usually results in immediate and sudden failure. The development of electrical faults can be slow and accompanied by minor electrical discharges (arcing), generation of heat, and sometimes noise. In substation basements, in walk-through cable tunnels, and close to terminations, these signs may be detected, but more usually the first indication of a fault is a major electrical breakdown. High-voltage, impulse, and electrical ground leak testing does not always identify faults in cable systems. There are numerous examples of installed cable systems satisfactorily passing electrical tests and six months later failing due to an electrical short to ground. When a cable breaks down, there is often little evidence left of the cause of the fault other than a collection of fused metal and burnt insulation. Despite this, a careful examination is still required and may sometimes reveal evidence of the possible cause of the fault. Faults in the stranded wire conductors can also originate and develop from defects in the rod casting and rolling process. They can be exacerbated by heating and flexing stresses from joining, drawing, annealing, stranding, drumming, and installation. The most common of these faults is broken wires, and although most of them will occur in the wire drawing operation they will be repaired and redrawn. Wire joints made in stranding are subjected to less onerous production conditions and can break in the later stages of manufacture and installation. Some of the following rod casting, rolling, drawing, and wire stranding defects may persist and initiate problems in service. The following information on the causes of wire breaks is provided for guidance, and should not be regarded as definitive. 6.4.2 Copper Wire Breaks Wire breaks in copper conductors are usually easily examined and identified with good white-light illumination and at magnifications not greater than x50. Examination of wire breaks should be carried out without initial cleaning. If the wire has to be cleaned, it should be cleaned in a solvent such as acetone or alcohol in a small beaker in an ultrasonic bath. Evidence of the 6-25
cause of the break usually exists at or very close to the break. The examination should encompass the wires entire surface and extend back along the wire away from the break. Some license has been taken with the grouping of the break descriptions for the sake of brevity. 6.4.3 Rod Casting Defects Refractory Inclusions Although molten metal filters are used to eliminate refractory inclusions, the filters need to be replaced at intervals, and refractory material can be dislodged from the collection trough into the metal flow in the process. The tundish and pouring spout are beyond the filters and are a more frequent source of refractory inclusions that enter the metal flow. Refractory inclusions are usually white or cream-colored, although some can be green, black, transparent, or semiopaque. Most are gritty and friable and can exhibit a crystalline appearance. Oxide Inclusions The casting operation will generate some copper oxides. These are normally removed by slag traps and filters in the collection trough, but some will pass through the system and enter the caster. The casting will also create some molten metal splashing, and a build-up of copper oxides, mainly on the pouring spout, will occur. If these break off, they also will enter the flow of metal into the caster. In both belt and wheel casting (more so in the latter), piping can occur; it is sometimes known as piping or hollow bar defect. These defects are all essentially associated with oxides. In wheel casting, the cast bar curves through 90 over the casting wheel to enter the rolling mill, and hot short cracking can occur on the outer radius of curvature of the cast bar, resulting in oxidation of the cracks surface. All of these breaks will exhibit a black or heavily discolored interior. Some oxide breaks may appear as longitudinal laminations within the wire, others as either a cup or cone breaks. The cause of cup and cone breaks is a matter of contention, as they can also result from poor rod and wire drawing practices (discussed later). The cup will be at one end of the break, and the cone will form at the other end of the same break. The cup will be trumpet shaped and the cone will consist of a small cone in the center of the wire, either partly or totally surrounded by a small outer ridge. If the surfaces of the breaks are discolored, it is usually an indication of oxides. 6.4.4 Rod Rolling Defects Ferrous Inclusions These inclusions usually originate from the steel rolls whose surfaces break down due to thermal fatigue. Most of the metal particles will drop into the sump to be carried away with the emulsion; however, a few will become embedded into the surface of the rod. Not all these inclusions are detected by continuous eddy current or ferrous inclusion detectors, and most will cause wire drawing breaks. If a break occurs in the copper wire of the conductor due to the presence of 6-26
ferrous inclusions, they will be evident as small discrete steel gray lumps or lines of particles embedded in the surface of the wire, occupying less than half the wires diameter. Inclusion Cavity This is the same as a ferrous inclusion except the inclusion has dropped out, leaving a clean, V-shaped angular cavity in the wires surface. It has frequently been found that farther along the wires surface there is evidence of retained ferrous inclusions. Seams and Laps If during the rod rolling operation, misalignment of the rod with a pair of rolls occurs, or overfill of the roll gap, a rolling flash will be produced and will be rolled into the surface of the rod by the next pair of rolls. This defect may persist through the rod rolling and drawing stage and may end up, as a seam or feather-edged lap, with or without black oxides on the underside, in the finished wire or conductor, without breaking. If in the outer layer of the conductor the sharp edges become raised due to bending and flexing of the conductor, they may damage the conductor screens. 6.4.5 Wire Drawing Defects Cup and Cone Breaks As mentioned earlier, the cause of these breaks is frequently a matter of contention. They can result from oxides in the rod or wire, or from poor drawing practices. A properly drafted set of dies used on the correct machine under the correct conditions will draw copper rod and wire, but not copper rod and wire containing copper oxides. A die set that is faulty due to one or more worn dies in the set, incorrect die sizes in a set, or the die set drafting not matching the machines draft (that is, a die set used on the wrong machine) will result in cup and cone breaks in good copper rod and wire. The wire breaks are the same shape as those resulting from drawing rod and wire containing oxides, except the center of the breaks are salmon pink, clean, and free of black oxides or heavy discoloration. It is useful to note that the cone will point to the direction in which the rod or wire was drawn, but because the wire has been unwound from the drawing takeup spool the direction of travel will have been reversed. Cup and cone defects that survive the drawing operation may break in stranding or subsequent operations where tension and flexing of the conductor occurs. Blocked Dies Mechanical damage to rod in transit and storage, and dents, deep abrasions, scoring, welding flashes that are not removed, and chipped or damaged dies will generate rough surfaces on the rod and wire. These edges and rough surfaces will be drawn into succeeding dies, and although jets of drawing emulsion will wash most of them out of the die entrance, some will build up and block the die. This will result in a rod or wire drawing break. However, before the wire break 6-27
occurs, a significant amount of debris will have been embedded in the wires surface and could persist through to the stranding operation and beyond, resulting in a wire break due to flexing. These breaks are characterized by short slivers or spills and compacted debris and dust embedded in the wire lifting off the surface of the wire. The presence of these defects can be exacerbated by the strand compaction. Furthermore, these particles, together with copper dust from poor compaction or worn compaction dies, compromise the integrity of the conductor screens and insulation. Spills or Slivers Many of the defects that could break off and block the drawing dies can be drawn into the rod and wires surface and appear as a single particle or line of elongated discrete particles of copper embedded in the wire. When the wire is flexed during spooling, unspooling, compaction, or pretwisting, some of these particles can lift up or break off, creating sharp protrusions on the stranded conductors surface and copper dust. Large spills and slivers have caused breaks in stranding and subsequent operations, but they could also leave sharp protrusions that could penetrate the conductor screen and insulation. Breaks caused by spills and slivers will exhibit elongated impressions of the spill in the wires surface at the break, or the spill or sliver may still be present. It should be mentioned here that tightly wound copper wire on drums, bobbins, or spools that has been batch-annealed can become sticky, that is, weld together at some points of hard contact. As the wire is unwound, the welds break, leaving pits and peaks of copper on the surface. While not spills or slivers, the protruding peaks can have the same effect as spills and slivers that have lifted out of the wires surfaces. Weld Breaks The wire drawing process will cause poorly made welds to break before passing through more than two or three dies. In this respect, the wire drawing operation is a form of quality control. Poorly welded joints made in the wire near the end or after the wire drawing process will become included in the stranded conductor, just as welds made to join the ends of wires on successive spools on the stranding machine are included. Resistance butt welds that break will have a fish-mouthed appearance. Cold pressure weld breaks will exhibit very square ends and, if the weld has passed through less than three or four dies, will still reveal the almost semicircumferential grip marks of the welding machines jaws. In both cases, there may be evidence of file or abrasive paper marks on the wire surface that have not been removed by drawing the wire through more than three or four dies. Tensile Breaks These breaks are caused by loads in excess of the wires tensile strength and are characterized by a symmetrical reduction in cross section or necking down of the wire to the point of fracture. These breaks are usually the result of excessive back tension, snatch loads caused by jammed 6-28
spools, or tangles entering the guides or compacting die. It has also been recorded that shavings and slivers in a compacting die have led to tensile breaks in wires in a stranded conductor. 6.4.6 Installation and Service Breaks See Section 8. 6.4.7 Defects in Stranded Copper Conductors The preceding comments relate to broken and defective wires in copper conductors; there are, however, other defects that can occur during the manufacture of the conductor, its installation, and its service life that can adversely affect the appearance (but not always the service) of the conductor. These defects usually result in discoloration, staining, or tarnishing of wires or of the complete conductor. Light discoloration of one, some, or all the wires is acceptable, but darker discoloration, while unlikely to affect the properties of the wire including electrical conductivity, should not be considered acceptable, as it may cause problems during compression or indentation jointing. Other faults, such as file or abrasion marks, loss of dimensions, and excessive copper dust, may also be evident. Table 6-11 is a guide to types and possible causes of discoloration in copper wire conductors.
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EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors Table 6-11 Discoloration of Copper Conductors and Its Causes Location Single wires Appearance Light discoloration or iridescence in one or more wires in a new conductor, the wires not necessarily being adjacent or in the same layer. The external surface of each layer in a new compacted conductor may not exhibit this problem. Reason Light oxidation of the wires is the most likely cause of this problem and can be caused by faults or leaks in the in-line annealer atmosphere during continuous running or during startup and running down. The outer surfaces of spools of wire stored in unsuitable conditions or for an unreasonable period of time and not protected will also become discolored. The same effect may also occur if drums or spools of wire have been batch-annealed with a leak of air into the vacuum or inert atmosphere, or the system was opened to air before the batch of drums or spools was fully cooled. This discoloration will usually occur only on the outer layers of wire on the drums or spools. In batch-annealed wire on drums, the presence of oil or grease on the drums will cause discoloration of this nature, but again, it will tend to affect only the outer layers of the wires and may penetrate down the sides adjacent to the drum flanges. Wire that has been in-line annealed can become discolored if a fine layer of residual drawing lubricant is present during annealing. Usually the result of drums of wire being stored for prolonged periods of time or spools of wire left unused on the stranding machine when smaller cross section conductors are being made.
Single wires
As above but a denser discoloration or iridescence with some purple color. Again this discoloration may not be visible on the external surface of compacted conductors.
One or more wires in one layer of the conductor
Light to darker oxidation of the wires, either in a group or regularly dispersed around one or more layers. Again, unlikely to be visible on the external surface of compacted conductors. This stain is usually black or black-edged discoloration at the interstices of the strand and may appear to be particulate. Usually associated with one wire in the outer layer. Breaks in the inner layer may not be repaired but the broken end just tucked in and held in place by the outer layer.
Stain in the interstices of wires in the center of the conductor Localized intense thermal discoloration of a wire
Residual drawing emulsion on wire formed into strand in a warm environment created by compaction can break down and bacterial colonies develop in the interstices. This problem is unusual, but is more common in multiline drawn fine wire strand not used for newer conductors. Butt brazed or welded joint that has not been properly dressed; there may be evidence of the flash that has not been completely removed or has been compacted into the conductor. Alternatively, partial dressing may have been carried out. If the repair was made before compaction, the file and abrasion marks will be partly removed by the compaction; if made after compaction, evidence of compaction will be absent.
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EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors Table 6-11 (continued) Discoloration of Copper Conductors and Its Causes Location Evidence of lead/tin solder between three or more adjacent wires. Appearance This will usually only be seen on the outer layers, for the same reason as above. The solder may be associated with file or abrasion marks from emery cloth. This is an indication that a wire has come out of the lay, usually on the outer layer, and has been manually replaced or has been forced back in during compaction. Very fine shallow pitting, usually clean of the outer wires with some halos of discoloration. Only found on older cables. Found on older cables along the corners of shaped conductors and sometimes associated with black deposits. Fine particles of copper dust and occasional slivers of copper in compacted conductors. Some aluminum dust and particles may also be present. Reason A soldered splinted joint holding both ends of a broken wire into the outer layer. The file or abrasion marks will have resulted from the repair being dressed and will extend to the adjacent wires in the strand. There may be traces of soldering flux in the interstices of the wires, and this may lead to long term problems. These repairs, if still complete, are acceptable. There are several reasons for this, including a repair to a broken wire with the excess length being accommodated by buckling. See above notes on joints. The drums on the stranding carriages are usually braked to apply back tension, and if this is omitted the drums can overrun and excess wire is compacted with buckling and kinks. Very mild corrosion resulting from electrical stresses and breakdown of the conductor screens in dry cables where some air and therefore moisture has entered. The corners of shaped conductors have a higher electrical stress, and if the conductor screens are damaged due to flexing of the insulated conductor in manufacture or installation some electrical discharging may occur. There may be some heavier tarnishing of the conductor due to operating at high loads. The dust is the result of abrasion in the compacting operation due to worn wire guides, dies, rollers, insufficient lubrication, or gross slip on the capstan. Some abrasion is inevitable during compaction by a die, but excessive dust that migrates into the conductor screens and insulation is not acceptable. Aluminum dust may originate from the absence of cleaning after the prior processing of an aluminum conductor or from the aluminum screening tapes applied at the next stage. Again, metal dust in the screens and paper insulation is not acceptable. Some older cables (pre-1960) were sheathed, the conductors connected to a dc supply, and a vacuum applied to the sheath to remove any remaining moisture from the paper insulation. If the required vacuum was not held after the requisite period, probably due to a leak, the drying current was increased, causing slight oxidation of the conductor. Heavy electrical loads on the cable in service could cause the same effect.
Buckled, kinked, or localized loss of dimensions
Slight pitting of the wires in the outer layer
Slight pitting of wires with adjacent black deposits
Copper dust and particles in the stranded conductor
Evenly discolored conductors
Found on older cables, the discoloring extending through the strand.
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EPRI Licensed Material Copper for Electrical Conductors Table 6-11 (continued) Discoloration of Copper Conductors and Its Causes Location Black tarnishing and tidemarks on wires inside the conductor Dense black discoloration with iridescence Appearance This discoloration is tarnishing and is usually black. It occurs more often in the interstices of the wires in the center of compacted conductors. Found only on very old conductors insulated with rubber that has embrittled. Reason This is caused by residual lubricant on the wires after in-line annealing and the generation of a humid warm environment, from stranding and compacting, inside the conductor. If the conductor is stored on a drum for a long period, the discoloration may affect the outer layers of the conductor in the center of the drum. Some very old cables were insulated with unvulcanized rubber contained sulfur, which caused sulfide staining. This was overcome by, and was the original basis for, tinning copper wire. The tinned coating did not stain.
6.4.8 Breaks in Copper Conductors and Joints Breaks in stranded copper conductors and jointing ferrules are very unusual, and the only ones experienced by the author have been test joints when developing ferrule designs, or incorrect jointing practices. A well-made and properly soldered ferrule joint in a stranded copper conductor will generally break adjacent to the ferrule where the conductor has been annealed by the soldering operation. The failure starts with one wire breaking, then two, and the remainder failing in quick succession. All of the breaks experienced by the author have been in the wires, and all the wires have exhibited tensile failures, even though some in compacted conductors have shown distorted tensile failures due to the shape of the wires. If the weak-back ferrule has not been fully closed onto the conductor or excessive solder exists between the ferrule and the conductor, usually due to low temperatures and insufficient crimping to close the ferrule, the stranded copper conductor can be pulled out of the ferrule. This is because the shear strength of the solder reduces as the thickness of solder increases. The failure is characterized by longitudinal tearing within the solder coatings on both surfaces and a light gray and rough appearance of the solder. One known example of poor tinning of a ferrule that resulted in a failure revealed partial shear failure and bright shiny areas of melted nonbonded solder surfaces. Any evidence of blackening of the soldered joint is probably due to either poor tinning or dewetting of the tinned surfaces. Welded joints in copper conductors, whether from metal inert gas (MIG) or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding or the Cadweld process will, if subjected to excessive loads, fail adjacent to the welded joint in the heat-affected zone. Other factors that will adversely affect the strength of the joint are misalignment of the conductors, excessive or gross porosity in the weld (some fine porosity may be present and is acceptable), and a lack of fusion of some wires to the weld itself. These failures are usually associated with some evidence of electrical discharge, particularly in copper conductors, which because of the good thermal conductivity of the copper are more difficult to weld than aluminum conductors.
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Compressed ferrules are usually compressed flush with the conductor. If subjected to excessive tensile or bending stresses, they fail due to one of two reasonsinsufficient or excessive compaction of the ferrule. The ferrule being of a larger diameter than the conductor and not extending sufficiently after compaction is evidence of insufficient compaction in flush-fitting ferrules. Lack of compaction in nonflush ferrules is more difficult to identify, but the fact that the conductor has pulled out of the ferrule with little damage to the wires or conductor is generally sufficient evidence. In severe cases, lack of compression, gaps between the ferrule and the wires, or bore serrations still being prominent are the usual indicators. It is also possible that the wrong-size ferrule has been used. Excessive compression in both flush-fitting and nonflush ferrules may be evident from longitudinal splits at one or both ends of the ferrule, excessive ferrule length, and smaller diameter. The wires in the ferrule may exhibit overcompression, or may be broken, with clear evidence of shear or heavy impressions of the overlying or underlying wires of the opposite lay having been pressed into them. The hardness of compressed ferrules is important, and most are supplied in the annealed to half-hard condition. If very soft ferrules are supplied, they will compress and extend excessively without gripping the conductor, while hard ferrules will compress and may split at the ends with little elongation. 6.4.9 Installation and Service Breaks See Section 8.
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ALUMINUM STRANDED AND SOLID ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS
This section outlines the manufacture of the raw materials and the production of aluminum conductors and joints, and discusses how these processes, in addition to installation and site conditions, can contribute to failures in service. The material is divided into the following subsections: 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Aluminum as an Electrical Conductor Aluminum Wire Stranding Tests Carried Out on Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors Faults and Defects in Aluminum Conductors
7.1 Aluminum as an Electrical Conductor

