Random IB HL Bio Study Guide

IB BIOLOGY EXAM STUDY GUIDE Alvin Lee 19-04-08
The Cell Membrane - separates protoplasm(nucleus & cytoplasm) from environment - selectively permeable: act as a gate keeper The Fluid-Mosaic (Singer) Model - mobile phospholipids bilayer with embedded proteins - phospholipids has a head and 2 tails; head - hydrophilic, tail hydrophobic - peripheral proteins: attached to exterior of membrane - integral proteins: pass through entire bilayer; allow nutrients and minerals to pass into and out of cell - glycolipids: specialized sugar molecules attached to lipids - glycoprotein: sugar + protein; make up the glycocalyx which gives an antigenic signature to the cell Taxonomy - taxon: a group of related organisms that are classified into one category - Carolus Linneaus: invented 2 things: 1) Binomial Nomenclature - 2 word naming system known as the scientific name Genus species 2) Classification Heiarchy - a series of increasing levels of increasing number or complexity - Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species - Dichotomous keys are useful tools to classify organisms Kingdom Monera (Bacteria) - simplest cells prokaryotic - lack nuclear membrane & membrane bound organelles - flagella allow motility(movement) *- need moisture, darkness, temperature, and nutrient source for active growth Bacterial Shapes - Cocci: sphere shaped - diplococci in pairs - streptococci in chains - staphylococci in clusters - Bacilli: rod-shaped - Spirilla: corkscrew shaped Nutrition Sources - heterotophic: other feeders cannot make their own food - patasitic: take food from living organisms - saprophytic: take food from dead organisms - autotrophic: self-feeder produce their own food - prototrophic: transforms sunlight into chemical energy for metabolism - chemotrophic: breaks down minerals for energy (nitrogen, sulfur, iron etc) Respiration - obligate aerobes: need oxygen to respire - obligate anaerobes: need oxygen absence to respire - facultative anaerobes: grow with or without oxygen - facultative aerobe: can stand conditions with no oxygen Reproduction - asexual: - binary fission: splitting in to - some bacteria form endospores instead of daughter cell; spores resistant to bad weather - sexual: bridge is formed between bacterium & male delivers duplicated chromosome to female Kingdom Protista (Eukaryotic Cells) - single-celled Eukaryotic cells; reproduce asexually via binary fission & form resistant cysts under harsh conditions - Protozoa: - ingest living/detritus(dead) material - holozoic: eat solid particles like animals - saprozoic: absorb soluble nutrients through cell membrane - paracitic: obtain food by living in another organism - Phylum Rhizopoda (amoeba) - no covering outside plasma membrane; constantly change shape - divided cytoplasm: ectoplasm(old stiff) & endoplasm(young soft) - move via pseudopodia (false feet) ameboid motion; eat via phagocytosis - sensitive to light; have contractile vacuole to pump out H2O; prevent cell from bursting

- Phylum Zoomastigophora (Flagella bearing) - oldest group of protests; reproduce via binary fission - pellicle: outer layer prevents organism from changing shape - eath through food vacuole in pellicle - Phylum Apicomplexia (Parasites) - all form spores as reproduction method & cause disease in humans - Phylum Ciliophoria (Paramecium) - avoiding reaction: move with cilia; swim until they hit an object; reverse direction - Algal Protists: photosynthesis capability - Phylum Euglenophyta - contain chloroplasts & photoreceptor moves organism towards light source; can form cysts - Phylum Chrysophyta golden plants Kingdom Fungi - multicellular with no true roots, stems, or leaves; cell wall composition chitin; primarily terrestrial - serve as decomposers of organic matter (no photosynthetic capability); external digestion; no locomotive capability - do not require light & use fermentation for energy process Division Zygomycota (Mold) - grow on warm moist surfaces - germination is when spores activate grow hypae; three types: rhisoids, stolons, sporangiophores) - rhizoids: short hyphae that reach down into food & secrete enzymes to break down food supply - stolons: spread over food surface - sporangiophores: reproductive reach up & grow spores at tips Division Basidiomycota (club fungi) - include mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts, smuts - either parasitic or saprophytic - grow in rings; centre outwards Virology - Structure: - core: houses genetic material - capsid: protein coat(icosahedron 20 sides) - envelope: derived from host cell membrane - is only active when living in a host - cannot replicate (reproduce) independently, need a host Bacteriophages - viruses which invade bacterial cells - virulent phage: cause lysis of host cell - temperate phage: does not cause host cell lysis - lytic cycle: time from penetration to lysis - prophage: viral nucleic acid - oncogenic viruses: cancer-causing viruses - interferon: released when cell is infected - causes neighboring cells to be resistant