Aluminum was first used as an electrical conductor between 1909 and 1912. One cable, made in that period for a dc supply in London, was replaced in 1967 and was claimed to be in a very sound condition. In the late 1950s and early 1960s there was a renewal of interest in aluminum as an economical alternative to copper. Aluminum in electrical conductors is used in two principle forms. One form is as wire in the hardhard condition because of its relatively low strength. The other form is the annealed condition, for flexibility, as solid aluminum in circular or shaped (two-, three-, or four-core) conductors. The following notes outline the manufacturing routes of these two most commonly used forms of aluminum in cables. For comparison purposes, the typical properties of copper and those of aluminum are presented in Table 7-1.
7-1
EPRI Licensed Material Aluminum Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors Table 7-1 Comparison of Properties of Copper and Aluminum Property Density at 20C Coefficient of thermal expansion/C x10-6 at 20C Melting point Thermal conductivity Electrical conductivity at 20C Soft Hard Temperature coefficient of resistance Ultimate tensile stress (typical) Annealed Half hard /hard Elongation on 200-mm gauge length (typical) Annealed Half hard /hard Hardness (typical) Annealed Half hard/hard Elastic modulus Fatigue stress endurance limit at 108 cycles C W/cmC % 100.0+ 97.0 Per C MPa 245 350415 % 3035 23 HV 50 75105 MPa MPa 123 x103 65 20 3545 69 x103 40 40 515 75 110145 0.00303 61.0 60.7 0.00403 Units g/cm3 Copper 8.933 17 1083 3.8 Aluminum 2.703 23.5 659 2.4
It is clear that because of its better tensile strength and electrical conductivity, copper is preferred to aluminum. To carry the same amount of electricity, the aluminum conductor has to be 1.6 times greater in cross section than a copper conductor, and the increase in conductor size will require more paper or polymer to achieve the same insulation thickness. The overall weight of the aluminum conductor cable will be less than that of a copper conductor cable carrying the same electrical load. As with copper, it is useful to understand how the aluminum rod wire and solid aluminum conductors are made. 7.1.1 Production of Aluminum Redrawn Rod and Solid Aluminum Conductor There are two common methods by which aluminum is currently produced for the electrical industry, and they are sometimes combined. One method is the continuous casting of aluminum rod for wire drawing, using originally the Properzi process, and later the Southwire Cast Rod process. The other method is extrusion. The conventional direct and indirect extrusion process, used to manufacture solid aluminum conductor, has now been widely replaced by the Conform process. There is also a hybrid process that has recently been used to manufacture very large 7-2
EPRI Licensed Material Aluminum Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors
circular aluminum conductors from greater than 28 mm up to and including 55 mm in diameter. This process consists of the extrusion of large-diameter rod that is rolled to near-finished dimensions and single-die drawn to final conductor size. This leaves the conductor in the slightly cold-worked condition, and it can be used as such or annealed. This production route is not widely used but has its advantages in making nonstandard sizes of conductor. Let us first consider the Southwire Cast Rod (SCR) process. Southwire, in Georgia, has an aluminum smelting plant adjacent to its caster, and it is logical to supply molten aluminum directly to an eccentric rotating holding furnace. (Other plants melt nominally 50-kg ingots and scrap in a reverberatory furnace and supply the molten aluminum to a similar holding furnace.) The aluminum from the holding furnace flows into a tundish, and via a metering pin into the casting wheel at the 3 oclock position, where a steel belt effects a closure on the rim of the wheel. The wheel has a wide, U-shaped profile and rotates in a vertical plane, with water cooling, clockwise to approximately 10 oclock, where the steel belt breaks contact and continues vertically upwards and the cast bar leaves the wheel to curve, through 90, over the top of the wheel and into a horizontal position. The cast bar passes through corner millers to remove the flash and both corners where the belt and wheel made contact, and then moves via a flying shear into a rolling mill, where the bar is hot-rolled, usually to 9.5 mm diameter. Various rolls are used: the Properzi mill consists of 11 to 13 stands each with three edge rolls at 120 angular displacement in alternately a Y and an inverted-Y position. Other rolling mills use 13 to 15 twohigh stands, depending on input and output sizes, with the roll axes alternately horizontal and vertical. Unlike copper, the cast rod is not pickled or wax treated but is water quenched, and usually layer wound in close contiguous turns to maximize coiling density. The coil weights are usually between 1400 and 2000 kg. As noted above, the second method of producing aluminum for solid aluminum conductors is by extrusion. This process makes finished solid aluminum conductor that requires no further shaping or forming before it is insulated. Machined or skimmed preheated billets are extruded in both direct and indirect extrusion presses. The extrusion is a stop/go procedure for billet charging and requires long water cooling troughs to reduce the temperature, particularly of the larger sizes of extruded conductor, before they are wound onto wooden dispatch drums. There are a number of problems associated with the extrusion process, including stop/start marks on the conductor when new billets are charged, and in synchronizing the extrusion stop and start with the rotation of the take-up drum. This can subject the hot conductor to a sudden snatch load well in excess of its yield load, with a resulting loss of dimensions. These snatch loads are not always detected until final electrical testing of the cable. The cable makers also have a need for specific lengths of conductor; for example, for 1000 meters of a three-core cable, a single length of 3045 meters +5/-0 meters is required for leading into the insulation, laying-up, and the final sheathing processes. The production of accurate lengths is not easily achieved by conventional extrusion, and Conformed conductor has widely replaced the extrusion of solid aluminum conductor. The Conform process is difficult to visualize from a verbal description. The process has two major components: a rotating capstan, and a block or shoe. The shoe is a close fit around a quarter of the capstans periphery, and the abutting face of the shoe has a tapering groove that is wide at the 9 oclock position but reduces in cross-sectional area as it approaches the 6 oclock position, where the die is located. The capstan rotates in a counterclockwise direction. Cold 7-3
aluminum rod is fed into the groove at the 9 oclock position, and frictional forces draw the aluminum around and force it out through the die, which is usually at right angles to the plane of rotation and in line with the axis of the capstan. The aluminum conductor, as in the conventional extrusion process, is raised in temperature to approximately 540C by friction alone, and is thereby annealed. The conductor is produced to final dimensions and passes through a water bath and air jet cooling/drying to be wound onto wooden dispatch drums. The most widely used input sizes are 9.513 mm (about 3/81/2 inch) diameter rod. A 13-mm diameter is a 132.7-mm2 cross-sectional area and can typically produce 300 mm2 of solid aluminum conductor; the rod feed speed is 2.26 times faster than the output speed. Alternatively, two rods can be fed in at the same time. The whole operation can be carried out in a space of 3 x 10 meters. One of the advantages of the process is that no billet preheating is required and the conformer uses the same aluminum rod as the aluminum wire drawer and can therefore supply both rod for drawing and solid aluminum conductor. Recycling the scrap rod and conductor through a Conform machine is undertaken without remelting. Conformed conductor is manufactured to final size and requires only insulating and laying-up into a cable. 7.1.2 Aluminum Rod Drawing To manufacture stranded aluminum conductor, the continuously cast rod has to be drawn to the wire diameters required. The most popular aluminum rod size is 9.5 mm, and another popular size is the 12.5/13-mm diameter. Aluminum rod is lighter than copper and is supplied layerwound without a drum or former, to increase packing density. These rod coils cannot easily be reeled off as a static coil at the back of the drawing machine. If the rod is pulled out from the center of the coil over a goal post, the last outer layer of the coil will collapse, with the high risk of tangles at the reel, lost production to repair a wire break, and high scrap. Rod coils are now fitted with expanding centers and mounted with their axes either horizontal or (more usually) vertical on a turntable with optional damping/braking. The rod may pass through straightening rolls before entering the rod drawing machine. The drawing operation is very similar to that for copper, with a few differences. The rod drawing is conventionally carried out through nine or eleven dies of tungsten carbide or diamond with capstans, usually hardened steel, pulling the rod through a set of dies drafted to match the built-in draft of the wire drawing machine. The lubrication, unlike with copper rod and wire drawing, is with metalworking mineral oil (neat oil) and not an oil-water emulsion. It is applied either by spray to the die and top of the capstan or to a die box with an overflow onto the capstans under covers. Once it is used, the drawing oil is black, and even with good filtration contains a relatively high percentage of aluminum fines. Aluminum wire is not normally annealed and is used in the hard-drawn condition. For stranded conductors, the finished wire is wound onto spools for use in stranding machines, in typical size ranges of 0.852.32 mm in diameter. A problem exists that is unique to aluminum, namely that it can easily pressure weld to itself if tightly wound, especially if clean and still hot. Also, in the stranding operation, when aluminum wire passes through static guides, whether polished steel or ceramic, it will coat the guides with a thin layer of aluminum that will, with the passage of more wire, build up and block the guide. This is a form of galling. To overcome this problem, the wire may, after the final die, pass through an oil mist or hot paraffin wax to leave a very thin film of wax or oil on the surface of the wire to prevent pressure welding or galling. 7-4
7.1.3 Properties of Aluminum Wire The tests carried out on the cast aluminum rod are less rigorous than those conducted on copper. They include mandatory tests such as diameter, dimensions, chemical analysis, electrical resistivity, ductility, and strength. Other tests are essentially process control checks, such as reverse twist tests, wrapping tests, and bend tests. The specified frequency of testing wire is one sample every 1000 kg of wire or solid aluminum conductor of the same diameter/dimensions, produced in the same way and in the same condition. The chemical composition is the same for all three forms of aluminum rod, wire, and solid conductor and is the ISO wrought designation alloy 1350, which was formerly BS designation C1E, Commercial quality aluminum for electrical purposes. The specified composition in both standards is as follows.
Table 7-2 Chemical Composition of Aluminum Wire for Electrical Purpose Element Silicon Iron Copper Manganese Chromium Zinc Gallium Boron Vanadium + Titanium Others Aluminum Each Total Al Si Fe Cu Mn Cr Zn Ga Bo V + Ti % 0.10 max 0.40 max 0.05 max 0.01 max 0.01 max 0.05 max 0.03 max 0.05 max 0.02 max 0.03 max 0.10 max 99.50 min
The other elements usually include bismuth, lithium, calcium, and phosphorus. Other commercially pure (99.50%) aluminums permit higher silicon, manganese, and zinc but do not include the grain refiners such as gallium, boron, or vanadium. The specified requirements for aluminum wire are listed in Table 7-3.
7-5
EPRI Licensed Material Aluminum Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors Table 7-3 Specified Properties of Aluminum Wire Diameter Condition Over O (annealed) H6 (3/4 hard) H9 (hard-drawn) 0.4 0.4 5.0 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 Up to and Including 10 5.0 10 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 193 188 184 180 176 Ultimate Tensile Stress, MPa Min 125 Max 90 165 Electrical Resistivity cm at 20C Max 2.803 2.8264 2.8264 2.8264 2.8264 2.8264 2.8264 2.8264
Elongation on 250 mm Gauge Length, % Min 15.0 3.0 -
Wrap Test*
No Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
*The wrap test is an alternative to a ductility test (elongation), which is not sufficiently definitive. It consists of wrapping eight turns of wire around its own diameter to form a close helix. Six turns are then unwrapped and again closely rewrapped in the same direction without cracking or fracture to satisfy the pass criterion.
7.1.4 Properties of Solid Aluminum Conductor There are eleven sizes of solid aluminum conductor in round, 2-core, 3-core up to and including 1.9/3.3 kV, 3-core for 3.8/6.6 kV and above, and 4-core. The properties are specified in detailed tables that can be summarized as follows:
Dimensions specified for each of the above shapes in 16, 25, 35, 50, 70, 95, 120, 150, 185, 240, and 300 mm2 conductors. Nominal, minimum, and maximum dimensions for each shape and size of conductor are specified as diameter or depth, width, corner radii, and back radius. The chemical composition is identical to that specified for aluminum wire for electrical purposes (see Table 7-2). Standard and maximum electrical resistances in ohms per km at 20C for each shape and size of conductor are specified. Both the maximum tensile strength of 80 MPa and 25% minimum elongation on a 250 mm gauge length are specified, although the gauge length may be reduced to 200 mm when the specification becomes a European Standard.
Before the introduction of Conformed solid aluminum conductor, many manufacturers used either extruded aluminum conductor or rolled and drawn conductor. The latter process gave tensile strengths in excess of the 80 MPa maximum currently specified, and the cold-worked 7-6
conductor was more tolerant of harsher handling during insulation and conductor laying-up, but less flexible. The Conform process, like the direct and indirect extrusion process, can only manufacture annealed conductor. These handling problems were eventually overcome by better control and attention to detail in setting up the insulating and laying-up machines and by the use of protective wrappings. The effect of excessive loads on solid aluminum conductor is the same as for conventionally extruded conductor, namely loss of dimensions and the development of an orange peel appearance on the surface. The term orange peel effect will be used here and elsewhere in these notes and needs explaining. The orange peel effect becomes visible on annealed aluminum when it is subjected to a load or stress in excess of its elastic limit. The aluminum develops a pronounced roughened surface, which is also known as alligator skin or pebbles. The effect is less visible on annealed drawn wire, which has a finer grain size. The effect is not visible on hard-drawn aluminum wire. The occurrence of the orange peel effect is a clear indication that the conductor has been strained and dimensions will have been reduced. There is a stage between the elastic limit and the appearance of the orange peel effect where permanent straining will have occurred with no visual indication of the orange peel effect. In the early days of Conformed rod, there was a problem that resulted from poor surface quality feedstock and surface oxides. During the Conforming process, considerable material working occurs. Surface oxides and impurities are displaced to one side and formed a lap normal to one of the flat faces of the conductor. In small amounts, this was not apparent on the face of the conductor, and because the defect was longitudinal, the electrical properties were not compromised. In greater concentration, the defect could result in a feathered edge or seam along one side of the conductor, and this was not acceptable. Better quality control and emphasis on purchasing from reputable sources very largely eliminated this problem. Another recent development in aluminum conductors is the reduction of impurities in the aluminum used for redrawn rod and solid aluminum conductors. Currently, aluminum of 99.80% purity is widely used, with lower resistance. The cable manufacturers now require wire and solid aluminum conductors to be made to between minimum and nominal dimensions, thereby meeting the electrical resistivity requirements for less aluminum and insulation.
7.2 Aluminum Wire Stranding

Stranding of aluminum wire into conductor is carried out in the same manner as for copper wires, and frequently on the same stranding machines. The construction of the conductor is exactly the same, whether uncompacted round or compacted round two-, three- or four-core conductors are made. The only difference is that for the same current carrying capacity, aluminum wires of larger diameters and conductors of larger cross-sectional areas are generally used. The construction of stranded aluminum conductors may also vary slightly, with possibly the center wire or a wire from the outer layer being omitted. Some cable makers may opt to move the compacting die or roller farther down the line to reduce the angle at which the aluminum wire enters the compacting dies or rollers, or they may opt to add lubrication at the point of compaction rather than at the wire drawing stage. 7-7
The problems of joints are the same, and because fewer wire sizes are employed in the conductor stranding operation than in wire drawing, the preferred method of joining is usually cold pressure welding, although resistance butt welding is still occasionally used. The same problem with scrap ends that exists with copper also exists with aluminum wire. Because all the spools of wire on the stranding machine contain approximately the same mass of wire, those supplying wire to the same layer will tend to empty at the same time, and the frequency of joints in a layer of the conductor will be high at that point. The other potential problem initiates at the same time while the stranding machine is stopped other spools that are nearly empty will be replaced with full spools. The remaining wire on the nearly empty spools is rewound onto one spool with a multiplicity of joints and reused on the conductor stranding line, usually as the center wire or as one of the six center wires, where the stranding stresses are lowest. The problem of galling of the aluminum wire as it passes through the guides and dies is higher than with copper, and the risk of aluminum dust and slivers can also be high. The problem is resolved with the application of a very thin film of lubricant (in the form of oil or wax) to the wire at the end of the drawing operation or with oil lubrication to the compaction dies and to a lesser extent compaction rollers. The lubricant is usually selected on the basis of its compatibility with the various polymeric insulating materials. Both the compaction dies and the rollers can also pretwist the conductor. When the stranding line is stopped to change spools, the lubrication system, which is usually a basic drip feed, is not always turned off, and an accumulation of lubricant may occur. This excess lubricant, if not fully cleaned off, can damage both paper insulation and extruded insulation, and if used on conductor for oil-filled cables it can seriously contaminate the cable oil. For that reason, cable oil is frequently used, but being volatile, it should not be used for extruded polymeric insulation. Aluminum wire has a significantly lower tensile stress than copper, and greater care is required to ensure that it is not exposed to excessive line tensions. Apart from its lower tensile strength, aluminum is also less resistant to compaction, and excessive compaction can result in individual wires becoming overcompacted and breaking. Because of this, more compaction may be carried out on the inner layers, leaving less for the final layer. Wire breaks that occur up to and including the penultimate layer can be accommodated by tucking the broken wire end under the outer layer of the strand before compaction. Wire breaks that occur in the outer layer of wire have to be joined, but at this stage the wire is likely to have passed through the compaction stage, making joining difficult from two aspects. Namely, the wire will have lost its circular cross section, and sufficient slack will need to be gained to enable a repair to be made adjacent to the conductor. This is achieved by inserting a short length of wire and making two joints, and then after welding manually winding back any excess wire through the compaction die or roller onto the spool. Even if this is done well, the wire reinstated after the compaction will require hand dressing to keep it flush with the adjacent wires. Solder repairs can be made using the adjacent two wires as splints. The difficulty in soldering aluminum lies in achieving a good tinned surface in the confined space, using one of the friction tinning alloys (90%Sn/10%Zn). The presence of corrosive flux residues in stranded aluminum conductors should be avoided, as they will cause corrosion. It has been reported that some manufacturers weld in a short length of wire using TIG welding, but this has not been confirmed.
7-8
7.2.1 Using Solid Aluminum Conductor For the cable maker, the main advantage of solid aluminum conductor is that it is supplied ready for useit does not have to be drawn down or stranded like wire conductors, but needs only to be insulated and laid up. However, there are problems associated with the use of solid aluminum conductors. They are usually supplied on wooden drums, generally well protected with hardboard and corrugated paper. In addition to the defects that may be introduced during Conforming, such as loss of dimensions due to snatch loads with the consequential orange peel effect and oxide seams (as detailed above), it is possible for defects to be introduced during the insulation and laying-up of conductors. A common defect occurs when a turn of conductor at the end of a layer on the supply drum drops into the gap between the last turn of the layer below and the flange of the drum, and becomes jammed. As the turn pulls free, the corners of the conductor become damaged and abraded, leaving sharp-edged burrs, loss of dimensions, and if the load to pull free was high, some overall loss of cross section and possible orange peel effect. Another problem is associated with conductor from the bottom layer of the drum exhibiting a regular series of flats, 34 inches long, or similar flats between slight bends. These result from using unlined drum barrels and the solid aluminum conductor replicating the shape of the barrel timbers. This problem has been overcome by lining the barrels of the drums with hardboard. (Some suppliers have gone farther and lined the internal flanges of the drums to prevent loose nail heads from damaging the conductor.) 7.2.2 Joining Aluminum Rod, Wire, and Conductors The joining of aluminum rod, wire, and solid conductors should be considered in two parts namely, the joining of rod and wire in production and the joining of finished conductors. There is some overlap of methods and techniques in these areas. Aluminum rod, wire, and solid aluminum conductors, like copper, can be resistance butt welded or cold pressure welded. There are hydraulic cold pressure welders available for butt joining rod, but resistance butt welding is probably more widely used for joining rod prior to drawing. Cold pressure welding is used mainly for joining wire of diameters less than 5 mm. The joining of solid aluminum conductor is currently not widely carried out by cable makers, although some work to develop flush-welded joints is currently being undertaken using friction welding. Considering first the joining of aluminum rod and the larger wire diameters using electric resistance butt welding, the techniques are similar to those used for copper. The ends of the rod or wire to be joined must be clean, prepared, and properly aligned in the jaws of the welder, and the correct settings of current, upset pressure, and power cut-off distance for the size of rod or wire must be selected. After the joint has been made, the welding flash must be removed and the welded joint dressed flush with the adjacent wire surface. Many resistance butt welding machines are fitted with connections in which the rod or wire can be annealed after the joint has been made. The author does not consider this to be necessary for annealed rod. The practice of wiping the rod with a bar of soap before annealing is sometimes used as a guide to the temperature. Copper glows dull red when heated above 600C; aluminum will just slump and melt, but at 200250C the soap turns a dark brown color. 7-9
Cold pressure welding machines are now widely used for joining aluminum rod and wire. For the larger sizes of rod and wire greater than 50 mm, servo hydraulic machines are employed, but below a 50-mm diameter, pneumatic or manually powered cold pressure welders are used. As with copper, the surface of the rod and wire must be clean, the correct jaw sizes used for each wire size, and the gripping faces of the jaws kept clean and free of oxides, oils, and welding flash residues. This is more important with aluminum, because a wax coating may be present on the wire drawn to final size, and if not removed, it will contaminate the grips and affect the quality of the joint. Many cold pressure welding machines will, at the same time as making the weld, also weaken the flash to facilitate its easy removal. The residue of the flash must still be cleaned off before the wire is drawn or used in a stranded conductor. With electrical resistance welding, there will be a heat-affected zone on both sides of the weld. With cold pressure welding there will be no annealed zone but a regular pattern of semicircular grip marks on both sides of the wire. These marks will extend for 2030 mm on either side of the weld. The annealed zone and the grip marks will not be detectable after the rod or wire has passed through three or four dies. One advantage of joining rod and wire in the drawing process is that further drawing and bending of the rod and wire around capstans is a good test of the joint qualitya poor joint will break. Joints made after wire drawing are more likely to retain the annealed zones adjacent to the resistance butt weld or the semicircular jaw marks on either side of the cold pressure weld, even after removal of the flash. Trials have been successfully carried out using resistance butt welding for joining solid aluminum conductors, but the amount of dressing down while maintaining the dimensions generally precludes this as a viable procedure. The complexity (and cost) of the jaws for cold pressure welding joints in solid aluminum conductor also eliminates this as a feasible joining method. Solid aluminum conductors are therefore not butt-joined but are ordered in finite and precise lengths and used as such. Resistance butt welding of solid conductors is currently carried out using a ceramic sleeve to control and limit the flash. This technique may be developed for larger sizes of stranded conductors and sections other than circular. Whether this will become a process used on site is debatable. The mechanical joining of stranded wire or solid aluminum conductors, whether in-house or on site, has been inhibited by two properties of the aluminumthe tenacious oxide film, and the stress relaxation characteristics of the metal. Being soft and easily deformed, aluminum has less resistance to compressive stress, and the oxide film has a high electrical resistance. The high electrical resistance of the oxide film can cause local heating that in turn anneals the aluminum and enhances the oxide, leading to further heating and arcing, and eventual breakdown. This is one reason why aluminum wire is not used for domestic applications where pinch screw tunnel connectors are widely employed. The joining of aluminum conductors is therefore more complex. Older cable systems with stranded conductors employed a soldered weak-back copper ferrule. The procedure for joining all shapes of stranded aluminum conductor was similar to the procedure employed for stranded copper conductors, with the exception that special aluminum solders and fluxes were necessary. The ends of both conductors were circularized and preheated by basting with solder. Application of the flux was followed by further basting to tin the ends of the conductors. While still hot, the ends of the conductors were fitted inside the weak-back 7-10
ferrule, the ferrule and conductors reheated by basting with molten solder, and the ferrule closed with gas pliers. Molten solder was then poured through the slot in the ferrule until it ran through and out of the ends, removing all the flux and residues before being filled, and the ferrule was crimped closed and allowed to cool. The soldered ferrule joint was then dressed and cleaned before the insulation was reinstated. These techniques are still used in some European countries. With the advent of solid aluminum conductors came the need to deskill the joining procedure for lower-voltage systems so that operators without special training could make reliable joints in less time. This resulted in the shaped ferrule and deep indentation joint. France first developed a shaped aluminum ferrule with a deep indenting procedure that extensively broke through the oxide layer and was suitable for both stranded and solid aluminum conductors. This method was further developed with the use of various antioxidant compounds in the ferrule to eliminate reoxidation, and with multiple deep indentations made using either a hydraulic press or bolts that sheared off when the correct tightening torque had been applied. Currently, copper-to-aluminum ferrules for joining copper to aluminum conductors, both stranded and solid aluminum, are in service and proving to be very satisfactory. The deep indentation technique has been found to work better on stranded conductors made from hard-drawn aluminum wire and is another reason why stranded wire conductors are now not normally annealed for underground conductors. The larger sizes of both stranded and solid aluminum conductor are occasionally welded using mainly MIG welding or the Cadwelding process described in Section 6.2.2. The MIG welding process requires a degree of skill, and the ends of the conductors need to be beveled on both sides with a 45 angle, aligned, butted together, and welded. On completion of the welding, the weld is dressed down flush with the conductor. The MIG welding torch is relatively large in comparison to the conductors, and access to the joint may be difficult. Also, depending on the operators skills and accessibility, the butting knife edges may be vertical or horizontal, requiring, respectively, vertical welding on both sides or downhand, and overhead welding in the latter configuration. Smaller conductors can be rotated so that all the welding is downhand. The TIG welding process employs a smaller torch, which gives better accessibility but generally produces more heat, and greater removal of insulation is necessary. This results in the reinstatement of longer lengths of insulation, with an increased risk of defects being introduced. The Cadwelding process also has some disadvantages, particularly for smaller conductor sizes where it is difficult to achieve a balance between sufficient volume of molten material to wash oxides and dross through the joint, and excessive heating. There has been some development of electrical resistance butt welded joints for stranded aluminum conductors in ceramic sleeves. The ceramic sleeves are broken off after completion of the weld. The technique has been developed for joining smaller conductors, including flexibles, in the course of production. After trials it was used onsite, but it has not yet been developed for joining low- and medium-voltage cables.
7.3 Tests Carried Out on Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors

The specified tests that can be carried out on stranded and solid aluminum conductors and joints are limited, as with copper conductors. Apart from determining the diameter/dimensions and mass or weight per meter, the only other significant test that can be carried out on stranded and solid aluminum conductors with and without a joint is the determination of electrical resistivity. 7-11
Tensile tests are not specified on unjoined or joined conductor taken from cables. Care should be used when testing samples from old cables, because the specified requirements applicable at the time that they were manufactured may have changed in light of experience and modern practice. Other tests, such as tensile testing of joints and hardness testing, can be undertaken within limits, and metallographic examination of conductor joints may be found useful. The following notes are therefore provided for guidance. 7.3.1 Dimensions In the production of stranded aluminum conductor, the dimensions of the conductor are usually recorded on samples from the start and finish of the length and may be checked at intervals during the production run. If measurements are made on conductor while it is on the stranding machine and under some tension, lower results will be recorded unless the tension is backed off. This can be overcome by recording the dimensions between the last capstan or caterpillar and the take-up drum. The sample taken for dimensional checks should be 1.5 meters (60 inches) long or longer, and after determining the dimensions it can also be used for determining the weight per meter and the electrical resistivity. The sample should have wire binders or self-adhesive tape applied to both ends to prevent bird-caging of the wires when cut from the conductor. The sample should be sawed or cut with a wheel to ensure square ends. Bolt cutters, parrot-beaked cutters, or similar devices are not considered suitable for cutting square ends. The dimensions should be recorded at three places along the samples length and not closer than 250 mm from the cut ends. At the three positions, the diameter of circular conductors, both compacted and noncompacted, should be measured at two positions at right angles to each other, and both recorded. On shaped conductors, and in addition to the width and depth, the corner radii and back radius should be measured using radius gauges. All measurements should be made with either a calibrated micrometer or digital calipers reading to two decimal places. There are frequently no routine dimensional checks made on solid aluminum conductors once the source is approved, test certificates are inspected, and the material is issued for use. They are not stranded but are used directly from the supply drum onto the insulating line, where usually only a visual inspection is carried out for damage and defects. If dimensional tests are carried out on solid aluminum conductor from a cable, the dimensions should be measured in the specified manner and should comply to the same tolerances as those for the material in the as-supplied condition. 7.3.2 Weight per Meter This is a simple test, usually employed by the cable maker, as a quick check that the minimum number of wires has been employed in the construction of the stranded conductor. The test also provides the information for determining the mass resistivity. Wire binders or adhesive tapes must be removed prior to weighing but replaced for electrical resistivity testing. Provided the ends of the sample for the determination of electrical resistivity have been squarely cut, are clean and free of metal dust, and the conductor is free of compound, the same sample can be used for
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the determination of weight per meter. The weight per meter should be recorded to at least four digits on a calibrated balance or digital scales, with the length recorded to the nearest 1 millimeter. 7.3.3 Electrical Resistivity This test can be carried out on both stranded and solid conductor, and on joints in both types of conductor. When testing joints in conductor, it is often useful if a sufficient length of adjacent conductor without a joint is also available for comparative testing. It is recommended that a minimum sample length of 1.5 meters be used for this test. When testing a joined conductor, the joint should be located in the center of the test length on the resistance bridge. There are two basic ways of determining the resistivity of a conductorthe routine method and the precision method. Both are suitable, and both have their advantages and disadvantages. The routine method employs a 1.5-meter (60-inch) length of sample, a meter bridge, a calibrated null point ohmmeter, and an accurate thermometer. The power connections, usually 3 volts dc to the sample, should be made at least 100 mm (4 inches) outside the meter bridge contacts with large, clean, and strong clamps. The ohmmeter should be switched on and a period of several minutes should elapse before the first measurement is made. Some ohmmeters have built-in calibrations, and all operate on the Wheatstone bridge principle, where a null point galvanometer is balanced by adjusting a variable resistance in accordance with the manufacturers instructions. The resistance of aluminum varies with temperature, and resistances measured at tC, usually between 18 and 28C, have to be corrected to 20C. Tables that are available in standards or with the ohmmeter provide the correction factor. The factor is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance. For aluminum, the factor is 0.00403 per C. The following formula provides an accurate conversion.
R20 = Rt
where R20 = = = =
248 1000 / km l 228 + t

conductor resistance at 20C ( / km ) measured resistance at tC ( / km ) conductor temperature, C cable length, usually 1 meter ( m)
Rt t l
The main problems encountered with the routine method for determining resistance are usually poor electrical connections, small cross section wiring, and disparity between the temperature of the environment and the conductor. All connections should be clean and proper terminations, that is, spade or banjo connectors, soldered to wires of minimal length and good cross section to minimize resistance. It is also advisable to place the sample by the meter bridge in a stable, temperature-controlled environment for 34 hours to equalize in temperature. If possible, the test should be housed in a temperature-controlled room, with time allowed for the temperature of the sample to be stabilized.
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For accurate determination of resistance, a Kelvin Precision conductivity bridge is used, with a 965-mm (38-inch) long sample of conductor weighed to two decimal places (see Section 6.3.3). The sample is placed on the bridge with contact points at 801.5 mm (31.55 inches) and immersed in a nontransforming oil. The sample should remain immersed for at least 30 minutes for the temperature of the conductor and oil to stabilize before the resistance of the sample is measured. Using the Wheatstone bridge principle, the resistance is determined in accordance with the manufacturers instructions, and the temperature of the oil is accurately measured. The same temperature correction factor has to be used to convert the resistivity at tC to 20C. The only difference between the two methods outlined above is stabilizing and knowing the temperature of the conductor to the nearest 0.5C at the time its resistance was measured. It should be appreciated that even a small aluminum conductor can take a considerable period of time to stabilize its temperature with its environment. The author installed a meter bridge in an adjacent paper and textile testing laboratory where testing of paper and textiles had to be carried out at 50% 1% relative humidity and at a temperature of 23.0C 0.5C. 7.3.4 Chemical Analysis The chemical analysis of aluminum for electrical purposes is not as complex as the analysis of copper and can be carried out by any analytical laboratory that has suitable accreditation and reference standards. Ideally, the quickest and therefore the most economical analytical procedure is optical emission spectroscopy. There are many laboratories that have this facility, but a problem arises from the fact that most of these laboratories will only be able to analyze a flat, disk-shaped specimen with a 3-mm minimum thickness, 1015 mm in diameter or square. Few will have the capability to analyze wire samples. The capability does exist, and it requires only a simple change to the method of holding the sample. Usually, two carbon electrodes are required, mounted vertically one above the other. The bottom electrode is hollowed out to provide a cup shape to hold the sample (usually less than 5 grams), while the bottom end of the upper electrode is pointed. The arc must be struck carefully or the sample will be thrown out of the bottom electrode. To avoid contamination, the electrodes are replaced after each burn but can easily be refurbished many times, using a lathe and a pencil sharpener. Although it is not necessary to analyze for all the elements listed in Table 7-2, the major impurities such as silicon, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, bismuth, and chromium need to be determined. Aluminum is generally expressed as the remainder, that is, 100% minus the percentages of the impurities detected. Other equally good techniques exist for the analysis of aluminum wire from electrical conductors, but these methods require the dissolution of the sample and a manual input with a variety of detectors, usually one for each element. The cost of these analyses is generally based on cost per element and is frequently more expensive than optical emission spectroscopy. The analysis of solid aluminum conductors and welded joints can usually be carried out by optical emission spectroscopy. If the sample does not meet the minimum diameter or size requirement it is usual to flatten it with a hammer. The hammered surface should be ground off and cleaned prior to the analysis. 7-14
7.3.5 Tensile Testing The tensile strength of wire taken from noncompacted aluminum conductors can be determined, provided the circular cross section area of the wire still exists and can be measured. A slight increase in tensile strength and reduction in elongation due to such things as work hardening in stranding may be detected in wires from noncompacted annealed conductors. In H6 and harddrawn wire from noncompacted stranded aluminum conductor, it is likely that any increase will be slight and may not be detected. Elongation values should be determined on 200- or 250-mm gauge lengths. Normally, individual wires from compacted conductors are not tested, because of the variable distortion in cross section due to compaction. The testing of solid aluminum conductor should be under the same conditions, namely on a 250-mm gauge length for samples from older cables. Again, because the solid aluminum conductor is usually available only in the annealed condition, there will be some increase in tensile strength and reduction in the elongation due to cold working. The magnitude of these changes will be slight and variable, depending on the degree of work hardening, the lay of the conductor, and the amount of straightening of the sample before testing. It is sometimes necessary not only to determine the breaking load or tensile strength (based on the nominal cross-sectional area) of the complete stranded aluminum conductors and of joints in the conductors, but also to determine the load/extension relationship. This relationship is important, as it is necessary to ensure that the maximum load applied to the cable during installation does not reach or exceed the elastic limit. If the load does exceed the elastic limit, the conductor will be permanently or plastically stretched, with a corresponding loss of crosssectional area. This is more critical in aluminum conductors than in copper conductors, because aluminum is much softer than copper. The main problems in carrying out these tests are gripping the ends of stranded conductors in such a way that all the wires carry their share of the applied load, and holding the sample in the tensile testing machine. Various methods of preparing the sample ends exist, but the following methods are recommended. The use of solders to encapsulate the ends of aluminum conductors is not practicable. The stranded conductors are hard-drawn, and the temperature of the soldering operation will seriously risk annealing the strand and making it be the site of the test failure. The method that has been found to work well requires the ends of the sample to be lightly etched (which at the same time removes any grease and metal residues), dried, and encapsulated in a low-temperature thermo-curing resin. A 430-mm long length of stranded conductor is taken and binding wires tightly applied about 70 mm from each end. The conductor outside these binder wires, if noncircular, should be roughly circularized using gas pliers, and the wires in compacted conductors should be slightly loosened. A solution of 2 grams of sodium hydroxide in 100 ml of water should be made up and heated to approximately 40C 5C. The ends of the conductors must be immersed to a depth of 5565 mm and agitated for a period of 30 seconds once the solution effloresces. The ends are then removed and thoroughly rinsed in running water for several minutes, then rinsed with acetone and dried in a flow of warm air. Once dry, loose wire binders must be placed around both ends of the sample, leaving enough minimal space for the ends to be embedded in an epoxy resin. The ends of the conductor should be placed in a clean split copper tube mold sealed with plasticine (clay) down the sides and onto a base plate. The mold should be filled to a depth of 5060 mm with a cold-setting filled or unfilled epoxy resin 7-15
that has good fluidity to penetrate and encapsulate one end of the test sample at a time. A suitable low-viscosity resin is manufactured by Permabond (E3526). It cures in 24 hours at 25C, but at 5060C will cure in 12 hours. With one end encapsulated, the other end is similarly treated. Provided there is not excessive space between the outer wires of the strand and the mold, they can be left on for the tensile testing if disposable. The test piece should be placed in the tensile tester so that the resin-encapsulated ends just protrude through the inner face of the gripping jaws by 510 mm. Serrated V-shaped jaws should be used for round and shaped conductors, and the rate of straining should not be less than 25 mm/minute or exceed 100 mm/minute. If it is found that the jaw serrations are too coarse and initiate failures in the jaws, the jaws should be lined with a 60 or 90 grit emery carbide cloth and the test repeated. Solid aluminum conductors do not need to be encapsulated but can be gripped directly in the jaws of the tensile tester. Several points need to be considered. If the sample has been taken from a multicore cable, it will be spiraled by the laying-up process and it will also be twisted about its own axis. Some straightening of the sample will be necessary, and this should be minimal and carried out gently. A longer sample length may be used to accommodate a half-lay length. The rate of straining should be between 25 and 100 mm/min. The elongation at break is measured over a 200- or 250-mm length of conductor. Longer sample lengths can be tested and gauge lengths at 50 mm intervals marked. When the sample has broken, the elongation can be measured over two or three 50-mm marks spaced on either side of the break totaling 200 or 250 mm of the original gauge length. If a load/extension relationship is required, usually to establish the elastic limit for cable pulling purposes, the gauge marks should be marked as above and an extensometer fitted. Most extensometers have either point or knife-edged contacts. Care must be taken to ensure that contact is made with one or more wires in the strand and not with the gaps between two wires. This problem can be resolved by sticking copper pads 35 mm in diameter to either side of the sample with a thin strip of self-adhesive tape or similar material, and placing the extensometers contacts on these pads. The contacts should be sufficiently tight to firmly hold the pads in place during the test. (Domestic water piping makes very good contact pads.) If the design of the extensometer permits, the use of elastic bands to secure the extensometers two contact points to the sample may be a suitable alternative. Extensometers can be expensive, and as the test progresses they can lose contact with the sample and fall off. Some means of securing the extensometer to prevent it from falling onto the floor should be considered. Similarly, the extensometer should be removed from the sample before the sample breaks. The test is undertaken either by applying the load slowly and noting the extension at regular intervals of load or noting the load at regular increments of the extensometer. Some tensile testers have chart recorders that automatically plot loads against extension. If the extension is recorded as cross-head travel, the relationship will not be as accurate as that recorded by an extensometer. Some tensile testing machines have a facility whereby the extensometer drives the chart recorder, and care must be exercised to ensure that the minimum requirements of the set-up and calibration are satisfied. When a graph of load versus extension is plotted, the point at which the plot deviates from a straight line is an indication of the limit of proportionality and the load at 7-16
which plastic or permanent strain occurs. Once the load/extension relationship has been plotted, by knowing the span of the extensometer it is possible to draw lines parallel to the straight line portion of the graph to determine proof loads. Proof loads or stress are the loads or stress that will result in small amounts of permanent or plastic extension of the sample. The values normally quoted are 0.1%, 0.2%, or 0.5% permanent extension and are usually more easily identified than the elastic limit. They are also relevant to the degree of anneal test (see Section 7.3.6). Joints, whether soldered, crimped, compressed, or indented in stranded conductor, are prepared and tested in exactly the same manner as unjoined stranded conductor. The joint should be located in the center of the test length. There is little advantage in determining the elongation, because a joint, even in an annealed conductor, is not a homogenous uniform sample, and yielding will occur in the weakest part, usually in the conductor at the end of the joint. The mode of failure is as important as the breaking load. The typical failure mode in unjoined stranded conductor is a quickly progressive cascade failure at least 10 mm from the encapsulated ends or the jaws. One wire breaks, followed by two, then several more, and then the remainder breaking in the space of a few seconds, with the load falling from a maximum value at the first wire break. Solid aluminum conductors, prior to failing, will locally neck down and extend, with the development of the orange peel effect on the surface. Table 7-4 presents acceptable and unacceptable modes of failure in different types of conductor joints. The same criteria can apply to copper conductors.
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EPRI Licensed Material Aluminum Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors Table 7-4 Modes of Failure in Joined Aluminum Conductors Type of Joint No joint, just plain strand or solid aluminum conductor Soldered ferrule joint Acceptable Mode of Failure Strand or solid aluminum conductor breaks remote from the jaws or soldered or encapsulated ends. Strand breaks remote from the jaws or soldered or encapsulated ends. The strand breaks at the end of the ferrule. The strand and ferrule break together and in the same place. Strand does not pull out or partially pull out from the ferrule. Strand or solid aluminum conductor breaks remote from the jaws or ferrule. Strand or conductor breaks together in the same place. No complete lengths (unbroken) wires pull out of ferrule. Strand or solid aluminum conductor breaks remote from jaws, soldered or encapsulated ends, sleeves, or indentations. Unacceptable Mode of Failure Strand or solid aluminum conductor breaks in the jaws or close to the soldered or encapsulated ends. As above, or the complete strand pulls out of the ferrulethe soldered joints fail by longitudinal shear due to excess solder. Ferrule wrong size or not crimped closed. Strand or solid aluminum conductor pulls out of the ferrule. Ferrule splits or bells out and strand pulls out of the ferrule with some unbroken wires. Strand or solid aluminum conductor pulls out of the sleeve. Tensile break occurs at indentation with low strength. Sleeve splits or bells open, or indentation in sleeve pulls out. Strand or solid aluminum conductor fails at strand or conductor interface with weld, due to lack of fusion. Weld fails due to misalignment or defects such as porosity.
Compression ferrule flush fitting or otherwise
Indented sleeve joint
Fusion welded joint
Strand or solid aluminum conductor breaks remote from jaws, soldered or encapsulated ends, or weld. Conductor breaks in heat-affected zone close to weld but not at weld or weld conductor interface.
There are no known specified or commonly accepted criteria to which the mechanical properties of joints must comply. Where a specification does exist, it usually requires that the breaking load of a joint should be at least 80% of the strength of the unjoined strand or solid conductor. Some in-house specifications also state that the elongation should be 60% of the unjoined strand or solid conductor. This is not a valid requirement, as the joined sample is not homogenous and all the ductility may be concentrated in one area such as in the heat-affected zone of a soldered joint in hard-drawn wire stranded conductor. 7.3.6 Degree of Anneal This test is essentially a partial tensile test. It determines the amount of plastic or permanent strain that occurs after a predetermined load has been applied to the conductor for a fixed period of time. The load is usually 95% of the 0.1% proof stressthat is, the stress to give a 0.1% plastic or permanent extension strain to a fixed length. The test is occasionally carried out on solid aluminum conductors and on some special solid copper conductors. The test is not suitable 7-18
for stranded conductors in aluminum or copper or joined conductors. The aim of the test is to determine that the conductor can withstand a load not just during installation, but subsequently, where cables may pass downhill or be suspended and do not stretch. The test requires that a minimum length of solid aluminum (or copper) conductor is accurately marked with 200- or 250-mm (8- or 10-inch) gauge length, or longer, such as 400 or 500 mm (16 or 20 inches) for increased accuracy. The sample is supported in a tensile testing machine and the load increased to the equivalent of 95% of the materials 0.1% proof load and held for a minimum of 5 minutes. The load is then released and the marked gauge length measured again. The marked gauge length should not extend more than 1% of its original length. If the gauge marks have extended more than 1%, the sample is considered to have failed. There are several versions of this test, but all are designed to achieve the same or similar information. It is important that the load applied to the sample is based on a reasonable and acceptable 0.1% proof stress value for the aluminum in the condition in which it is to be tested and used. A sample of aluminum conductor taken from a cable that has been installed and in service is likely to have a higher proof stress due to cold-working during manufacture and installation, as compared to a sample of as-conformed/extruded aluminum conductor. It should also be noted that if a number of samples from the same length of solid conductor are tested there is likely to be some scatter in their 0.1% proof stress value, and a value for this test will have to be selected from the lower end of the range. 7.3.7 Preparation of Metallographic Samples of Aluminum Sections through stranded conductors and joints are prepared primarily to carry out hardness tests and to examine the effects of compression on the wires in the strand, the extent of solder filling of the interstices of the joint, and in the case of welded joints, including Cadwelded joints, the integrity of the joint and freedom from defects such as porosity. Sections may also be taken through individual wires to determine the depth and extent of defects and the quality of welds in the wire. Sections are taken through solid aluminum conductor to determine the presence and extent of any oxide seams, inclusions, and other defects. It is important to note that hot compression mounting using thermoplastic or thermosetting resins for transverse sections through individual wires or groups of wires (including stranded conductors) should not be used. The resins will not readily flow into the interstices, and at the temperatures involved some axial distortion and buckling of the sections may occur. Sections through welds and solid aluminum conductors can be hot compression mounted, but the compression should be kept to the minimum recommended for the resin. Longitudinal sections through strands must be mounted in cold-curing epoxy resins, but longitudinal sections through individual wires can be hot compression mounted, provided the minimum pressure is employed. Transverse sections can be mounted conventionally in proprietary reusable polyethylene molds with removable bases, using a thin-pouring two-part epoxy resin. Because transverse sections are short, approximately 1015 mm long, they need to be held together with two fine-wire binders before being cut from the conductor. The section cut from the conductor should be thoroughly degreased and dried before being placed in the pregreased mold. A low-viscosity proprietary metallurgical mounting resin or the Ciba Geigy resin and hardener specified in Section 4.3.2 7-19
should be used. The resin and hardener should be weighed out in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations and preferably be clear and pourable. The resin and hardener should be thoroughly mixed in a disposable plastic or waxed-paper cup, taking care not to include air when mixing. The mixture is then poured into the mold to cover the section to a depth of 5 mm. Time should be allowed for air bubbles to escape and the mold topped off with spare resin from the mixing pot if necessary. If a vacuum desiccator is available, it can be used and the vacuum gradually applied. (If full vacuum is applied immediately, the trapped air will cause the resin to boil over out of the mold.) Once the section is fully filled and no trapped bubbles exist, the mold can be removed from the vacuum and allowed to cure naturally. According to the type of resin system used and the volume of unfilled resin, the cure may be accompanied with an exothermic reaction resulting in the generation of heat. The rate of curing can be accelerated by initial gentle heating under a light bulb or over a radiator, but care must be used to avoid excessive heating during the exothermic reaction, which if not controlled to <85C by cooling in water will result in cracking of the mold. The excess resin left in the mixing cup can provide a useful guide to the curing process if placed in the same environment. When the resin has fully cured and cooled, the mount containing the section can be removed from the polymeric mold. Longitudinal sections from joints are long and narrow and will require a different molding technique than that used for transverse sections. Sections through compression joints present some additional problems. Unless there is a reason to do otherwise, they are usually cut just to one side of the centerline of the joint so that when finally prepared the center of the joint is exhibited. In cutting the longitudinal section, some wires may be pulled out of the strand or the joint; this is unavoidable. These joints can be filled with metallurgical mounting resin and cured before being sectioned. This can be achieved by applying binders to the sample and then cutting it from the conductor. If sections are cut from joints, about 35 mm of conductor should be left at each end of the jointing ferrule, if possible. Wire binders must be placed around the stranded conductor before cutting, to retain the wires and to help centralize the sample in the mold. The binders do not need to be excessively tight. One end of the sample should be filed square so that the complete joint will stand upright in a vertical cylindrical mold. Details of the resins, their mixing, the filling of the mold and curing procedures are the same as those detailed above. A copper tube with one end sealed with a piece of soldered copper sheet will provide an adequate mold. The inside of the mold must be greased using either a thin film of automotive grease or petroleum jelly (Vaseline) to ensure the release of the cured resin filled sample from the mold, which is accomplished by sawing off the sealed end and pushing out the sample. Longitudinal sections from the encapsulated sample can then be cut. To avoid pulling wires from the section, a fine-toothed saw blade should be used. If a deeper mount is required, especially for smalldiameter or small-sized conductors, the sample should be placed to one side of the mold before the resin is poured or an ovalized copper or plastic pipe used. Instead of mounting the sample vertically, it is also possible to mount the sample horizontally and form a rectangular mold from two pieces of right-angle metal or plastic positioned on their edges. Molds made from two pieces will need to be held together with wire binders and the joints sealed with plasticine or similar material. Excess space should be avoided, as it not only wastes resin, but may also result in an excessive exothermic reaction. The bottom edges of the mold should be reasonably flat so that when placed on a base plate they are easily sealed with plasticine. The insides of the mold and the base plate should be lubricated with a thin film of 7-20
grease to assist the release of the mold when the resin has cured. The section from the conductor should be placed in the center of the mold and may need some support to keep it horizontal. If the sample has been sectioned longitudinally before mounting, the cut face should be placed face down in the mold. It may be more difficult to achieve a good fill with resin using this technique, even with vacuum. Alternatively, the section can be placed on supports with the cut face upwards and the mold slightly overfilled. This will enable air bubbles to escape and provide a reasonable thickness or depth of resin under the sample. 7.3.8 Grinding and Polishing Aluminum Conductors for Metallurgical Examination Once the section has cured and been removed from the mold it can be prepared for metallurgical examination. Uncut longitudinal sections can, at this stage, be cut or machined from the mounted sample. Transverse sections can be turned on a lathe. Longitudinal sections, if not already machined, can be initially ground on a sanding belt. As water is not normally available on a sanding belt, care must be exercised to prevent the sample becoming overheated and softening the cured resin. If facilities exist, longitudinal samples can be milled flat using an end mill. In turning transverse samples on a lathe, a finely radiused alloy steel tool with a positive rake and fine cuts of 0.20.3 mm should be taken, cutting only from the outside into the center of the sample. In milling longitudinal samples flat, it is advisable to take fine cuts to avoid pulling wires out of the section. The use of soluble oil is not advised, as some mounting resins may have an adverse reaction to the oils. If a lubricant is required, either water or a light mineral oil applied sparingly with a brush is usually adequate. When the sample has been faced off, it is advisable to reverse the section in the lathes chuck and remove the sharp corner/molding flash on the underside of the sample. In rectangular samples it is easier to use a file to chamfer the sharp corners on the back and sides of the mount. After initial grinding, the sample can be wet ground on progressively finer grades of wet and dry sandpaper, using water as a coolant and lubricant. A recommended range of wet and dry sandpaper would consist of the grit sizes 80 or 90, 120, 240, 320, 400, and 600. If the sample has been faced off on a lathe, the grinding can commence on the 240 grit paper. If the papers are used on a rotating grinding platen/wheel or on a wet grinding table, a constant supply of water should be maintained and a 1-kg load applied to the sample. The direction of rotation should be opposite to the direction of the wheels rotation. In the case of a wet grinding table, the sample should be ground with a backwards and forwards movement and be turned through 90 with each change of grit size. The grinding time per paper should be approximately 3045 seconds or at least until the grinding marks of the previous paper have been completely removed plus 20 seconds. The sample should be washed with dilute liquid soap solution and rinsed to remove any residual grit before progressing to the next grit size of paper. Polishing is usually carried out on a polishing wheel rotating at 250300 rpm, using initially a 3-micron and then a 1-micron diamond paste or a diamond/water suspension automatically or manually applied. The initial polishing can be carried out on a silk cloth (hard cloth with no nap) or one of the magnetic textured discs that are on a rotating platen, now gaining popularity. The 1-micron diamond polishing is normally carried out on a softer cloth with a nap. Polishing times of 30 seconds to one minute are usually adequate, with the sample being rotated in the opposite direction to the wheels rotation. A load of approximately 1 kg applied to the sample is 7-21
sufficient. It may be necessary to apply a proprietary lubricant extender to the paste-impregnated wheel or one or two applications of the diamond suspension. Again the sample should be thoroughly washed with a dilute soap, rinsed with water, then acetone, and dried in a flow of warm air before progressing to the next-finer diamond size. The above polishing procedures can be used for transverse and longitudinal sections through single aluminum wires, stranded and solid aluminum conductors, and welds in aluminum wires and strands. Where large sections (usually longitudinal) are involved, it may not be possible to safely grind and polish them on rotary grinding and polishing wheels. This can be undertaken either by removing the platens from the grinding/polishing machines and using them on the bench or by using sheets of sandpaper on plate glass, as described in Section 6.3.7. The samples should be ground/polished in a linear manner, remembering to turn the sample through 90 at each change of grit size. Grinding should continue on a given grit size until all the scratch marks of the previous grit have been removed. The sandpaper should be well lubricated with water and the samples washed with soapy water, rinsed with water and acetone, and dried in a flow of warm air before moving to a finer grit or diamond polish. If porosity, bubbles, or poor filling of the sample exists, the risk of coarse grit and diamond particles being carried over onto finer-grit paper and polishing wheels, with scoring as a consequence, is high. The use of an ultrasonic cleaning bath will reduce this risk. The manufacturers of metallographic equipment can supply a diverse range of mounting, grinding, and polishing equipment, ranging from basic to complex, and a similarly wide range of consumables. As new procedures and techniques are developed, some of the tried and tested traditional methods detailed above will be replaced in time. The choice of systems used must be based on costs, frequency of use, and flexibility. 7.3.9 Macroetching and Microetching of Aluminum Polished samples should always be examined in the as-polished condition before macroetching or microetching and a note made of any information revealed. The presence of intergranular oxides, for example, is more easily seen before etching. Aluminum and aluminum alloy sections can be macroetched and microetched, using different solutions. If a sample has been macroetched and then requires examination of the microstructure, it must be reground and polished. (It is not necessary to repeat the whole procedure; it can be restarted on the 320 grit paper.) Macroetching will reveal grain boundaries and cracks and also differentiate between individual wires in compacted stranded conductors. Macroetching may result in some fine pitting, which is unsuitable for microexamination. Some references do not advocate the use of polishing for macroetching, as etching after fine grinding can adequately reveal the macrostructure. This is an option that can be exercised, but better macrostructural definition generally results from polishing. Microetching will also reveal the general structure and little additional information in commercially pure aluminums but may be useful in examining the structure of welded joints where aluminum alloys are likely to be present. In annealed pure aluminum, microetching will reveal equiaxed grain structures, regardless of whether a transverse or longitudinal section was taken. In fully cold-worked wires, the structure in a transverse section may be difficult to distinguish, because of its fineness, and in longitudinal 7-22
sections the structure will be extensively elongated and equally fine. The examination of aluminum and aluminum alloy microstructures can be enhanced by the use of polarized illumination on the microscope. Table 7-5 lists some techniques that have been used with some success.
Warning The use of protective equipment, including gloves and safety glasses, is strongly advised. Workers should read and fully understand the relevant MSDS (COSHH) data sheets before working with chemicals. The data sheets should be available for reference, and appropriate safety equipment should be in place. The mixing of chemicals should never be undertaken unless their reactions are known. Table 7-5 Macroetching and Microetching Reagents for Aluminum Solution Macroetchant No. 1 10 g sodium hydroxide 100 ml water Remarks Immerse sample for 515 minutes in reagent heated to 5060C. Use Pyrex glassware. Watch temperature rise, particularly with large surface areas. Rinse in copious running water several times. If smudges appear, they can be removed with a 50% nitric acid solution. Rerinse and dry with acetone and a warm airflow. Immerse or swab sample at ambient temperature until desired contrast is developed. If long immersion is required, agitate sample occasionally. Rinse with warm water and acetone, then dry in a warm airflow. Swab sample for 1020 seconds at ambient temperature. Rinse with water and acetone, then dry with a warm airflow. Swab sample for 1020 seconds at ambient temperature, rinse with cold water then acetone, and dry with a warm airflow. Immerse sample for 1020 seconds at ambient temperature, rinse with copious cold water then acetone, and dry in a warm airflow.
Macroetchant No. 2
15 ml hydrochloric acid (conc) 5 ml nitric acid (conc) 5 ml hydrofluoric acid (48%) 75 ml water 1 ml hydrofluoric acid (48%) 200 ml water 1 g sodium hydroxide 100 ml water 2 ml hydrofluoric acid (48%) 3 ml hydrochloric acid (conc) 5 ml nitric acid (conc) 190 ml water
Microetchant No. 1 Microetchant No. 2 Microetchant No. 3
Note: Where water is advised, the use of deionized, automotive battery top-off water or distilled water is recommended.
The etching reagents, if stored, should be kept in polyethylene bottles with screw caps and used in Pyrex glassware or polyethylene beakers or dishes. These reagents will blacken and heavily pit lead and lead alloys such as solders and tinning. It is therefore advised that if the lead and lead alloy components are etched and examined this should be done before the aluminum is etched.
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The etched samples can be kept in a desiccator for a limited period of time, usually one to two weeks, without repreparation. Alternatively, the samples can be preserved with a thin single layer of clear automotive varnish applied from an aerosol can. If other tests are to be carried out or photographs of the structure are to be taken, the varnish must first be removed. 7.3.10 Hardness Tests Hardness tests on stranded conductor are generally carried out on transverse sections of the conductor that have been mounted, polished, and possibly etched. Hardness tests on sections through ferrule joints, whether soldered or compressed, are generally carried out on longitudinal sections that are not mounted but may be polished, or can be carried out on transverse sections. The preparation of the samples is detailed in Sections 7.3.7 and 7.3.8. The aim of the examination is to determine and compare the hardness of the wires in each layer or to estimate the degree of compaction. The higher the hardness, the greater the cold work carried out. In sections through the joints, it is possible to compare the increase in hardness between the various sections of the ferrule and the layers of wire. Because of the small cross-sectional area of the individual wires, the hardness is usually measured using a conventional Vickers hardness tester and a load of 1.0 or 2.5 kg. Brinell or Rockwell hardness tests are not possible on wire samples because of the size of the indentation and the requirement that the indentations shall be at least 3 x D from an edge and other indentations (where D is the diameter of the indentation). Also, because of the small size of the wires, it is not possible to accurately locate the Brinell or Rockwell hardness indentation in the center of the wire section. If the hardness values are required in Brinell or Rockwell values, they must be converted by calculation or from tables. On solid aluminum conductor where there is a larger area of material, both Brinell and Rockwell Superficial T-15 (15-kg load and a 1/16-inch diameter steel ball) can be used. If using the Brinell test on both soft and fully cold-worked (hard) aluminum, an F/D2 (kg/ball diameter2) ratio of 2.5 is used. Care must be taken, because even with these conditions, the specified indentations to edge distances and thickness of material requirements may be compromised. The material thickness must be at least three times the depth of the indentation. This is important when measuring the hardness of aluminum wires in longitudinal samples where the lay of the wire may result in minimum thickness at one end of an individual wires section. The size of the indentation will be determined by the load employed. If small cross sections are involved, then smaller loads must be used, and the accuracy of measuring across the corners of the diamond indentations will need to be increased. The recording of the hardness value must include the method, the load employed, and the Brinell ball material (s = steel; w = tungsten) or the Rockwell scale used. If it is necessary to compare Brinell values with Vickers values, the following relationship exists and is accurate to 2.5% of the Vickers value. HB = 0.95HV A mathematical relationship also exists for converting Vickers hardness to Rockwell B, but is totally unsuitable for aluminum in any condition and reputable tables should be used instead. 7-24
It is strongly advised that, contrary to advice from many otherwise reliable sources, the hardness values should not be converted to tensile stress. The hardness test is not a substitute for a tensile test. 7.3.11 Degree of Fill This is a requirement that is relevant only to compound-filled, stranded conductor cables. It is a measure of the volume of compound in a length of cable, expressed as a percentage of the total space inside the lead sheath that could have been filled with compound. The work was carried out by the author on a special cable at the clients request, and although accurate measurements were made where possible, there were a number of areas where best attempts at accurate measurements, and dubious procedures specified, made the final result very suspect. This test is therefore not considered viable unless there is very good justification for it to be carried out. The test is outlined in 6.3.11. It can be carried out just as easily with aluminum conductor cables as copper, provided the correct density values are used. The degree of fill is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of compound present divided by the volume of the interstices in the conductor and insulationnamely, the total space available for the compound to fill. A value of something in excess of 98.5% was reported in this example. Whether this was accurate or acceptable was never established, and neither was the need for the work.
7.4 Faults and Defects in Aluminum Conductors