Origin of Life on Earth - early earth had: no free O2, four elements CHON available in some form (hydrogen, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide, water vapors) - energy available in abundance Haldane & Oparin Hypothesis 1920s - chemical synthesis began in warm ancient seas spontaneous synthesis in the sea(organics from inorganics) - sea because a primordial soup; gives rise to polymerization from increasing concentrations - formation of protein /lipid shell encasing catalysts (Coacervates) - Miller-Urey Experiment proved that organics could be synthesized from inorganics Polymer Formation - as primordial soup thickened, dehydration synthesis occurred synthesizing polymers - Katchalsky: polymerization occurred with clay(Mg) acting as a catalyst; not in primordial soup - Woese: proposed life began in hot atmosphere & not in sea (unlikely)

- Fox: demonstrated polymerization of amino acids occurs readily under hot drying conditions - managed to produce large polymers called thermal proteinoids - problem: no explanation for nucleic acid formation; needs catalysts & enzymes Polymers to Aggregates - Oparin: made spheres called Coacervates; distinct clusters of proteins; divide after reaching critical mass - liposomes (spherical lipid bilayer) also generated in lab - Fox: synthesized tiny protein-like polymer spheres called protenoid microspheres - theorized that they could contain biochemicals - aqueous interior may show movement Cytoplasmic streaming - fuse to form larger spheres; shrink or swell osmotically Development of Prokaryotic Cells - RNA believed to be the first self-replicating informational macromolecule - mutation of RNADNA via reverse transcriptase? - progenote believed to be the ancestor to the cell - Early prokaryotic metabolic cell - extreme heterotrophs; no ATP involved - Eatly autotrophic cells - chemosynthetic autotrophs used inotganic molecules for food; anaerobic - photoautotrophic stromatolites colonies of cyanobacteria (2.8 billion years ago) - rising O2 levels: - poisoned anaerobic organisms; new forms or life less sensitive to O2 emerge Development of Eukaryotic Cell - speculation: lots of bacterium present; evolution of predators; one predator gave rise to eukaryotic cell Endosymbiosis Hypothesis - Lynn Margulis: predator captured anaerobic organism/bacterium & failed to digest it; bacterium metabolized halfmetabolized food; excess ATP leaked to predator; successful predator becomes more abundant - chloroplasts & mitochondria are examples of proof for hypothesis - both surrounded by double membrane; inner membrane similar to prokaryotic cell membranes Evolution Evidence of Evolution - The Fossil Record - extinct organisms had different traits from those we see today - past organisms are simpler; found in lower sediments - phylogenic trees (lines of descent) include intermediate forms of organisms - Biogeographical Distribution - continents have unique biotas however similarities can be traced back through lines - island biota is most similar nearest to mainland e.g. Canary Islands - Comparative Anatomy - Embryos of a single taxa(group) are alike in early stages of development - Adulf forms of members of one taxa are anatomically similar - Biochemical Similarities - similarities in DNA and proteins structure between similar organisms Human Evolution
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria Order: Primates Suborder: Anthropoidea Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: sapiens Sub-species: sapiens
The Primate Pattern - primate hand & arm - 5 digits with divergent thumb (gripping powers, dexterity, and manipulative ability) - forearm gives flexibility to rotate hands & upper arms - nails instead of claws; allow sensitivity, exploration, and manipulation

- visual acuity: rely on sight rather then smell; have rods & cones for day and night sight - Care for Young: nurse young; larger primates have long periods of dependency & learning - Uprightedness: vertical posture Monkeys - rounded skulls, full stereoscopic vision & color discrimination, move in groups where female nurse young - Platyrrhines (flat-nosed): New world monkeys evolved in South America - strictly aboreal use tail as 5th prehensile limb - Catarrhines (downward nosed): Old world monkeys evolved in Africa - aboreal and terrestrial use tail for balance Hominoids - Apes: larger then monkeys - brain case size; catarrhines - capable of brachiation (swinging of arms with bones upright) - Australopithecus afarensis (Oldest Ancestor) - Australopithecus africanus - Australopithecus robustus - Homo habilis - tool user; larger