7.4.1 General Remarks The occurrence of faults in low- and medium-voltage power cable with aluminum conductors, as with copper conductors, is very infrequent, and most of the faults that do occur result from similar causes and are often located at or very close to joints or terminations. It has been found that when problems do occur in conductors remote from joints or terminations, they are usually, but not always, the consequence of mechanical damage sustained by the cable and that the insulation or lead alloy sheathing is also damaged. Manufacturing problems, incorrect installation, environmental changes to the cables situation, adjacent excavations, and work on nearby utilities can exacerbate and accelerate the development of faults. These faults may result in a failure at the time, but frequently develop over a longer period of time before becoming a failure. Aluminum is softer than copper, and incorrect installation or excessive pulling loads will stretch and damage the conductor. Usually this damage takes time to develop into a fault, and it is sometimes difficult to identify when the damage was caused. Direct mechanical damage or accidents to the cable, such as damage to the lead alloy sheath, if slight, may not be reported and may take time to develop. If serious mechanical damage occurs, it will result in sudden and immediate failure of the cable. Minor faults in the insulation and electrical faults tend to develop over a period of time and may be accompanied by minor electrical discharges (arcing), 7-25
generation of heat, and occasionally noise. Where the cable is readily accessible, such as in substation basements, in walk-through cable tunnels, and close to terminations, these signs may be detected, but more usually the first indication of a fault is a complete electrical breakdown such as a short to ground. When this happens, there is often little evidence remaining of the cause of the failure other than a collection of fused metal and burnt insulation. Despite this, a careful examination, particularly one conducted close to the site of the failure, can sometimes reveal evidence of a cause or, equally important, reveal what was not the cause. Faults in stranded aluminum wire conductors can originate from defects in the casting, rod rolling, wire drawing, and stranding, or in the extrusion or conforming process, insulation, and laying-up of the conductors. Other manufacturing operations such as heating and flexing stresses from joining, annealing, drumming, and installation can exacerbate many of these defects and cause latent defects to develop into a failure in the cable. The most common of these faults are broken wires. One or two broken wires in a large stranded conductor are unlikely to cause a problem, but in low- and medium-voltage cables with smaller cross sections and fewer wires, a wire break becomes more significant. The following notes are provided for guidance and assistance in identifying breaks and defects in wire, stranded conductors, solid conductors, and joints and terminations, but it should not be regarded as definitive. 7.4.2 Examination of Wire Breaks Wire breaks in aluminum conductors are usually easily examined and identified with good white-light illumination and at magnifications not greater than x30. Examination of wire breaks should be carried out without initial cleaning. If the wire has to be cleaned, it should be cleaned in a solvent such as acetone or alcohol in a small beaker placed in an ultrasonic bath or with a solvent cleaner aerosol. Evidence of the cause of the break usually exists at or very close to the break. The examination should therefore encompass all of the surface of the wire and extend back away from the break, as some defects are not continuous. Because aluminum rod for redrawing to wire is continuously cast, rolled, and drawn in a manner similar to the process used for copper, the cause of some of the breaks will be identical, and where relevant the same explanations have been given. Again some license has been taken with the grouping of the break descriptions for the sake of brevity. 7.4.3 Rod Casting Defects Refractory Inclusions Although molten metal filters are used to eliminate refractory inclusions, the filters need to be replaced at intervals, and refractory material can be dislodged from the collection trough into the metal flow in the process. The tundish and pouring spout are beyond the filters and are a more frequent source of refractory inclusions that enter the metal flow. In aluminum casting, the refractory inclusions are usually white or cream-colored, although some can be gray, transparent, or semiopaque. Most are gritty and friable and can exhibit a crystalline appearance.
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Oxide Inclusions Aluminum oxide is tenacious and, unlike dark-colored copper oxides, aluminum oxide is white and not always readily visible. The melting and casting operation will generate splashes that oxidize. These oxides are normally removed by slag traps and filters in the collection trough, but some will pass through the system and enter the caster. The casting will also create some molten metal splashing, and a build-up of aluminum oxides, mainly on the tip of the pouring spout. If these break off, they will enter the flow of metal into the caster. Also, on leaving the caster, the bar has to describe a 90+ bend, with a risk of cracking on the outside of its curvature. If cracking does occur, it will become oxidized and is known as hot short cracking. These oxides can cause subsequent breaks in wire drawing. The wire breaks will appear clean and shiny inside, because the white oxide is so thin. Some oxide breaks may appear as longitudinal laminations within the wire, others as either a cup or cone breaks. The cause of cup and cone breaks is a matter of contention, as they can also result from poor rod and wire drawing practices (discussed later). The cup will be at one end of the break, and the cone will form at the other end of the same break. The cup will be trumpet shaped and the cone will consist of a small cone in the center of the wire, either partly or totally surrounded by a small outer ridge. Hollow Bar Defect This is a defect that is more likely to be encountered in wheel-cast material than in other forms of continuous casting. It is the result of starvation of aluminum supplied to the casting wheel and air cavities becoming included in the cast bar. These air cavities will be oxidized and will not become sealed in hot rolling and subsequent drawing. In wire, the defect will appear as an internal shiny cavity that may extend some distance along the wire. 7.4.4 Rod Rolling Defects Ferrous Inclusions These inclusions occur less frequently in aluminum than in copper, because of the lower temperatures and working loads, but they do occasionally occur. They originate from the breakdown of the surface of the rolls due to thermal fatigue. Most of the metal particles will drop into the sump to be carried away with the emulsion, but a few will become embedded into the surface of the aluminum rod. Many of these inclusions will be detected by continuous eddy current or ferrous inclusion detectors, but not removed. Because the rod is for drawing power cable conductors, it is regarded as low criticality, and usually a higher level of inclusions will be tolerated. Some of these inclusions may cause breaks during the wire drawing and subsequent operations. If a break occurs in the wire of the conductor due to the presence of a ferrous inclusion, it will be less evident in aluminum than in copper because of the poor color contrast. It will exist as a small discrete steel gray lump embedded in the surface of the wire, indicating a single inclusion or string of inclusions aligned along the wire. It may be attracted to a magnet and will occupy less than about half the wires diameter. Roll steels will be attracted to a magnet; some stainless steels are not. 7-27
Inclusion Cavity This is the same as a ferrous inclusion except the inclusion has dropped out, leaving a clean, Vshaped angular cavity in the wires surface. It has frequently been found that farther along the same line in the wires surface there may be evidence of retained ferrous inclusions. Seams and Laps If during the rod rolling operation, misalignment of the rod with the rolls occurs, a rolling flash will be produced and will be rolled into the surface of the rod by the next pair of rolls. This defect may persist through the rod drawing stage and end up as a longitudinal seam or lap (foldover) in the finished wire or conductor, without actually breaking. If in the outer layer of the conductor, the sharp raised edges may damage the conductor screens. 7.4.5 Wire Drawing Defects Cup and Cone Breaks As mentioned above, the cause of these breaks is frequently a matter of contention. They can result from oxides in the rod or wire, or from poor drawing practices. This problem is more difficult to identify in aluminum than in copper, because the presence of aluminum oxide is difficult to detect. A properly drafted set of dies in good condition and matched to the machines built-in draft will satisfactorily draw aluminum rod and wire. An incorrect set of dies that do not match the drawing machines characteristics, one or more badly worn dies in the set, or one or more incorrect die sizes in a set, will result in cup and cone breaks in otherwise good aluminum rod and wire. The wire breaks are the same shape as those resulting from drawing rod and wire containing oxides, except that there is no discoloration. Again, the cone will point to the direction in which the wire was drawn, but because the wire has been unwound from the drawing take-up spool the direction will be reversed. This will occur each time the conductor is rewound in production. Blocked Dies Aluminum rod is soft and more prone than copper to mechanical damage by indentation, abrasion, and scoring in transit, storage, and use. Aluminum also suffers from pressure welding at points of contact during tight coiling of hot rod and wire, and when pulled apart the weld breaks, leaving pitting and spikes at the points of contact. Welding flashes that are not removed, and chipped or damaged dies, will all generate rough surfaces on the rod and wire. These defects, together with those from the rolling process, will be drawn into the dies, and although jets of drawing emulsion will wash most of them out, some will remain in the die entrance. These will build up progressively in the die entrance, restricting the access of lubricant, and will result in rod or wire drawing breaks.
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Spills or Slivers Some of the defects that could break off and block the drawing dies can be drawn into the rod and wires surface and appear as single particles or lines of elongated discrete particles of aluminum. When the wire is flexed during spooling, unspooling, compaction, or pretwisting, some of these particles will lift up or break off, creating sharp protrusions on the stranded conductors surface, and aluminum dust. Large spills and slivers have caused wire breaks in stranding and subsequent operations, but they also contribute to the potential deterioration of the conductor in service. Some of these spills or slivers may penetrate into the conductors screen and insulation. The breaks caused by spills and slivers will contain elongated impressions of the spill in the wires surface at the break; the spill or sliver may still be present. Weld Breaks The wire drawing process will cause poorly made welds to break before passing through more than two or three dies. The drawing operation will therefore act as a form of quality control. However, poor-quality welded joints made in the wire near the end of the wire drawing process may survive and end up in the stranded conductor, just as welds made to join the ends of wires on successive spools on the stranding machine are included. They can break during flexing and twisting. Resistance butt welds that break will have a fish-mouthed appearance. Cold pressure weld breaks will exhibit very square ends and, if the weld has passed through less than three or four dies, will still reveal the almost semicircumferential gripping marks of the welding machines jaws. In the case of both welding methods there may be evidence of file or abrasive paper marks on the wire surface that have not been removed if the wire has not passed through more than three or four dies. Tensile Breaks These breaks are caused by loads in excess of the wires tensile strength and are characterized by a symmetrical reduction in cross section or necking down of the wire to the fracture. These breaks are usually the result of excessive back tension, snatch loads caused by jammed spools, or tangles entering the guides or compacting die. It has also been recorded that shavings and slivers in a compacting die have led to tensile breaks in wires in a stranded conductor. Tensile breaks that occur in solid aluminum conductor during redrumming, insulation, and laying-up of multicore cables are very infrequent, and result in all or part of the length being scrapped. The causes are usually turns of conductor trapped between the drums flange and the next layer of conductor on the drum. The worse scenario is a trapped turn pulling free, becoming abraded on the corners and locally necked in the process, and not being detected. The damaged solid aluminum conductor then enters the insulating line, where the defect is hidden and included in the cable.
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7.4.6 Defects in Stranded Aluminum Conductors The preceding comments relate to defective and damaged wires and solid aluminum conductor becoming included in the strand or conductor laying-up process. There are, however, other defects that can occur during the manufacture of the conductor, its installation, and its service life that can adversely affect its appearance and effective life. In copper, many of these defects result in the discoloration of individual wires, groups of wires, or the whole strand, but in aluminum, discoloration or tarnishing of the wire or strand is seldom evident, due to the light color of the white aluminum oxide. Table 7-6 lists some of the common defects that may be found in stranded aluminum conductors after they have been in service. The list does not attempt to cover all the possible faults, only those the author has examined.
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EPRI Licensed Material Aluminum Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors Table 7-6 Defects in Stranded Aluminum Conductors Location Fine dark gray/black deposits and polished areas along the interstices of some or all of the wires in the stranded conductor. Appearance The gray/black deposits are fine aluminum dust and are usually associated with bright shiny patches on adjacent wires. Reason This can occur in older uncompacted conductors where they have been subjected to vibration or regular flexing of the cable. The discoloration can also result from vibration in transport. The polished areas are on the wires where adjacent wires have been rubbing together. It is also claimed that slack or loose insulation is a possible cause. Hard wire and insufficient back tension during stranding causes this problem. The problem can also occur in stranded copper conductors but is more common in aluminum, which is more frequently used in the hard-drawn condition and has less back tension due to its low tensile strength. The roughness is caused by galling of the wires surface due to pick-up of aluminum deposits on guides and in the compacting die, due usually to either a worn guide or die, or an absence of lubrication in the compaction process. There are several reasons for this, including a repair to a broken wire where the excess length has been accommodated by buckling. The spools on the stranding carriages are friction braked to apply back tension. If this is omitted the drums can overrun and an excess length of wire becomes compacted, with accompanying buckling and kinks.
The outer layers are loose and have expanded to a larger diameter.
This is known as bird caging of the wires in the outer layer of the strand and is unlikely to be found in modern cables.
Usually the outer wires of a stranded conductor, but may be also be present on the inner layers of wires. Local buckled, kinked, or distorted wire or wires, possibly with heavier, or more than normal, or transverse abrasions and possibly some loss of dimensions.
Rough and almost torn finish on the outer facing surfaces of wires in the strand. This is an indication that a wire has come out of the conductor in the outer layer and has been manually replaced or has been forced back in before compaction or has been dressed with a file and emery cloth after compaction. Probably corrosion; may be associated with white deposits, pitting, and moisture. There may be more evidence of the above under the outer layer.
Patchy, light to dark gray/black discoloration on the outer wires of the strand conductor, with possibly some white deposits.
Corrosion of aluminum can result in voluminous deposits and is usually associated with the ingress of water tracking along the interstices of the strand. This can occur at the leading or trailing end of a length during the extrusion of the insulation onto a conductor when the insulation is cooled in a water trough. This moisture can track a considerable distance along a conductor. Care should be exercised to avoid confusion with the following defect.
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EPRI Licensed Material Aluminum Stranded and Solid Aluminum Conductors Table 7-5 (continued) Defects in Stranded Aluminum Conductors Location Areas of fine light pitting of wires with adjacent fine black deposits, usually on the edges of shaped (stranded and solid) conductors but also to a lesser extent on circular conductors of older compound-filled cables. Fine particles of aluminum (and copper) dust and slivers on and in the interstices of the wires in the stranded conductor. Appearance Electrical discharges or arcing from the edges of the conductor where higher electrical stresses can exist. There may also be some damage or puncturing of the conductor screens with a wax-like deposit around the holes. The aluminum (and copper) particles will be clearly visible at low magnifications and may not have originated from the piece or length of conductor being examined. Reason The dielectric conductor screens become weakened not only with age but also by stress and flexing on the corners of shaped conductors. With the higher electrical stress, some electrical discharging may occur. The pits in the conductor are usually fine, shallow, circular and often shiny. The breakdown of the less-stabilized compounds results in polymerization, hence the waxy deposits and the formation of hydrochloric acid.
All the wires in the conductor are evenly discolored dull gray.
Found on older cables, the discoloration extending through the strand.
Fine wax or hard greasy deposits sometimes containing particles of aluminum or black deposits in the stranded conductor.
These may be small flakes of wax or grease molded to the contours of the interstices of the stranded conductor and may range in color from white to dark gray and contain particles of aluminum.
The dust is the result of abrasion in the compacting operation due to worn wire guides, dies, rollers, insufficient lubrication, or slip on the capstan. Some abrasion is inevitable during compaction, but excessive dust that migrates into the conductor screens and insulation is not acceptable. Copper dust may originate from insufficient cleaning after the prior processing of a copper conductor. Aluminum dust particles can also result from aluminum screening tapes applied at the next stage. Excessive metal dust in the conductor and screens is dangerous and unacceptable. Some older cables (pre-1960) were lead alloy sheathed, the conductors connected to a dc supply, a vacuum applied to the sheath, and the cable placed in a hot steam environment to remove any remaining moisture from the paper insulation before filling with compound. If the required vacuum was not held after the requisite time period it was presumed that there was still moisture in the papers. More probably a small leak existed and steam was drawn into the cable, causing the discoloration and oxidation of the conductor. Heavy electrical loads on the cable in service could also have the same effect. A fine wax or oil coating may be used on the wire to prevent galling and to lubricate the passage of the aluminum wire through the stranding wire. Either due to excess application or due to build up on guides, this wax or oil may be wiped off and become entrained in the conductor with aluminum dust and particles. Some occasional small deposits are acceptable.
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7.4.7 Defects in Solid Aluminum Conductors There are four main defects that are likely to be encountered in solid aluminum conductors: a concentration of oxides in the conductor, loss of dimensions including orange peel effect, mechanical damage, and corrosion. Some of these have been discussed earlier, but it may be useful to review the information at this point in the report. The presence of oxides can occur in the section from the use of dirty feedstock, both in conventional extrusions and in Conformed sections. Any oxide inclusions will be present as a longitudinal seam and can be detected in a transverse microsection through the conductor. Small amounts of oxides, being longitudinally orientated, will have little effect on the cross section and are acceptable. In Conformed sections, the oxides are usually located tangentially to one of the flat faces and may curve inwards forming a small, question-mark shaped mark. Ideally, in both extruded and Conformed conductors, at least two additional sections should, if possible, be taken on either side of the initial section to establish if the inclusion is of consistent proportions or is increasing/decreasing in one direction. As the oxide inclusions in Conformed conductors usually break the surface, a visible seam may be present; if the inclusion is large the surface seam may be feathered and a source of slivers, which could cause insulation problems. The most common form of mechanical damage can occur during unwinding of the solid conductor from the supply drum. Vibration during transit or off-winding can cause a turn at the end of a layer on the drum to drop down into a gap between the drum flange and the layer of conductor below. The aluminum is in the annealed condition, and as the turn is pulled out the corners may become damaged and abraded. The load required to pull the turn out may exceed the elastic limit of the conductor, and permanent stretching may occur, possibly with visible orange peel effect. Awareness of this potential problem and suitable packing with corrugated paper has largely eliminated this problem. The use of hardboard linings on the barrel and internal flanges of the supply drum also reduces nail head damage and flats from barrel timbers. The most common cause of corrosion in both stranded and solid aluminum conductors is water. In current practice, the extruded polyethylene insulation of both stranded and solid aluminum is vacuum-applied, and the leading end enters a water quench trough immediately after extrusion. If the leading end of the conductor is not properly sealed, water ingress between the conductor and the extruded sheath occurs and can penetrate under the extruded insulation for several hundred meters. Water ingress can also occur on site, not only during installation, when cable ends are sometimes left in water, but also sometimes after installation if the servings at cable joints and terminations are not adequately sealed or become damaged. The tight fit of the extruded sheathing onto the conductor provides the ideal circumstances for crevice corrosion to develop. This corrosion has two basic reactions:
The oxidation reaction, M M+ + e The reduction reaction, O2 + 2H2O +4e 4OH-
In crevice corrosion, the oxygen in the crevice becomes depleted and the reduction reaction ceases, although the oxidation reaction continues and an excess of M+ occurs. This is balanced 7-33
by the migration of negatively charged ions, such as hydroxide (OH-) and chloride (Cl-) ions, into the crevice. The chloride ions are more mobile and the following reaction takes place: M+ Cl- + H2O MOH (deposits) + H+ ClThe H+ Cl- will react with water to form hydrochloric acid, which will perpetuate the reaction. In the case of aluminum conductors, the M+ and M in the MOH is aluminum and the deposits will be aluminum hydroxide, which in part will react with carbon dioxide in the air to form some aluminum carbonates. 7.4.8 Breaks in Conductors and Joints Breaks in stranded aluminum conductors and jointing ferrules are rare. Site failures examined by the author, apart from testing jointing ferrules, included two tensile failures resulting from the use of a noncalibrated pulling-in winch dynamometer, and a poorly soldered ferrule during cable rerouting. Another failure was an electrical breakdown of a poorly aligned and very porous MIG welded joint in a stranded aluminum conductor. It should be appreciated that size for size, the tensile strength and ductility of hard-drawn aluminum conductors, as compared to annealed copper conductors, are approximately half those of copper. Also, the joining of aluminum conductors where heat is involvedin other words, soldering or welding (MIG, TIG) and Cadweldingnot only anneals the aluminum but usually requires more skill than is required for joining copper conductors. The current trend is to ensure that the joints in aluminum conductors are stronger than the stress equivalent to the elastic limit of the unjoined conductor and to use lubricated pulls. An excessive load will cause a tensile failure in a stranded aluminum conductor. The failure will occur as a cascade failureone wire will break, then a few more in quick succession, then the remainder. All the wires will exhibit tensile failures, and their shapes will be affected by the degree of compaction. The breaks may occur close together, or they may be distributed over a short length of conductor (seldom more than 350 mm). Breaks that occur in solid aluminum conductors will also exhibit tensile characteristics and be influenced by the shape of the conductor. Joints in stranded and solid aluminum conductors are more complex. In older cables, the joint in the conductor is likely to have been soldered or possibly welded. Where heat has been employed in the manufacture of the joint, such as a soldered ferrule or welding, the failure will usually occur in the conductor at one end of the ferrule or in the heat-affected zone of the conductor adjacent to the weld. In poorly made soldered or welded joints, either the conductor will pull out of the ferrule or break within the ferrule, or the ferrule will break. Where this happens, there will be clear evidence of shear and longitudinal tearing in the solder under the ferrule. Common causes of failures are oversized ferrules, excess solder between the conductor and the bore of the ferrule, conductors not butted together in the ferrule, and poor tinning/dewetting or excess porosity. Dewetting of the solder is the result of poor fluxing or excess temperature and is evident by the presence of black (carbonaceous) deposits and lack of solder on the strands and/or bore of the ferrule.
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The current increasing trend involving the use of indented joining sleeves filled with oxidationresistant compound for both stranded and shaped aluminum conductors presents a slight problem, as the few failures that have occurred are reported to be operator error and were remade without examination. The indentation or indentations are designed to break through the oxide film, and the compound is intended to prevent reoxidation. These joints, if subjected to high tensile loads, should result in a tensile failure of the conductor close to the end of the ferrule or jointing sleeve. The break should not occur in the sleeve or in the conductor at one of the indentations. If a failure of this nature does occur at one of these positions, it is probably due to excessive indentation depth or pressure, or to the use of the incorrect joining ferrule. If failure occurs in the ferrule or at the indentation, then either excessive force was used or the indentation was too severe. Although numerous sections through Cadwelded joints in stranded and solid aluminum conductors and in aluminum-to-copper conductors have been examined, little evidence of potential faults was detected. The most common defects were slight porosity in the welds and in one instance some slight undercutting of wires at the edge of the fused mass. If subjected to excessive loads or bending stresses, fusion-welded joints in aluminum conductors, whether MIG or TIG, will fail adjacent to the welded joint in the heat-affected zone. Other factors that will adversely affect the strength of the joint are misalignment of the conductors, excessive porosity in the weld, and a lack of fusion of some wires into the weld. With this type of welding, some porosity will be present in the weld. It is acceptable in moderation. These defects are more likely to result in electrical faults, and failures are usually initiated by electrical discharges and damage to the insulation. 7.4.9 Installation and Service Breaks
See Section 8.
7.4.10 Examination of Failures in Aluminum Conductors See Section 9.
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INSTALLATION AND SERVICE BREAKS
The full range of faults that can occur in low- and medium-voltage cables, even if the focus is confined to the metallic components such as lead, lead alloys, and copper and aluminum conductors, is very extensive. For every example of failure experienced by the author and described in this report, there are likely many more that have not been discussed. In order to provide some sort of guide, it is necessary to establish what is meant by a cable fault. For the purposes of this report, a cable fault will be regarded as the development of a condition in the cable or its terminations that places the continued reliable operation of the cable at a high risk of failure. This does not imply that the cable has failed electrically, although in many cases an electrical failure to ground is the first indication that a prior fault may have existed. For the purposes of this report, the fault may include the cables metallic components, or the termination of the sheath or conductor in a joint between two cables or at a transformer, switch gear, buss bar, or the like. The notes do not address insulation, grounds, or link boxes, or accessories and equipment to which the cable is connected. In practice, it would be reasonable to claim that the majority of faults that occur in low- and medium-voltage cables usually fall into two groups: those that occur in the cable itself, and those that occur in or very close to joints and conductor terminations. Of these two groups, those that occur in the cable itself (and away from joints or terminations) are relatively few in number, and generally involve cracking, splitting, corrosion, or mechanical damage to the lead alloy sheath at some stage of the failure process. The greatest number of faults are located close to, or at, joints or terminations of the conductors, or at the lead alloy sheath or sleeve. This is not only true for low- and medium-voltage cables but also for high-voltage gas- or oil-filled cables up to 750 kV, and 300 kV dc submarine cables. Faults in cables fall into two categories, according to the original source: those that are due to defective materials or faults in the construction of the cable, and those that are associated with cable handling, splicing, and the external environment. The latter group includes mechanical damage during transit, storage, installation (including workmanship), and service. Splicing has been included as an external factor, as this may not be under the control of the cable manufacturer, particularly in the case of low- and medium-voltage cables where contractors may be employed, or where the utility company itself installs and joins the cable. Of these two sources of faults, the greatest cause of failure is from circumstances other than the cable itself. It is also the ends of the cables that tend to receive the harshest treatment in manufacture, transit, storage, splicing/wiping, installation, and service. Because of this, there are usually more faults at or near the ends of cables and cable terminations. There are exceptions, however, and failures are not always so simply categorized. In summary, the most common location of faults resulting in the failure of a cable circuit is likely to be in or close to a splice or termination, and the cause is most likely to be circumstances external to the cable.
8-1
EPRI Licensed Material Installation and Service Breaks
Many cables are electrically tested by the manufacturer before shipping, on completion of the installation, and frequently at intervals during the cables service life. Despite this testing, faults develop in the cables, and circuits fail. Electrical testing indicates that at the time of testing the integrity of the polyethylene sheath and electrical insulation was satisfactory and that there was no circuit to ground. Some faults may exist at the time of testing and not be detected. These tend to be either nonsignificant faults or faults that are slowly developing, such as slow bending or flexing that will eventually result in failure. Other faults develop either instantaneously or very quickly, such as mechanical damage to the cables sheath and insulation by a pneumatic drill, and if the circuit is live, almost instantaneous failure to ground or immediately after the circuit is energized. It should be noted that when a fault develops in a cable system, the primary concern is to make a repair to reestablish the supply of electricity. An investigation into the cause of a fault is often regarded as a waste of time (and money), particularly if the cause and the indicated repair are perceived to be obvious and straightforward. Because of this, many faults go unreported, and accurate statistics on the frequency and causes of cable failures are therefore not always available. It is not uncommon for a repair to be extended several times before a thorough investigation of the cause is undertaken. In one instance, the lead alloy sheath of a 66-kV oilfilled cable was repaired with a lead alloy repair sleeve. Over the next 12 years, the repair sleeve was extended on seven occasions and was eventually 108 meters long before the cable was examined and the cause of the fault was identified: slow straining resulting in ground movement due to a leaking water main. Up to this point the report has dealt with faults arising during manufacture, in sheaths, sleeves, wire, and stranded and solid conductors, that could lead to breaks and eventually failures in the cables. It is equally possible that these faults may be present throughout the service life of the cable and not cause a problem or a failure. It is also well documented that perfectly sound sheaths, sleeves, wires, and stranded and solid conductors can develop faults during transit, storage, installation, and service. Many of the failures occurring during the cables service life may be caused by the environment in which the cable is installed or because of changes in that environment, the rerouting of the cable, or the resiting of terminations. Adverse environments can eventually cause problems and possibly failure of the cable. The most common types of faults likely to occur will be caused by tensile bending and flexing strains or corrosion. The tensile breaks will appear identical in shape and form to tensile breaks discussed earlier. The only indication that these faults have not occurred during manufacture is that they are likely to be close to joints or terminations. Also, manufacturing defects and faults tend to leave a mark on the adjacent materials such as the core screens, insulation, or metallic or polyethylene sheathing. Tensile breaks usually develop from longitudinal or bending strains in the cable. During installation, high pulling loads can result from complex lubricated and unlubricated pulls, pulling large cables into small ducts or into damaged or partially blocked ducts. Similar problems can also result from installing a cable in a duct already occupied by an old cable, particularly where the cables outer protection is old and brittle, or where wrapped protection or bituminous servings have deteriorated with time and the environment. In this situation, it is more likely that the old cable will become damaged, rather than the new cable that is being installed. If a dynamometer or some other load indicator is not used, or a maximum pulling load is not 8-2
specified, then there is a risk that a cable will be overstressed during its installation pull. Cables installed in ducts are usually nose-pulled as opposed to using a bond pull. A pulling grip is fitted to the leading end of the cable and should be bonded to both the conductor and sheath; the cable is then pulled in with a hawser (steel rope) fitted to the end of the pulling grip. A bond pull is used where a difficult pull is anticipated. A hawser is tied at intervals (bonded) to the complete or significant length of the cable, and both are pulled in parallel. After installation, the hawser is untied and removed. This cannot be done in ducts, which is why cables installed in ducts are nose-pulled. A nose-pull relies on the pulling grip being properly bonded to both the sheath and the conductor. If the conductor is not bonded to the pulling grip, the sheath will carry the full load and will be stretched beyond the end of the conductor. If the load is sufficiently high it may circumferentially fracture the sheath, with obvious signs of ductile tensile failure. The fracture will usually occur fairly close to, or within a meter of, the pulling grip. With the relaxation of the pulling load, the polyethylene sheath may recover some of its elongation and the fault may not be initially obvious under the sheathing. Alternatively, the pull may not cause sufficient damage to the cables lead sheath to make the evidence detectable at the time of installation, particularly if the damage is slight. Excessive pulling loads, even with properly bonded pulling grips, will damage the lead alloy sheath and the conductors, especially if they are solid aluminum. Where excessively high loads have been used to pull a cable there may be several indicators other than a high dynamometer load, if one was used. The evidence is frequently at or close to the leading end of the pull, as discussed above. In a good pull, the ends of the sheath and conductor will be coincidental when the grip is removed for splicing. In a harsh pull, the end of the sheath and conductor may not be coincidental. There will also be high electrical resistance in the conductor and possibly visual evidence of local elongation in the lead sheathing, or in the plumbed wipe bonding the sheath to the pulling grip. Because this is not due to slow straining, the lead sheath may not exhibit any evidence of cracking on a cursory examination. However, the lead sheath will however be reduced locally in diameter and wall thickness. Once a cable has been installed and tested satisfactorily, it is still possible for failures to occur. Again, the most frequent cause of problems is slow bending strain. It is unlikely that slow bending strain will seriously affect the conductors, but it will result in cracking of lead sheath that can lead to the ingress of water and cause corrosion. Slow straining is frequently associated with the loss of support under the cable. This can be caused by an absence of adequate support of the cable during installation. The most frequent examples occur at duct mouths, where the cable enters or exits the duct. Ground movement at duct mouths can occur naturally, due to the erosion of any installed support, frequently by water or traffic vibration, or by compaction where building and site construction work is carried out over cable routes. This will result in tensile bending strains at or near the duct mouth. Failures can also occur in duct runs remote from the ends. These failures can result from natural movement of the ground in which the duct is installed, or where traffic or vibration has caused compaction of the ground in which the ducts are laid. When a duct subsides or the support under the cable at a duct mouth is lost, tensile bending strain may, slowly over a period of time, be imposed on the cable. This will result in slow straining and cracking of the lead, usually on the outer radius of the bend. This cracking is usually transverse, abrupt-edged, and not accompanied by any evidence of local ductility. There is also the situation where a duct collapses or breaks and directly damages the cables in the duct. In one instance, this appeared as a shallow semicircular section groove passing circumferentially around the apex of the plumb. Another form of ground movement is mass ground movement, 8-3
which can occur where cables are installed in ducts down an incline or hill. Over a period of time, the ground can settle by natural compaction due to weathering, and movement of the cable and ducts down the hill can occur. This will apply a slow tensile strain to the cables lead alloy sheath or on a plumbed wipe, if a joint exists at or near the top of the hill. A relatively fast axial tensile stress on a plumbed wipe will cause local necking of the wipe or the adjacent lead sheath; slow straining will cause apparently brittle cracking and no local ductility. Another common cause of failure in cables resulting from installation stresses is welded joints made during manufacture and also on site prior to installation. Welded joints made in the course of the cables manufacture are made under ideal conditions, usually by a trained and experienced operator, while joints made on site, usually as the result of a repair or rerouting, are sometimes made under less than ideal conditions and are more likely to contain defects. The defects likely to be found in welded joints are porosity, nonconducting inclusions (oxide), and lack of fusion between the weld and the prepared end of the conductors. These defects in welded joints, if subjected to flexing or aggressive manipulation, can develop, causing local higher resistance and overheating, further enhancing the problem. Accelerated aging and embrittlement of the insulation will occur, followed by breakdown and arcing until a ground fault develops, either in a short period of time or over several years. This subject is discussed in greater detail later. Movement of the cable relative to its environment, rather than movement of the cable with its environment, can also lead to failure. There are two general scenarios. One is where the cable is well supported in ducting or troughing, and the other is where the cable is poorly supported or is suspended in excessively long lengths. Considering the first case, cables are installed cold and if in ducts or troughing, are installed by pulling and are straight. When the cable is energized, it heats and its length will increase. A 4000-meter length of small cable, depending on its construction, could with a 50oC rise in conductor temperature increase its length by more than 30 centimeters and generate a force in excess of 6895 kPa. This expansion should be accommodated by regular sinusoidal snaking of the cable. Where this snaking is prevented, either by overfilling the duct or troughing with other cables or by the ingress of earth, sand, or debris washed in by water, localized bending will occur to accommodate the expansion. When the cable comes off load it will try to recover its original position by straightening. This concentrated bending and straightening can occur often more than twice a day, and usually in one direction. This will result in fatigue cracking of the lead alloy sheath, which generally occurs on the outer radius of the bend but can also occur on the inner radius of the cable as the cable straightens. Furthermore, there can be an accompanying ratchet effectas the cable moves in one direction, the other cables, sand, or earth in the duct or trough move with it. This backward and forward movement may not be equal; the greater movement is downhill and can be lubricated by water in the duct. Each movement is infinitesimal per bend cycle but over a number of years the movement can be significant, resulting in transverse fatigue cracking of the lead sheath, damage to the outer servings and lead alloy sheaths of the other cables in the duct, and damage to the ducting. A good example of this is railway trackside cable laid in concrete channels with concrete lids. Movement of the cable is restricted by other signal and telecommunication cables being laid in the troughing and the ingress of stone chips. In addition to fluctuating loads, strong sunlight can also impose another thermal cycle on the cable. Localized flexing of cable occurs by arching and has frequently been found to displace the concrete lids from the troughs, permitting more ingress of stone and other materials. 8-4
The other general scenario is movement of the cable with its environment. This can occur as axial movement of the cable, such as down a hill due to natural ground movement, as described above, or lateral movement due to vibration, which can also result in failure. One example of this was close to the termination of a large section of 1.1-kV cable and assorted smaller cables and service cables in a substation. The cables had been removed from their regular wall-mounted support brackets and suspended, with four widely spaced rope ties, from timbers spanning the site of demolition and reconstruction work. The vibration from the pneumatic hammers had initiated fatigue cracking on the outer radius of curvature of the lead sheathing at each of the rope tie positions. These cracks subsequently propagated into through-cracks by vibrations from the new diesel generators adjacent to the reconstructed wall on which the cables were reinstalled. The two most severe areas of cracking were where the previous rope tie positions coincided with two of the new, closer-spaced wall brackets. A problem occurred over a period of nine weeks and was discovered when additional cables were being installed. A second incident occurred in the lead sheaths of several medium- and low-voltage cables in a bundle of cables containing service and telecommunication cables laid on the deck of a temporary steel girder bridge, installed to carry traffic over a canal while a new road bridge was being constructed. The cables were laid outside the public barrier on steel sheeting supported by outriggers from the main decking of the bridge. The failures occurred as fatigue cracks in the upper surface of the lead alloy sheath above the main supporting columns near either end of the bridge. The variable density of traffic and loading over the ramps at both ends of the bridge, together with a complex loading pattern in the center of the span, caused the bridge to flex. This applied a bending strain to the cable above the main supports of the bridge, resulting in fatigue cracking over a period of ten months. In both instances, the cables did not crack at the positions of maximum movement in the center of the span but at positions where support had been provided and where the bending moment was at a maximum. A third example involved a 66-kV three-core oil-filled cable that was well supported in a horizontal position in the basement of a substation where the oil pressure was maintained not by the usual prepressurized oil tanks but by hydraulic pumps that operated to maintain the pressure between 16 and 30 psi. Despite the presence of reinforcement tapes over the lead, the lead sheath developed extensive longitudinal fatigue cracks adjacent to the lay of the cores where intercore flattening had occurred. Slow bending at the intercore positions had occurred due to recircularization of the sheath, the pressure, and the pulses from the pumps causing fatigue. A somewhat unique fatigue failure of copper conductors occurred in a hybrid low-voltage, telecommunication, and hydraulic hose submarine umbilical cable package being installed between an oil platform and remote submarine well heads. Due to bad weather, the cable-laying vessel had to remain stationary for 60 hours. The flexing, from movement of the cable-laying ship, and vibrations caused by vortex shedding from the tidal flow, resulted in fatigue failure of the more-rigid stranded copper power conductors and regular buckling of the annealed telecommunication conductors. The conductors had elongated with their polyethylene sheathing, but on removal of the stress, the polyethylene sheathing had recovered its elastic strain, which was greater than the recovery of the plastic strain in the telecommunication conductors. This was accommodated by compression and buckling of the telecommunication conductors. The presence of apparent beach marks and striations on the fractured surfaces of the individual wires in the power cable conductors, visible only with the aid of a scanning electron microscope, was confirmation of fatigue failure of the wires of the strand. 8-5
In a final example, corrosion occurred in a lead alloy sheathed low-voltage cable buried in the ground that was supplying power to an automatic telephone exchange, remote from any direct current power source. The corrosion was, however, typical of direct current attack, with lead peroxide and deep, clean hemispherical bottomed pits. Attempted measurements of current flow were carried out on many occasions, but no current flow was detected. It was only when the cable was in the process of being replaced and the current flow equipment was being disconnected that a flow of current was detected. It appeared that the exchange had a large bank of lead acid batteries for use in the event of power loss. Only when the main power supply was broken did the standby system switch in. Direct current was found to be going to ground through the power cable sheath at a position where reinstated servings at a joint had not been adequately extended onto the original extruded polyethylene sheathing.
8-6
PROCEDURE FOR EXAMINING CABLE FAILURES
9.1 General
The examination of failures in cables should follow a set procedure that begins on site before the samples are taken. The usual repair procedure is to cut out and replace a length of faulty cable, or to remove a short piece of damaged lead sheath by cutting along the top of the cable, remove the damaged lead, and insert a new piece. A conscientious site engineer will probably clean the sample and remove all evidence of the cables immediate environment. However, samples should not be cleaned on site; they should be submitted as found. They should be clearly identified by attaching a label, and not by scratching the samples identity on the lead. The sample should be wrapped to prevent damage during storage on site and during transit. With oilor compound-filled cables, they should be capped or the ends sealed to prevent leakage. Short samples of small or low- and medium-voltage cables can be placed in plastic bags or wrapped in bubble wrap and sealed. Where it is necessary to preserve the straightness of a cable sample, it should be taped to a length of timber. To retain the curvature of a cable sample it should be placed on a sheet of plywood and held in place with small blocks of wood at intervals along both sides of the cable, the blocks of wood being secured to the plywood with adhesive, nails, or screws. Cable samples should not be left lying around at the site but should be stored in a clean, dry environment before being shipped. As stated earlier, it is also valuable to have as much information as possible about the location of the sample, such as the length number, route, size, phase, location and nature of the fault, and details of the cables service history (such as installation date, any previous problems, and adjacent repairs). On receipt, the sample should be examined as submitted and without any form of cleaning. Details of length, outer sheathing and any printed or embossed identification on the sheathing, and the condition of the sheathing, such as score marks and accumulated debris, should be noted. If possible, photographs of the sample should be taken, together with sketches showing details of any damage and dimensions. It may be useful at this stage to establish what recent damage was caused in removing the sample and what is old damage, and if the sample was not marked, what was the uppermost surface when installed. The general condition of the insulation and the amount of visible conductor and its appearance should be recorded, together with notes of the conductors basic construction. The presence of any unusual materials should be noted, along with their shape, sizes, and condition. If an electrical discharge occurred before or (more usually) during the final stage of the breakdown, some alloying of the metals present may have occurred. In the course of the final breakdown a lot of energy and heat may have been dissipated, and some of the original materials lost, burned, charred, or covered with a black carbonaceous deposit.
9-1
EPRI Licensed Material Procedure for Examining Cable Failures
9.2 Equipment
Before the sample is examined the following equipment and tools should be available:
Lighting equipment. Good daylight is the best illumination. However, this might not always be available, and a good, cold white light source such as a fluorescent lamp of 120 watts is necessary. Alternatively, a 150-watt halogen light source with twin flexible optical fiber arms, which can be individually positioned and focused, and a fluorescent ring light to fit around the objective lens of the microscope, should be used. This illumination system is excellent for photography with and without the microscope. A low-magnification stereo microscope with a triple turret for binocular viewing and a facility to mount a digital camera. The magnification should be variable, from approximately x5 to x40. A x0.5 and a x2 objective lens would be a useful accessory. The minimum clearance between the base of the microscope and the objective lens should be variable and should range from 15 to at least 38 centimeters. The reach of the microscopethat is, the horizontal distance from the post supporting the microscope to an imaginary vertical centerline through the objective lensshould be at least 20 centimeters, preferably more. It is important to find a microscope with a very good depth of field, and if the clearance between the base and post and the objective lens is not sufficient, then a new stand can be made, preferably with a large and solid base. At maximum extension from the post, the microscope should not topple over but should remain rigid and free from vibration. A digital camera with at least 3 megapixels that can be used as a normal camera and also fitted to the various microscopes in the laboratory. This is a cheaper option than a video camera and will give equally good pictures. It will probably require adapter lenses for each microscope. While not essential, a monitor is a very useful addition for allowing other people to view the image seen by the camera. From experience it is useful to ensure that when the image is in focus on the microscope it is also in focus on the monitor. A pair of tweezers with fine points, preferably nonmagnetic, and a probe and several small brushes (525 mm paintbrushes), two with stiff bristles and two with soft bristles. A permanent bar magnet for identification of ferrous materials. An extending steel tape, a diameter tape, and a 152-centimeter steel rule. A squeeze bottle of solvent such as acetone or isopropyl alcohol. A means of producing a flow of warm air, such as a hair dryer. Other commercial dryers can produce a greater airflow and higher temperatures, which can displace or damage evidence. A spatula or small scoop. A supply of clear self-seal polyethylene bags with write-on labels for storing samples. An assortment of self-adhesive and tie-on labels for identifying samples that cannot be bagged. A sharp knife, a scalpel, and a supply of blades. White and black or red fine-point permanent marker pens.