brain case lightly built - moved from forest to grassland - bipedalism - Homo erectus - thick massive skulls - nomadic; familiar with fire! - evidence shows they maintained base camps - Homo sapiens archaic - Homo sapiens neandertalensis - most similar to us; more muscular and heavily built - Homo sapiens sapiens: you and me Ecology - biosphere: encompasses abiotic and biotic components - maintained by a constant flow of energy input from the sun - hydrosphere: liquid, solid, gaseous water of Earth; covers 70% of Earths surface - lithosphere: the land of the planet - atmosphere: thin layer of gases and suspended particles blanketing Earth - Magnetosphere: traps charged particles from sun - Ionosphere: absorbs X and gamma rays - northern lights produced here - Mesosphere: limit of true atmosphere - few gases and water vapor here - Stratosphere: contains ozone layer - stable weather traps UV light - Troposphere: lowest level - convection currents (wind) Laws of Thermodynamics - First Law: energy can neither be created or destroyed - Second Law: all energy transformations cause an increase in the randomness of the universe (entropy) and a decrease in the free energy of the sun that is used to create order (enthalpy) Trophic (Feeding) Levels - producer: trap/convert light energy into chemical energy (autotroph) - primary (1st irst order consumer): herbivores - secondary (2nd second order consumer): carnivores off of 1st order - tertiary (3rd order consumer): top order consumer - decomposers: bacteria * fungi - energy is lost between each stage

- productivity: total amount of energy converted to organic compounds in a given length of time - net productivity: productivity minus cost of all metabolic activities of the producer - measured in: calories increase, biomass - primary productivity: total amount of energy converted to organic compounds by primary producer Efficiency of Energy Transfer - Ecological Efficiency: net productivity at one trophic level divided by net productivity of level below - Rule of Ten: 10% is passed on to next level and other 90% is not; the 90% is lost as a heat Pyramid of Biomass - Pyramid of Biomass (total dry weight) - need high producer reproduction sites - only indicates quantity of organic material - Pyramid of Numbers; represents numbers of organisms at each level - Pyramid of Energy; greatest loss of energy between first and second trophic levels - can never be inverted Oxygen Cycle - 21% of atmospheric gases; involves movement of O2 between atmosphere and biota - moves back and forth via photosynthesis & cell respiration Carbon Cycle (Greenhouse Effect) - increase in climate; preventing of polar ice cap; without greenhouse effect, Earths temp would be -14C - gases, CO2, methane, water vapor, ozone, CFCs all trap heat Nitrogen Cycle - bacteria are needed in cycle; 78% of gas in atmosphere - Nitrogenous wastes lead to lake eutrophication (accelerated growth) - oliogtrophic: new lake (young) 1) Physical Nitrogen Fixation N2 + O2 NO3 - The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite inert; to break it apart so that its atoms can combine with other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere: - atmospheric fixation by lightning - biological fixation by certain microbes 2) Biological Nitrogen Fixation N2(g) cyanobacteria NH4+ 3) Nitrification NH4+ nitrifying bacteria NO2 + NO3 4) Assimilation NO3 plants take and use amino acids plants use proteins 5) Decomposition Dead bodies decomposer proteins or urea (Decomposer Bacterium) amino acids 6) Ammonification Urea + Dead plants a.a NH4+ 7) Denitrification NO3 (Denitrifying bacteria), NO2 (Denitrifying bacteria), NH4+ (Denitrifying bacteria), N2 - two ways to make ammonia: N-fixation or Ammonification
IB BIOLOGY EXAM STUDY GUIDE Alvin Lee

The Water Cycle
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Ecological Succession - a series of changes to an ecosystem caused by interactions between living organisms & the abiotic environment - primary succession: starts in an environment where living organisms didnt previously exist - secondary succession: occurs in areas where an ecosystem is present but is replaced by another ecosystem because of environment change Major Biomes of the World Weather - low precipitation - warm - very hot days - cold nights - low precipitation - warm or hot summers - cold winters - cool wet winters - hot dry summers - frequent fires in summer - moderate precipitation - warm summers - cool winters - high precipitation - hot/very hot all year round - very low temperatures - little precipitation - mostly as snow
Biome Dessert Grassland Shrubland Temperate deciduous forest Tropical rainforest Tundra