9-2
9.3 Examination of Cable Failures

9.3.1 General Remarks Cable failures usually fall into one of two groupselectrical failures or nonelectrical failures. For simplicity, let us define electrical failures as those that occur when the cable is energized and that are associated with some form of electrical discharge, usually from a conductor to ground, or between conductors. These failures are accompanied by fusion and possible carbonization of some of the cable components. Nonelectrical failures occur when the cable is not energized. They do not involve the discharge of electricity either to ground via the sheath or to another conductor, and do not involve extensive arcing or fusion of the cables components. There is a third scenarioa nonelectrical failure can occur while the cable is not energized, but when the cable is reenergized an electrical fault occurs. A typical example of this is when a cable is off load and is damagedfor example with a pneumatic hammer or excavator blade. Then, when the cable is reenergized, an electrical fault occurs. Generally this can produce evidence similar to that produced by an electrical failure. In most instances, unless there is clear evidence to the contrary, this type of failure should be regarded as a mechanical failure, even though it may occur some time after the mechanical damage. In electrical failures, arcing and fusion result in the loss of parts of the cables components, such as the lead sheath, and possibly along with it some of the evidence of the cause of the fault. Alloys of the component metals can be formed, spheroidized, and distributed around the failure site and beyond. All or some of the exposed surfaces may be covered with carbonized or oxidized material. The edges of the lead sheath wall thickness can be slightly concave and in part smooth, shiny, and bright in appearance. The concavity can extend into the insulation and the conductors, providing some indication as to the source of the fault. If the fault has occurred at or in a joint, then other metals may be involved. Nonelectrical failures are cleaner and are not generally associated with arcing, fusion, discharge, and carbonaceous deposits. Cleaning the sample should be undertaken with care. The sample should be placed on a plain, light-colored paper or cloth and visually inspected. Notes should be made at all stages of the examination and reviewed regularly. Once all the loose debris has been removed, the sample should be carefully cleaned. Care should be taken to ensure that any solvents used are not going to damage the sample or remove any identification marks, which may be needed later as reference marks, or are used in a manner likely to cause a fire. There is no simple technique, but initial washing with a solvent such as alcohol or acetone is recommended to remove any grease, compounds, and carbonaceous deposits. The solvent should be dispensed from a plastic squeeze bottle onto the sample and a soft-bristle brush used to remove any material onto a clean white cloth which will retain any material but allow the solvent to pass through or evaporate naturally. After the initial washing, the sample should be examined and the process repeated using the same techniques but with a stiffer-bristle brush. Where particularly heavy deposits exist, they can be levered or chipped off. The use of a high-pressure air jet is not advised, but a low-pressure spray of solvent onto dirty surfaces can help in removing debris. Provided the ingress of moisture is not suspected, warm soapy water can be useful, and should be followed with a solvent rinse. If water is suspected, its 9-3
presence or absence should be confirmed before water or water-based solvents are used on the sample. When the sample is clean, a more detailed examination should be carried out before the sample is dismantled. Photographs should be taken at this stage, together with notes, measurements, and annotated sketches. The sample should be dismantled progressively and various checks made in the process. It is not possible to go into great detail, as every cable failure will have its own specific requirements, and the examination will to some extent be dependent on the length of sample submitted. The following comments, partly in the form of questions that should be asked, are provided only as a guide. 9.3.2 Outer Armoring If the cable is armored, the number, size, and type of armoring wires or strip should be noted. Is there any evidence of bird-caging, slack, or ballooning armoring wires? Does the armoring appear to be complete? Is there any evidence of fusion, damage, corrosion product, or loss of the armoring? The lay length and direction of lay should be recorded. The material of the armoring wire should be scrutinized. Is it aluminum alloy wire, or flat rolled aluminum alloy wire used as strip, or galvanized (hot-dipped zinc-coated) steel wire? What are the dimensions or diameter of the armoring? These are usually measured under the zinc, and if galvanized, the coating thickness is usually expressed as g/m2 or micrometers. If galvanized, is the zinc adhering to the surface of the steel wire? Is the steel silicon- or aluminum-killed (deoxidized)? (The siliconkilled steels were more popular, because the silicon is conducive to thicker galvanized coatings and better adhesion, but silicon is not preferred by cable makers because it adversely affects electrical resistivity, which is a requirement in many land-based cables. Aluminum-killed steels were a less-economical alternative and did not impair the electrical resistivity of the steel. With better control of the steel-making process, lower carbon and silicon balanced steels are now used, without serious compromises in electrical properties.) Are there lumps in the galvanized coating, evidence of mechanical damage or corrosion? Is there any evidence of butt welded joints in the wire? Was there a requirement for the wire to have a maximum electrical resistivity, and if so, what was its value? Samples of any corrosion product should be retained in case subsequent analysis is required. It should be noted that the most common corrosion product on galvanized wire is usually a mixture of zinc oxide and carbonate. Carbonates effervesce in dilute acids such as acetic or hydrochloric acid, and only the carbonates give off carbon dioxide and turn a saturated solution of calcium oxide milky white. The white deposits on aluminum strip armoring are usually a mixture of aluminum oxide, hydroxides, and carbonates, and react similarly with dilute acetic or hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate. The white corrosion products can be (and frequently are) discolored by other materials in the vicinity, such as iron (or rust) and copper salts. 9.2.3 Polyethylene Sheathing (Jacketing) The cable may have either an extruded protection, or in the case of older cables, a wrapped protection over the metal sheath. If a wrapped protection was applied, it could consist of several layers of different materials (usually two rubber tapes and two open-weave cloth tapes), and may 9-4
include one or more layers of bitumen. The layers of protection should be carefully removed and examined. Are they complete, and do they still retain their elasticity, or have they become brittle with age and lost their plasticity due to chemical action such as leaching or loss of their plasticizer? The color, width, thickness, lay length, and order of application should be noted. Do the tapes appear to be wrinkled or unevenly laid on one side? If so, to what extent is there any indication as to how long they have been wrinkledsince manufacture, since installation, or more recently? The thickness of the extruded polyethylene sheathing should be measured at eight positions around its circumference and the minimum spot. Record the mean and maximum thickness. Both the external and internal surfaces of the extruded sheathing should be examined for splits and cracks. The presence of scuff marks, scores, and abrasions on the external surface of the sheath should be noted. The lack of definition on the internal surface of the sheathing should also be recorded, as this can arise from low extrusion temperature. Transverse sections cut with a sharp knife, not a saw, should not reveal any porosity in the sheathings section. Some manufacturers may apply a thin layer of bitumen over the lead and under the extruded sheathing. The presence of bitumen should be noted, together with its coverage around the metal sheath, and expressed as an estimated percentage of the total area. The evenness and freedom of the bitumen from lumps should be noted. The presence of lumps of bitumen is due to either oxidation or polymerization, resulting from prolonged heating and exposure to air via stirring or flow over a cascade during manufacture. To distinguish between an extruded PVC sheath and a polyethylene sheath, take a piece of copper wire and heat one end in a gas flame until it is red hot and the flame is no longer colored. Allow the wire to cool until black, then draw the hot end of the wire across the sheathing. Return the end of the wire to the gas flame. If the gas flame turns green, the sheathing is PVC. 9.3.4 Metal Sheathing If protected with a polyethylene sheath, the lead sheath should be clean and relatively undamaged. There may be evidence of water stains from quenching the sheath immediately after extrusion, and slight abrasion or rub marks on the sides and underneath where the bare lead sheath has rubbed against a ramp or guide during production. There may also be slight curved marks where the lead sheath was wound onto or off a drum. Other marks should be noted, such as scoring, deep abrasions, a line of pitting or lead spots (where adjacent turns have pressure welded together during dry drumming, and lift-out [pullout] has occurred during undrumming), flats, and deep abrasions (where the lead has been allowed to drag along a concrete floor). Where pulling out of the lead has occurred, there may be some loss of circularity and an apparent increase in diameter. Corrosion deposits should be removed before the lead sheath is subjected to much handling. A stiff-bristled brush is useful for this. If the deposits are hard and layered, they can be removed with gentle leverage, using the tip of a knife blade or a scalpel. The color of the corrosion deposit should be noted, but with the awareness that it could have been discolored by the site environment. The lead sheath under and adjacent to the corrosion should be examined for corrosion damage and the observations recorded. Is the lead discolored, etched, or pitted, and 9-5
what is the nature of any pits (for example, shallow semicircular, deep, or bright and clean)? The corrosion product may not have resulted from the reaction of the lead with its environment but may be due to the accretion of corrosion from elsewhere that has been deposited or washed onto the lead from another source and dried. Once the sheath is clean, the outside diameter should be measured and recorded at several positions along the samples length. The presence of any ovality or intercore flattening should be recorded. A detailed examination of the lead sheathing should be carried out for evidence of cracking in both the longitudinal and transverse or circumferential direction. The cracks may range from incipient (grain boundaries delineated and visible) to coarse and open cracks penetrating the sheaths thickness. The nature of the cracking, such as intergranular or transgranular, should be noted, and whether the edges of the crack are abrupt and square or exhibit some evidence of ductility or are knife-edged. Are the surfaces of the crack bright and clean, or discolored? Does the crack appear to penetrate through the sheaths thickness? This can be confirmed by examining the internal surface of the sheath in due course. The length, direction, and frequency of any cracks should be noted, along with their location in relation to the cores in multicored cables, and any other marks or features. If the area of cracking is extensive, the dimensions of the area should be recorded, as well as whether the pattern of cracking is repeated at intervals along the sheath. If possible, the cracks should be photographed. Splits are generally longitudinal and very straight but in detail can appear like zippers. The surfaces of splits can appear to be granular and are frequently discolored due to thermal tinting or oxidation. Splits are usually associated with lead extrusion defects. If the lead sheath has been transversely cut and slid off, decide if ring samples are required for macroexamination and/or cone expansion testing and, if necessary, take samples at this stage. (Note: If the lead alloy sheath sample has been cut longitudinally, ring samples can still be made by reforming a transverse strip into a ring and soldering the butting ends. For cone expansion tests and ring macrosections, cracking or splits and grain size counts in the area adjacent to the solder must be discounted.) If not already measured, the mean, minimum, and maximum thickness of the lead sheathing should be determined. If the sheath has to be cut, make sure where possible that the cut does not damage any evidence. Once cut, the sheath should be opened carefully to avoid excessive damage to the sheath and any cracks that may be present. It should be borne in mind that in opening the sheath, damage may be caused or existing faults extended. There is no way this can be avoided and the process must be carried out carefully with the minimum force necessary. The internal surface of the lead sheath should now be examined and any cracks or splits compared to those, if any, on the external surface. Allowance may have to be made for any defects and cracks on the internal surface of the sheath being exacerbated by the flattening process. The presence of any marks or impression should be noted. Are they more pronounced in one place than elsewhere? Heavy impressions of woven servings or screening tapes on the inside of the lead alloy sheath can arise from pressure of the core(s), from tight drumming, or from a harsh installation pull. Do the impressions in the internal surface of the lead alloy sheath show evidence of an even and regular lay pattern, or are they creased or disrupted?
9-6
Only when all the visual evidence has been recorded should samples be taken for metallographic examination to confirm if the cracking or fracture is intergranular or transgranular. Once grain sizes have been measured and grain size distributions checked, samples can then be taken for chemical analysis and any destructive tests. During cable-making, some local defects or minor damage may be sustained by the bare lead alloy sheath. This may be an inclusion, gas pore, mechanical damage, alloy deposit, or (more usually) a plucked-out spot weld between two adjacent turns of bare lead alloy sheathed cable on a drum. The cable maker may, at their discretion, decide to repair this damage, and might use either a fine piece of lead alloy cut from the end of the sheath, pure lead, or a solder as a filler. The repair will be made using a very fine oxyacetylene or oxypropane flame to fuse the filler into the sheath after the defect has been excavated. On completion of the repair, the area of the repair will be dressed down with a fine file and sandpaper. The repair should have been made on the basis of experience and a detailed examination of the cable. However, it is possible that the defect continues beneath the surface or was not completely removed and could redevelop. Once the repair has been made, the cable and the repair will be subjected to flexing during drumming and undrumming and installation stresses, and because of the extruded polyethylene sheathing, it may not be immediately visible. The author has not found a lead sheath repair to be associated with a failure, but there is always a first time. The repair is usually identified by the presence of fine abrasion marks on the lead sheath and sometimes by a differently colored spot of metal, if pure lead or solder was used. 9.3.5 Outer and Inner Metallic Screens Depending on the construction of the cable, screens may be copper or aluminum; plain, punched, or pierced duplex aluminum/paper laminate and either overlapped or interlaid with carbon; or duplex carbon/paper screens. The construction of the outer screening of the cable should be noted. Lays can be expressed as either S or Z lays. (When viewed from the side, \ is an S lay and / is a Z lay.) The lay and overlap/gapping of the tapes should be noted and also whether their register appears to be uneven, or significantly changed in position since manufacture (as determined by discoloration patterns). The dimensions of the tapes should be recorded, as well as whether a shearing edge burr exists on the metallic tapes. If a shearing edge burr does exist, it may cause damage to either the servings over the outer screens or to the bore of the metallic sheath or the outer insulating papers. Tarnishing, staining, discoloration, the presence of watermarks, iridescence, corrosion, or creasing of the metallic tapes should be recorded. In removing the outer screens, paper insulation, and inner screens, a watch for metallic particles trapped in the layers of the screens and papers should be maintained. Care must be exercised to differentiate between metallic shavings and slivers introduced when the sample and conductor were cut, and metallic particles and dust that were entrained during manufacture. The presence of flat, circular-shaped aluminum particles can arise from punched paper/aluminum laminate screening and can be a common source of contamination that is easily identified. Cutting shavings are usually discrete, small, curled, angular particles. Other particles are either long, thin, and flat, or a concentration of fine metallic dust from screening tapes or the copper or aluminum conductor. 9-7
These remarks do not refer to the examination of paper or extruded or hybrid lapped paper/polyethylene tape insulated cables, for which detailed and special examination and testing procedures exist. The inner screens should be examined in the same manner as the outer screens, photographs taken, and detailed records kept. Again, patterns of discoloration should be noted, although their presence may not be associated with the failure of the cable (they may simply be an effect of time and old processing methods, in which papers were not dried or conditioned to the same degree as modern papers). 9.2.6 Electrical Conductors Unless stated otherwise, the following remarks refer equally to copper and aluminum conductors. There was a brief period in Europe when some manufacturing companies were using copper-clad aluminum rod for redrawing into wire for low-voltage, domestic house wiring and flexible conductors. One of the major suppliers of this rod was the National Standards Corporation. The copper-clad wire enjoyed a brief period of limited popularity, but never became established. The situation in the United States may be different, with possibly some stranded copper-clad aluminum conductors having been manufactured and used. The initial examination should include the determination and recording of conductor material, the shape (number of cores), the basic dimensions of the conductor or strand, the number of wires per layer in the strand, and in the case of noncompacted strand, the diameter of the wires. In the case of solid aluminum, the principle dimensions should be recorded and whether any evidence of orange peel effect is present. If sufficient clean conductor exists, two weight-permeter determinations should be carried out, one at the fault position and one remote from the fault position. It is not necessary to weigh a complete meter; a shorter length of approximately 100200 mm, carefully cut square and measured, can be used, and with a suitable multiplication factor corrected to one meter for checking with the specification. The same technique can be used where localized elongation of a stranded conductor is suspected and a comparison of the weight per meter is required. The examination should, in the case of stranded conductors, seek evidence of displaced wires, joints in the wire or strand, broken wires, mechanical damage, surface defects, metal dust, scoring, abrasion, discoloration, and carbon deposits, either at the corners of shaped conductors where electrical stresses are high or between wires. It will be necessary to establish that the defects or faults existed before the failure and were not a consequence of the failure. If the faults or defects existed prior to the failure, try to determine what role the defects had on the initiation or development of the failure. If current was flowing at the time of failure there will be an electrical discharge with associated arcing, fusion, and carbonaceous deposits. Older copper conductors may exhibit some slight, even, and natural discoloration (oxidation). There may be a regular pattern of discoloration associated with the lay of the inner screens. This, again, is usually normal and acceptable but should be recorded. Heavy, patchy, and irregular stains and oxidation of copper wires or stranded conductors is not typical, and may be indicative of the ingress of moisture or a fault. Paper insulation is essentially a form of cellulose and in the course of electrical breakdown and under certain conditions, nitrates and chlorides can be formed 9-8
and produce nitric and hydrochloric acid. Apart from damaging the papers and causing waxing (detected by the methyl blue test) these products may attack and etch the metallic screens and outer wires, or the surface of the conductors. There may also be some evidence of accelerated aging, embrittlement or, in severe cases, charring of the inner screens and paper insulation. Aluminum conductors, both stranded and solid, do not normally show visible evidence of oxidation. Discoloration or the presence of deposits usually occurs as a white powder or a hard adherent film on the surface of the conductor or in the interstices of the strand, and is indicative of moisture and possible corrosion. Clean aluminum, both wire and solid conductor, if wiped hard with a cloth or filter paper, can produce a black mark on the cloth or paper. Care must be taken in wiping aluminum; a light and gentle wipe that produces a black mark is indicative of dirty wire or strand and residual lubricant from the drawing/compaction operations. The wipe, whether soft or hard, may also remove particles of aluminum shavings, slivers, and dust that were adhering to the surface. Some of these particles may have been dislodged at an earlier stage during manufacture and become entrained in the paper insulation. Moisture in medium- and lowvoltage power cable conductors can be present from manufacture and can migrate considerable distances along the cable. Moisture can also enter the cable during storage, installation, and service. This moisture may not be detected or cause a problem initially but can accumulate and cause a problem later. Again, the paper insulation may be an indicator of any moisture present. This can be determined on samples of insulating papers using a procedure in which the samples are weighed, dried at 105oC, and reweighed. However, this can give misleading information, as the papers could have picked up moisture since the failure or from handling and storage in the laboratory, where temperature and humidity were not controlled. Solid aluminum conductors, especially the smaller sizes, are prone to stretching during drumming, both in the factory and on site. These types of conductor are less amenable to complex pulls or pulls involving tight bends, even when the pull is lubricated. The indication that the conductor has been subjected to a tensile load is a loss of dimensions and an orange peel appearance on the surface. 9.2.7 Soldered Ferrule Joints Faults in conductors are fairly rare. The greatest incidence of faults occurs in or at joints in the conductors, which as previously discussed, can be soldered, or compression ferrules, indented ferrules, and welded joints. With a very few exceptions, which are identified, most of these joints are made after manufacture, during installation, repair, or rerouting. A brief discussion of these joints follows, with typical modes of failure. These joints consist of a split copper sleeve over the butting solder filled ends of both stranded copper and aluminum conductors, with the remaining cavities between the conductors and the sleeve filled with solder. While all the solder is molten, the split copper sleeve is crimped closed with gas pliers. A failure may result from one end of the joined conductor pulling out of the sleeve or by failure in one of the conductors adjacent to the ferrule. Failure can occur due to insufficient or excessive solder. Were the sleeve and the interstices of the conductor wires fully filled with clean solder? Did the solder appear to be clean and free from dross, oxides, and other contamination? Was there any indication of excessive solder between the conductor and the 9-9
sleeve? This would seriously reduce the shear strength of the joint. It can be caused by the joint being crimped shut after the solder has started to solidify. Care must be exercised, as electrical heating may have occurred, remelting some of the solder and, if arcing has occurred, depositing carbonaceous deposits on the surfaces of the failure. Another form of failure in stranded and soldered copper and aluminum conductors can occur at the end of the ferrule where excessive heating during splicing has overannealed the conductor and excessive dressing down has jointly weakened it. Failures at these positions are again caused by tensile or bending stresses and are accompanied by local ductility in the wires at the end of the ferrule. Once again, if the failure develops while the cable is on load there will be heating from the current and possibly arcing prior to failure. 9.2.8 Compressed and Indented Ferrule Joints These joints fall into several categories and range from copper compression ferrules where the ferrule is compressed onto the copper conductor and is usually flush with the conductor. The bore of the ferrule and the ends of the two conductors will have been circularized and maybe stepped. No solder is used in the making of these joints. In the relatively newer indentation joints, developed primarily for aluminum conductors, a shaped, thick-walled sleeve is filled with a corrosion-inhibiting compound. The two ends of the conductor are butted together inside the sleeve and either the complete sleeve is compressed onto the conductor, or one or more indentations are made through the sleeve into the stranded or solid conductor. A hand tool is used for indenting the smaller conductor sizes, and a manual hydraulic tool for the larger sizes. Failure in flush ferrule joints usually occurs either as a result of one of the conductors pulling out of the ferrule due to failure of the compressed ferrule to grip the conductor, or as a result of the grip having been lost due to the ferrule splitting open longitudinally because of excessive compression. The length and diameter of the compressed ferrule should be recorded. The diameter should not be less than 5% of the conductor. Also, the presence of any split in the sleeve should be noted. Indentation joints require a controlled amount of indentation to be achieved without grossly distorting the conductor or cutting individual wires. The indentation is designed to push the wires or the conductor out against the internal walls of the ferrule, which provides the grip to hold the conductor in place. If an excessive indentation force is used, the ferrule will split, or the wires will become excessively spatulate (flat), be work-hardened, and break. Again, excessive or repeated flexing or tensile loading can pull one of the conductors out of the ferrule or cause a typical cascade type failure. In cascade failures, all the broken wires will exhibit typical tensile failure characteristics, with local necking at the ends of the wires. If current was passing, there will be an element of heating, which will accelerate the failure and, if current was passing when the remaining wires fail, there will be evidence of arcing. Aluminum suffers from stress relaxation, and this can be accelerated if electrical resistance increases and results in further heating. While electrical grade aluminum can be annealed at 360C in 20 minutes, lower temperatures over a longer period of time will achieve the same effect. With both stranded and solid aluminum conductors, there may be some evidence of corrosion inside the indented ferrules. This may have resulted from the absence of corrosion inhibitor in the ferrule when the joint was made, or the loss of inhibitor due to heating, particularly if electrical discharging has occurred. If an inhibitor was present, then some trace will have 9-10
remained in the crevices. It is most unlikely that the corrosion inhibitor would be washed out by the presence of water. Finally, corrosion inhibitors do what the name impliesthey will inhibit the development of corrosion but they will not prevent it from occurring eventually. 9.2.9 Welded Conductor Joints At this stage and for the sake of convenience, all forms of welded joints, including flash butt welded joints in individual wires and small conductors, Thermit process, and conventional fusion welded joints will be considered. As discussed earlier, welded joints are made in both copper and aluminum redrawn rod and wire in the manufacture of electrical conductors, and most of these joints are drawn down to smaller sizes. To withstand the drawing stresses the integrity of these joints has to be good. Joints made in finished-size wire in stranded copper and aluminum conductors will exist in the finished cable. The integrity of these joints must be sufficient to survive twisting, compaction, and flexing from drumming. There is also an increasing trend to butt weld small stranded copper conductors in ceramic sleeves and then break off the sleeves and with minimal dressing use these joints in the finished cable. Butt welds in solid aluminum conductors are not currently made in production; these cables are made in fixed lengths and joined on site. There are, however, developments in joining smaller solid aluminum conductors using flash butt welding, cold pressure welding, and friction welding techniques. This section will therefore include joints that were made in production and have subsequently failed as a result of flexing due to drumming and undrumming, and also joints that have been subjected to a tensile load during installation. An imaginary centerline through the two conductors that have been joined by welding must be straight when viewed from the side and from above. Failure to achieve good alignment will result in residual stresses in the weld and encourage the development of defects that will increase the resistance of the joint and may result in localized overheating. The localized overheating will further increase the resistance and could result in premature aging of the insulation, especially paper. Welds must have smooth and clean profiles; they may be as-welded, or (more usually) will have been dressed to remove sharp edges and welding flash. There is a risk of excessive cleaning, with the loss of dimensions in the conductor adjacent to the weld. As before, this will concentrate electrical stresses and cause local overheating. Visual examinations should include dimensional checks. Evidence of gross file marks and the use of coarse emery cloth are a good indication of excessive or heavy dressing. In stranded conductors, individual wires or groups of wires may be significantly reduced in section. Thermit-type welds in copper-to-copper or aluminum-to-aluminum conductors are not made in pure copper or aluminum but in a highcopper or high-aluminum alloy, and the slightly increased dimensions of the weld are partly designed to compensate for this. The only dressing these welds require is the removal of the feeder above and the sump under the weld and a light wire brushing or dressing with fine abrasive cloth. Thermit-type joints are usually very good and seldom exhibit the faults that are more frequently found in conventional fusion welded joints. Conventionally welded joints, in both solid and stranded conductors, are probably the greatest source of problems in electrical conductors. Stranded copper conductors are not normally welded, as the good thermal conduction of the copper can damage insulation that has been stripped back over 2025 centimeters from the weld. The welding process on site requires good 9-11
preparation, and a skilled operator, and it is usually undertaken in difficult conditions. Again, it is important that the conductors are fully aligned, that the filler metal is fused to the ends of both conductors, and that the gap between the conductors is filled using an electric arc, either gas metal arc weld (GMAW or MIG) or gas tungsten arc weld (GTAW or TIG), and a suitable lowalloy filler metal. A common technique used in welding stranded conductor is to weld the ends of the wires into a solid facing (this is sometimes referred to as buttering) before aligning them and welding the buttered faces together. If some of the wires or areas of solid conductor are not properly fused into the deposited filler metal, an oxidized interface will exist. Current will not pass this interface, or if it does, it will cause arcing and/or heating. These welded joints are usually made by building up several layers of deposited metal on top of each other to fill the gap between the buttered ends. The major cause of failures in conventional fusion welded joints is usually the partial lack of fusion. However, misalignment of the ends of the conductors, porosity, or inclusions have also been found to be the cause of joint failures. When a failure occurs in a welded conductor, regardless of whether it is due to a mechanical or an electrical fault, it is usually located in the conductor adjacent to the weld, at one of the weld/conductor interfaces or in a few instances in the weld itself. Where a mechanical failure occurs, with or without localized heating, all the material will be present, and if it is carefully reassembled, evidence of bending, a straight tensile pull, or a combination of both will be clearly evident due to the presence of local ductility. Some arcing may also be present on the fractured surfaces, and some carbon deposits may exist in the core screens and insulation. When an electrical breakdown has occurred, much of the evidence may be lost, and extensive carbonaceous deposits with fused and oxidized material may be distributed with some force around the area of the failure. Despite this, there is usually some residual evidence, such as the other half of the weld and the adjacent conductor. In general, a failure in the weld or at the weld/conductor interface, with no evidence of significant local ductility or loss of dimensions, indicates a very significant lack of fusion. Such a failure will frequently reveal the cut or prepared ends of some of the wires or the solid aluminum conductors. If only a few cut wires or a small part of the prepared solid conductor is visible, it is likely that a partial lack of fusion has resulted in a localized increase in resistance and overheating. This partial lack of fusion may also be associated with bending or tensile failure, accompanied by some localized ductility. It is worth noting that the short-term tensile strength of both copper and aluminum conductors can be reduced by 10 to 20% with a 65oC increase in conductor temperature above ambient. Furthermore, because of the heat generated in the welding process, the conductor, whether stranded or solid, will have been fully annealed adjacent to the weld. Any mechanical stress, whether straight tensile, bending, or even twisting, will become concentrated in this area. In the event of the welded joint being found to be properly fused to the conductor and substantially free of defects, the cause of the failure is likely to be a mechanical fault and not a poor or faulty weld. After careful cleaning, a detailed visual examination of the weld and a check of the conductors dimensions close to and remote from the weld may reveal useful evidence and indicate any significant reduction in area. Some slight and local loss of conductor dimensions as a result of weld dressing must be accepted, but this, together with a visual examination of the surface of the weld and adjacent conductor, will indicate if the dressing has been excessive. Longitudinal 9-12
macrosections through the conductors and weld will also provide valuable information as to the quality of the weld itself. Each layer of the deposited metal must be fully fused to both ends of the conductor and any previously deposited layers. The deposited metal must be substantially free of transverse interfaces containing nonconducting material such as oxides and inclusions and gross gas and shrinkage porosity. Gas pores are usually globular and smooth. Shrinkage porosity is usually rough and interdendritic or intergranular. Some fine and well-distributed porosity and inclusions are inevitable and are usually acceptable. It is difficult to specify exactly what is acceptable and what is not. Generally, porosity and inclusions up to 1 or 1.5 mm in diameter are acceptable if well distributed through the weld and not forming more than 5% of the cross section. Lack of fusion in any form is not acceptable. The deposited weld metal will have an ascast structure and may exhibit some dendrites. If the weld is subjected to prolonged and excessive heating, the as-cast structure may be lost and replaced with a coarser, more equiaxed granular structure similar to that of an annealed condition. This is not a good indicator of postweld heating due to an electrical fault, as it can be caused by multiple run welding in larger conductors where the second deposited layer anneals the previously deposited layer. This is more likely to occur where heat sinks or a mold has been used to assist in maintaining the shape of the weld deposit and to reduce the heating along the conductor. Other defects, such as inclusions and oxides, will be revealed in the macrosection, but it should be noted that the section is planar and other defects may be present just below the surface. It is possible to reveal more defects and the presence of tungsten from TIG welding electrode burn-off using radiography. It is also sometimes useful to use radiography to examine the fault area and any fused mass, in the case of electrical breakdowns, before they are cut for examination. Planar defects perpendicular to the beam, whether X or gamma, will not be revealed by radiography.
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10
CABLE FAILURE INDEX
10.1 General Remarks

There are occasions when details of a cable failure and data on the cause of the failure have to be recalled from records. This can be done by rereading reports and extracting the information from old and bulky files. It can be a time-consuming business. An alternative scheme is based on using a simple index system to classify a failure (or breakdown of a component) upon completion of the examination of the failure (or breakdown). Various systems to suit individual needs can be developed for different types of cable. The system needs to establish what the original fault or defect was. Also, it must be asked whether the cable would have failed if the fault or defect had not been present, and what caused the fault or defect to initiate. Some typical examples are as follows.
An electrical discharge between two conductors in a three-core cable resulted from damaged insulation. A manufacturing fault/defect was identified in the insulation. The cable had been nose-pulled through a complex route. The question was this: had the manufacturing fault been exacerbated by a difficult installation, and if not, would the cable have provided a satisfactory service life? If the cable would have eventually failed at the fault, then the cause primarily was due to manufacture. If the defect had not been present and installation had not caused or exacerbated the defect, then installation should not be blamed for the failure. As the failure occurred 27 years after installation, manufacture was in fact blamed, and correctly so. Similarly, if water has entered a cable, which has then failed, it is not necessarily the water that was the original cause of the failure. The cause of the failure was the cause of the split or cracks in the lead alloy sheath that permitted the water to enter. If a failure has resulted from a broken earthenware duct damaging the cable and allowing water ingress, then the original cause of cable failure was not water or the broken duct, but possibly traffic damage or ground movement that broke the duct. Sound ducts do not suddenly break or collapse without reason. A lead sheath has cracked extensively, due to vibration from an adjacent diesel powered stand-by generator, but the cable has not failed. If the vibrations were present when the cable was installed and measures to dampen the vibrations or to better support the cable were not taken or were insufficient, then the original cause of failure was poor or inadequate support. Alternatively, if the generator was installed subsequently and additional measures not taken to protect the cable, then the cause of failure should be recorded as fatigue caused by the vibrations from the generator.
10-1
EPRI Licensed Material Cable Failure Index
A system that has been found to work well initially lists the cables under voltage, size, and numbers of cores. This system uses a series of indexes as an aid in classifying the failure, as follows:
Index 1: Which component of the cable failed? Conductor or conductor joint Electrical screens Insulation Metal sheath Polyethylene or outer protection (jacketing) Plumbed wipe Jointing sleeve Site-applied insulation or outer protection Not identified Index 2: What caused the failure? Water ingress Mechanical damage Electrical breakdown Natural ground movement Ground compaction (traffic or construction work) Cable support, trays, brackets Flexing (thermal cycling) Fatigue (vibration) Slow straining (unidirectional bending) Fire Corrosion Not identified Index 3: When did the fault initiate? Manufacture Transit Storage (manufacturer, contractor, utility) Installation Service (number of years) After rerouting/siting (number of years) Not identified M T S( ) I Y( ) R( ) X W M E N T B F V S F C X C S I M P W J H X
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11
CONCLUSIONS
11.1 Review
In the preceding sections, the various testing procedures, the examination of failures in service, and some of the faults and defects that can occur in manufacture, transit, installation, and service of lead sheaths have been discussed. The use of lead and lead alloys for plumbed wipes, joints, and repair sleeves, and their examination, testing, defects, and service failures have also been considered. Finally, the production of continuously cast copper and aluminum wire and solid aluminum for electrical conductors, the principle properties of these materials, the construction of conductors, the various joining methods, and the faults and defects that can occur in these conductors have been touched upon. It is unlikely that all of the faults and defects detailed in this report will be experienced by any one investigator, even over many years of failure investigations. Conversely, it is likely that faults and defects not described here will be presented for examination. It is a test of the skill of the investigator to seek and record all of the evidence, discriminating between information that is relevant and information that is not. It is also necessary to have an appreciation of the manufacturing processes, as this should provide some help and background information in establishing the cause of the failure. It is hoped that this work has provided some assistance in this direction.
11.2 Future Work

It is customary to look to the future and make sweeping predictions. This can be embarrassing, particularly when in the future the predictions are proven wrong. Nevertheless, to look to the future requires a perspective based on the recent past. The cable making and installation industry was probably at its peak in the late 1950s and early 1960s. This was due to the development and rebuilding of industries and new housing following the austere years from 1945 to the mid 1950s. The development of 275- and 400-kV cables and new manufacturing techniques such as mass impregnation and extruded protection are just a few examples. Each cable maker had their own research and development laboratories, and various research organizations were heavily sponsored by the industry. New lead alloys were developed, alternative methods for producing copper rod were in use, and hydrostatic extrusion and the development of conforming of lead, aluminum, and copper were in progress. The replacement of longitudinally welded aluminum sheath with continuous extrusion of aluminum sheathing, the continuous casting of aluminum and copper rod, and the use of multiline wire drawing all started in the period up to the 1980s. This period of activity culminated in the development of XLPE, 11-1
EPRI Licensed Material Conclusions
EPR, and PEP, and of various electrical insulations with low smoke and zero halogen. The use of superconductors should not be overlooked; currently, the cost of running and maintaining such systems outweighs their viability for long-distance commercial use, but it will only require a small breakthrough in material science and processing technology before these conductors find their niche in the overall picture. The demand for cables and therefore accessories has significantly declined since the middle of the 1980s. As a result, the cable making industry has declined, with fewer cable making companies still in business. Many companies were absorbed, were taken over, or simply went out of business. The remaining companies now employ fewer personnel and concentrate on efficient cable making with deskilling of operations, using contract labor and significant reductions in research and technical development and support. Reductions in quality control staff with commensurate increases in quality documentation do not necessarily improve the product. The demand for the raw materials still exists, but at an annually decreasing tonnage each year. The cost of refining the raw materials has increased, and the recycling of both scrap and refinery waste using methods such as electrowon cathode copper and solvent extracted copper does not add to the quality. Similarly, the purchasing of wire for conductors and armoring by weight at sizes between mean and minimum diameter, to eventually be sold by length, provides an increased profit at the risk of quality. One of the few good aspects in this rather depressing situation is the development of a European Standard, EN 50307. This will, in due course, result in an International Standard, and utility companies will be able to purchase their cables from the most economical supplier. (This may not necessarily be one in their own country, although in the United States, purchasing cable outside the country could entail several cost burdens including the cost of transportation.) In the past, the cable maker was able to install and join the cables. Gradually the utility companies started to install and join their own cables, moving up in kV ranges as they became more competent. Now this work is being taken over by the companies who were engaged to excavate the routes, and again the installation skills and knowledge are being lost. An aspect that has not been fully realized by many utility companies is that many existing cables are more than 4060 years old, and while continuing to give satisfactory service they are beginning to show evidence of deterioration and increased incidences of breakdown. These cables will not last forever, particularly when the load demands on them increase. They will need replacing or repairing, and possibly at an increasing rate as the years pass. This will involve not only a detailed examination of a small sample of cable but also a more detailed survey, of its installation as a complete system and of its service conditions. This work started in the United Kingdom as an asset review and management exercise of the cables and installations that form the national grid. However, following the downturn in the cable manufacturing industry, there was a decline of experienced personnel in the electricity distribution side, and the work in assessing cable assets and predicting their continued longevity was largely terminated due to early retirements and personnel moving from the industry. The reduction and reorganization of the manufacturing, installation, and distribution industry, with the relocation of its resources, compounded this decline. A similar sequence of events is occurring in the United States. Both the electric cable manufacturing industry and the power distribution industry must realize that the situation will deteriorate further before it improves. Any remedial action will not take place 11-2
EPRI Licensed Material Conclusions
overnight, as much of the experience and knowledge has been lost. It will therefore take a considerable amount of time before the current decline is halted and the situation starts to improve. It is hoped that these notes and the procedures detailed in the preceding sections of this report will help in some small way to preserve the knowledge and experience for the accurate examination of cable faults and breakdowns to be carried out. It is not expected that these few notes will provide a complete and exclusive coverage of the subject, but they are offered as a base upon which individual expertise and knowledge can be built. It is also hoped that they will prevent some of the techniques used in the testing and examination of electric cables from being lost to future generations.
11-3
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SINGLE USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

THIS IS A LEGALLY BINDING AGREEMENT BETWEEN YOU AND THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). PLEASE READ IT CAREFULLY BEFORE REMOVING THE WRAPPING MATERIAL. BY OPENING THIS SEALED PACKAGE YOU ARE AGREEING TO THE TERMS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THE TERMS OF THIS AGREEMENT, PROMPTLY RETURN THE UNOPENED PACKAGE TO EPRI AND THE PURCHASE PRICE WILL BE REFUNDED. 1. GRANT OF LICENSE EPRI grants you the nonexclusive and nontransferable right during the term of this agreement to use this package only for your own benefit and the benefit of your organization.This means that the following may use this package: (I) your company (at any site owned or operated by your company); (II) its subsidiaries or other related entities; and (III) a consultant to your company or related entities, if the consultant has entered into a contract agreeing not to disclose the package outside of its organization or to use the package for its own benefit or the benefit of any party other than your company. This shrink-wrap license agreement is subordinate to the terms of the Master Utility License Agreement between most U.S. EPRI member utilities and EPRI. Any EPRI member utility that does not have a Master Utility License Agreement may get one on request. 2. COPYRIGHT This package, including the information contained in it, is either licensed to EPRI or owned by EPRI and is protected by United States and international copyright laws.You may not, without the prior written permission of EPRI, reproduce, translate or modify this package, in any form, in whole or in part, or prepare any derivative work based on this package. 3. RESTRICTIONS You may not rent, lease, license, disclose or give this package to any person or organization, or use the information contained in this package, for the benefit of any third party or for any purpose other than as specified above unless such use is with the prior written permission of EPRI.You agree to take all reasonable steps to prevent unauthorized disclosure or use of this package. Except as specified above, this agreement does not grant you any right to patents, copyrights, trade secrets, trade names, trademarks or any other intellectual property, rights or licenses in respect of this package. 4.TERM AND TERMINATION This license and this agreement are effective until terminated.You may terminate them at any time by destroying this package. EPRI has the right to terminate the license and this agreement immediately if you fail to comply with any term or condition of this agreement. Upon any termination you may destroy this package, but all obligations of nondisclosure will remain in effect. 5. DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES NEITHER EPRI,ANY MEMBER OF EPRI,ANY COSPONSOR, NOR ANY PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM: (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTYS INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS PACKAGE IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USERS CIRCUMSTANCE; OR (B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS PACKAGE OR ANY INFORMATION,APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE. 6. EXPORT The laws and regulations of the United States restrict the export and re-export of any portion of this package, and you agree not to export or re-export this package or any related technical data in any form without the appropriate United States and foreign government approvals. 7. CHOICE OF LAW This agreement will be governed by the laws of the State of California as applied to transactions taking place entirely in California between California residents.
About EPRI EPRI creates science and technology solutions for the global energy and energy services industry. U.S. electric utilities established the Electric Power Research Institute in 1973 as a nonprofit research consortium for the benefit of utility members, their customers, and society. Now known simply as EPRI, the company provides a wide range of innovative products and services to more than 1000 energyrelated organizations in 40 countries. EPRIs multidisciplinary team of scientists and engineers draws on a worldwide network of technical and business expertise to help solve todays toughest energy and environmental problems. EPRI. Electrify the World
8. INTEGRATION You have read and understand this agreement, and acknowledge that it is the final, complete and exclusive agreement between you and EPRI concerning its subject matter, superseding any prior related understanding or agreement. No waiver, variation or different terms of this agreement will be enforceable against EPRI unless EPRI gives its prior written consent, signed by an officer of EPRI.
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2004 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc. All rights reserved. Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. Printed on recycled paper in the United States of America
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA 800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com

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Effective December 6, 2006, this report has been made publicly available in accordance with Section 734.

Final Report, December 2004

EPRI Project Managers J. Spanner W. Zenger

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

EPRI Licensed Material

LEAD AND LEAD ALLOY CABLE SHEATHS

4.1 Visual Examination

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.2 Determination of Sheath Dimensions

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.3 Preparation of Samples for Metallographic Examination

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

Lead and lead alloys with and without Sb

80 ml HNO3 (conc) 220 ml water 45 g ammonium molybdate 300 ml water

75 ml acetic acid 25 ml H2O2

4.5 Additional Preparation and Etching for the Microstructure

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

5 ml acetic acid (conc) 20 ml nitric acid (conc) 80 ml water

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.6 Grain Size Determination

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.7 Extrusion Flow Patterns

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.8 Chemical Analysis

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.10 Cone Expansion Testing

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.11 Tensile Testing

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.12 Hardness Testing

HBS 2/4 HBS 5/25

39.23 (4) 245.2 (25)

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

4.13 Typical Failures in Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths

EPRI Licensed Material Lead and Lead Alloy Cable Sheaths