Plants - very few plants - some store water and some growing quickly after rain - dominated by grasses and other herbs that can withstand grazing - drought-resistant shrubs dominate, often with evergreen foliage - trees shed leaves in winter - huge diversity of plants - very small trees - few herbs, mosses, lichens

Biochemistry Element Nitrogen (N) Use in Plants - essential component in DNA - needed for growth & repro. - shortage: stunting - part of cell wall structure & regulates transport of other nutrients into plants - Shortage: stunting - important in bioenergetics as a component of ATP - needed in photosynthesis - modifies activity of various enzymes used for flower and seed formation - necessary for photosynthesis - present as a coenzyme factor - regulates opening/closing of stoma via potassium ion pump - Reduces water loss & increases drought tolerance
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Use in Animals - essential component in all proteins and DNA - needed for growth and reproduction - Structure and formation of bones/teeth - Structure of bones and teeth - component of ATP (carrier for energy transport)
Calcium (Ca)
Phosphorous (P)
Iron (Fe) Potassium (K)
- contained in hemoglobin - needed for oxygen transport in blood throughout body - Major element/electrolyte of blood & intracellular fluid - Required for maintenance of pH and osmotic balance
2.1.5 <<see plate 12 Unusual properties of Water INSERT>> - organic: relating or belonging to the class of chemical compounds having a carbon basis. Hydrogen-Carbon bonds must be present. - inorganic: compounds are lacking a carbon base, usually having chlorine or sulfur as bases instead of carbon + lacking C-H Bonds - transparency: how clear a substance is - important for determining factor of photosynthesis rate - cohesion: attraction between similar particles - e.g. cohesion between blood cells when they stick together - adhesion: attraction between unlike particles - e.g. adhesive bandage sticking to skin - solvent particles: materials which dissolve into solution. - Water is the best solvent thus blood is a good solvent (made up of mainly water) - thermal properties of water: - has a tendency to retain head for extended periods of time - high specific heat capacity - high boiling point, freezing point - density decreases with cooling - evaporation at temperatures below boiling point - e.g. lake freezing over only on the top - polarity: having uneven sharing of atoms between atoms - Even though overall, the electrons are balanced, and the compound is neutral, sub-atomically, the electrons are charged - hydrogen bonding: intermolecular force between Hydrogen and another non-metal - the water molecule is dipolar in nature 2.1.6 Significance of Water to Organisms - Coolant: transpiration (plants), perspiration (animals) - transport medium: <cohesion (capillary reaction), solvent properties(nutrients), thermal properties(heat)

Biochemistry - polymer: large molecule consisting of many repeating subunits (monomers) - macromolecule: - large molecular mass - large organic polymers - 4 major classes: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids - Reactions involving polymers: - polymerization: putting polymers together - condensation (dehydration) synthesis): joining various polymers - hydrolysis: addition of water to split a polymer Carbohydrates - C, H, O H:O (ratio) = 2:1 - monosaccharides <e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose> deoxyribose(DNA) & ribose(RNA) - energy sugars are all isomers of each other - isomer: same number of atoms w/ different arrangement - once in aqueous solution, many form ring-shaped structures (more stable) - equilibrium for ring structures C6H12O6 - goes under ring picture - C1 bonds to oxygen attached to C5 to form a ring - C1 originally had a C=O - glycosidic linkage: bond between two monosaccharides during dehydration synthesis - glucose + fructose is a <1-2> glycosidic linkage - glucose + galactose is a <1-4> glycosidic linkage - alpha & beta glucose - alpha glucose (starch) digestible - hydrogen off C1 is on top and hydroxide (OH) is on bottom - beta glucose (cellulose) indigestible - hydrogen off C1 is on bottom and hydroxide (OH) is on top - disaccharides: <e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose> - transport sugars monosaccharide + monosaccharide = disaccharide(dehydration synthesis) - sucrose(table sugar) glucose + fructose = sucrose + water - lactose(milk sugar) glucose + galactose = lactose + water - maltose(malt sugar) glucose + glucose = maltose + water - polysaccharides <e.g. starch, cellulose, glycogen> - structure & energy storage - starch: energy storage in roots/bulbs (plants) - a mixture of 2 different polysaccharides: amylose / amylopectin - both are digestible thus good source of energy - all glucose molecules are in the alpha ring form - bonds linking them known as alpha linkage - cellulose: structure; cell walls of plants (indigestible to humans) - all glucose is in the beta ring form - no animal has the enzyme to break the linkages of beta ring - bacteria exist which can digest beta ring (e.g. in cattle/termites) - insoluble in water - glycogen: energy storage in animals (made up of glucose) - stores large amounts of energy - liver stores a great deal of glucose in the form of glycogen - found also in muscle for emergency supply Chemical Tests for Carbohydrates - Benedicts Test - testing for reducing sugars - reducing sugars include all monosaccharides + maltose - color change is a positive test - Iodine Test - test for starch - positive test: yellow-orange blue-black - glycosydic linkages (1-2 / 1-4) - alpha & beta configurations <refer to plate 15&16 carbohydrates
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Lipids (Chapter 3) - C, H, O (H:O ratio greater than 2:1) - fats & oils - hydrophobic: insoluble in water (will dissolve in non-polar substances) - includes steroids (e.g. cholesterol) Fats & Oils (triglycerides) - energy storage (greatest energy concentration) - made from glycerol and 3 fatty acids - ester linkage bond formed between hydroxyl group and carboxyl group - water is formed - non-soluble: C-H bonds make the chain hydrophobic and not water soluble Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats - all C-C bonds are single - not all C-C bonds are single - usually solid - usually liquid - most are animal fats - most are plant oils - e.g. lard & butter - e.g. corn, peanut, olive oil - unsaturated fats are healthier than saturated fats - cis- vs. trans- bonds - fatty acids with trans- bonds are carcinogenic - functions of fats: - energy storage - lipids generally contain 2x the amount of energy compared to proteins & carbs. - 9kcal/g vs. 4kcal/g - more compact energy reserve than carbs - cushions vital organs - insulates against heat loss Phospholipids <refer to plate 17> - glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group + additional small molecule (optional) - detergent behavior - forms bridges between grease & water - reduces surface tension in water - phospholipids major constituents of cell membrane - emulsifying agent is a substance soluble in both water & oil (e.g. bile) - substance physically breaks down (NO CHANGE IN CHEMICAL STRUCTURE) - e.g. lecithin (found in egg yolk & soy beans) used to emulsify lipids & hold them in water Steroids - structurally different than fats and phospholipids - classified as lipids because they are insoluble in water - e.g. cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone, progesterone - cholesterol - precursor of many other steroids; Vitamin D (needs sunlight for activation) - aids in calcium absorption, and bile salt digestion - common component of animal cell membranes (fluidity antifreeze) - contributes to atherosclerosis(hardening of arteries) & gallstones - lipoproteins tangles clusters of proteins and lipids - function to carry lipids/cholesterols in blood - two types: LDL(low density proteins) HDL(high density proteins) - LDL: bad cholesterol causes deposition of cholesterol on arterial wall - HDL: good cholesterol carries cholesterol out of bloodstream - anabolic steroids - e.g. testosterone - produces male characteristics - promotes muscle formation - reduces resting period after exercise - increases cardiac disorder - damages liver
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Proteins - composed of one or more polypeptides - chain of aas joined by peptide bonds - elemental composition C, H, O, N (also may find Fe, S, P, Cu) - are abundant, making up 50% or more of cellular dry weight - functions: - structural support(connective tissue) - receptors(rhodopsin) - storage(of amino acids) - movement(muscles) - transport(e.g. hemoglobin) - enzymes(organic catalysts) - hormones(e.g. chemical messengers) Amino Acids general formula - peptide bond is a C-N bond - amino acids can exist in 3 ionic states - cation - zwitterions(dipolar ion) - anion - can be grouped based on side chains or variable groups(R-groups) - non-polar: hydrophobic and therefore less soluble - polar-side groups: hydrophilic and there for more soluble in water (polar) - ionic-side groups: fully charged groups - disulfide bond: between 2 amino acids Polypeptide Chains - joined by peptide bonds(C-N bonds) - covalent bond formed by condensation that links the carboxyl group of one aa to the amino group of the next amino acid - protein conformation: 3D shape - shape determined by: R-groups and Primary structure - protein function dependant on its conformation - native conformation: shape found under normal biological conditions - based on protein structure divided into 3 levels: a) primary structure (1o) - unique sequence of aa - simplest level but most important - determines type of bonding(alpha or beta) - determined by genetic sequence b) secondary structure (2o) - regular repeated folding of a proteins polypeptide backbone - refers to weak non-covalent bonding forces - most common force H-bonds - types of secondary structure: i) alpha helix: formed by H-bonding every 4th peptide - e.g. keratin(hair component), collagen(cartilage/bone component) ii) beta pleated sheet: anti-parallel chains folded into accordion sheets/pleats - e.g. silk c) tertiary structure (3o) (highest level with one polypeptide) - irregular contortions of protein bonding in side chain (R-groups) - superimposed upon primary and secondary structure - 4 types of interactions: i) hydrophobic interactions: non-polar R-groups ii) hydrogen bonding: polar R-groups iii) ionic interactions: ionic R-groups iv) covalent disulfide linkages: cystine amino acids d) quaternary structure (4o) - results from interaction of 2 or more polypeptide in single protein - e.g. hemoglobin
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Nucleic Acids <Plate 18-21> - C, H, O, N, P - DNA & RNA - subunits: nucleotides (nitrogen-base, sugar, phosphate) - poly-nucleotides - polymer of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester linkages - other examples of nucleotides include ATP and some important enzymes Vitamins(keys to turn on enzymes) - not produced by the body (organic) - most widely known specific human dietary requirements needed in small amounts - are cofactors(keys) used by enzymes during metabolic activity - Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) - essential in production of collagen the protein of collective tissues - deficiency: scorbutus(scurvy) failure to form connective tissue - sources: cantaloupe, citrus fruits, kiwi, papaya, strawberries, broccoli, brussel sprouts, hot or sweet peppers, snow pea pods - benefit: reduced risk of: arthritis, asthma, cancer, cataracts, cognitive impairment, coronary disease, macular degeneration (vision loss in elderly) - Vitamin D (calciferol) - required for Calcium uptake in diet - deficiency: rickets(weak bones) - precursor for Vitamin D is found in human skin and must be irradiated (by sunlight) to convert it into an active form - Vitamin A - important for formation of the active pigment required for vision - sources: yellow & green vegetables - deficiency: night blindness and xerophthalmia(dry eyes) - Vitamin B & C - water-soluble(polar) - when in excess, will be excreted through urine - Vitamins A & D - stored in fat tissue - can accumulate to toxic levels - effects of food processing on vitamin content of food - most vitamins unstable at higher temperatures; will be affected by prolonged cooking Minerals - inorganic (e.g. Fe, Mg, Ca, P) - must be obtained through diet or water - used as supporting and protecting components - e.g. Fe in hemoglobin anemia: fatigue because of lack of hemoglobin & iron - not enough energy burned; not enough O2 - not enough cell respiration - not enough ATP - Calcium (Ca) strong bones and teeth, nerve function, muscle contraction Chapter 6: Cell Energetics Part I: Enzymes - Law of Thermodynamics i) energy of the universe is constant ii) every process increases entropy(disorder) of the universe - Entropy and living organisms - animals maintain orderly structure which leads to an entropy increase in surroundings - animals use complex high energy molecules to maintain orderliness - animals return low energy molecules (CO2 & H2O) to environment
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- Exergonic vs. Endergonic reactions
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- exothermic e.g. cell respiration - degrease in free energy (-G) - products have less free energy than reactants
(useful energy)
- endothermic e.g. photosynthesis - increase in free energy (+G) - products have more free energy than reactants - graph shape uphill
- graph shape is downhill - Energy of Activation <refer to figure 6.5 pg 135> - energy required to initiate a chemical reaction - enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction - facilitates the joining of substrates/substances http://home.comcast.net/~john.kimball1/BiologyPages/E/Enzymes.html - Enzyme Cofactors - required for proper enzyme function - organic coenzymes: NAD, NADP, FAD, vitamins - oxidized form - e.g. NAD+ - reduced form - e.g. NADH + H+ - inorganic cofactors: minerals like zinc, copper, iron - enzymes will not function if cofactors are nor present <refer to pg.3 of enzyme handout> - Active Site: where substrate(reactant) binds to the enzyme - physical part of the enzyme - enzyme not part of the product - is reusable - product is something different then the start(Chemical Reaction) - Enzyme Regulation(control) - A enzyme 1 B enzyme 2 C enzyme 3 D enzyme 4 E(product) - a series of reaction (multi-step reaction) - conservation of energy and materials maintained 1) Competitive Inhibition - inhibitor(similar to substrate i.e. shape/charge) - competes and binds to the active site - concentration of substance vs. inhibitor is a direct factor 2) Non-competitive Inhibition (supplementary) - inhibitor binds away from active site at the allosteric site - conformation of protein enzyme is altered - properties of active site altered - substrate no longer fits active site - enzyme does not work or works more slowly - NOTE* substrate cannot prevent binding of the inhibitor, even at high concentrations - Factors affecting enzyme action - temperature: there is an optimum - pH: there also is an optimum; rate of reaction the same(catalyst) - substrate concentration - after point of saturation, rate of reaction cannot increase any more - maximum amount of substrate bound per active site
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Part II Cell Energetics (ATP) - adenosine triphosphate(ATP) is a mononucleotide - ATP Hydrolysis(equation) - ATP hydrolyze ADP + P(inorganic phosphate) + energy release - ADP can be hydrolyzed again to yield AMP - coenzymes - electron & protein carriers - NAD+ NADH + H+(2e and 2p) ***cell respiration - NADP- NADPH + H+(2e and 2p) *** photosynthesis - FAD FADH2 Reduction - Oxidation Reaction - coupled reaction the two happen together - oxidation/reduction OILRIG - Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (of electrons) - oxidizing agent - reducing agent - oxidation involves the release of energy from electrons - releasing electrons releasing energy - carrying electrons carrying energy ATP Synthesis 1) substrate level phosphorylation 2) chemiosmotic prosphorylation (more efficient) - photosynthesis termed photophosphorylation - high energy electrons from sun - oxidative phosphorylation: high energy electron from glucose Concept Map ATP synthesis Substrate-level Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation Phosphorylation photosynthesis photophosphorylation (chloroplast) endosymbiosis
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cell respiration oxidative phosphorylation (mitochondria)
Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation Steps: 1) high energy electron moves into Electron Transport Chain (ETC) 2) energy released as electron moves through ETC 3) released energy used to pump(active transport) protons from one side of membrane to other 4) Protons on high concentration side only diffuse through specific channels in membrane a. ATPase/ATP synthatase allows this difference to occur 5) energy released through step #4 is used to convert ADP to ATP Chapter 7 Photosynthesis - synthesizes energy-rich organic molecules from poor inorganic energy molecules(CO2 & HOH) - converts solar to chemical energy - general equation: G = +686kcal/mol 6CO2 + 12H2O Chlorophyll & Light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6HOH - endergonic process: energy is required to reduce CO2 - when water splits, electrons transferred from water to CO2 reducing it to sugar - occurs in the chloroplast lumen : space inside thylakoids(inside
channel)
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Stages of Photosynthesis: - Light dependant reaction (non-cyclic): in thylakoids - photosystem II(P680) absorbs light with antenna pigments - energy focused and given to electron from hydrolyzed water molecule - electrons used to move hydrogen ions across into lumen - electrons moved to photosystem I(P700) - re-energized & bound to NADP + 2H+ to make NADPH+H+ - ATP is produced in the CFoCF1 complex - relative free energy levels - electrons originate from water - PSII provides first energy boost - PSI provides second energy boost - FD has greatest reducing power - NADPH+H+ contains a lot of FD - in cyclic light(dark) reactions electrons are cycled back from FD to the ETC instead of being bound to NADP+ - thus no NADPH+H+ produced meaning decreased rate in light reactions - Light independent reaction: in stroma - Calvin Cycle: uses ATP & NADPH+H+ formed in light reactions - Stage I Carboxylation (Carbon Fixation) - CO2 comes in from the environment - rubisco: fixates CO2 to RuBP(5 carbon compound) which acts as a CO2 acceptor - The 6-carbon compound unstable and breaks down into two 3-carbon compounds, called 3PG(PGA) (phosphoglyceric acid) - Stage II Phosphorylation - ATP from light-dependent reactions phosphorylate 3PG DPG - ADP returns to light-dependent reaction - phosphorylated by ATP synthase in the CF0CF1 complexes - Stage III Reduction - NADPH + H+ replaces the added Pi group forming G3P(glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate) - NB: G3P is considered the end product of the Calvin cycle - NADP+ & Pi recycle back to light reaction - 2 pathways for G3P to follow: - Regeneration Pathway - Glucose Pathway
Limiting Factors 1) light intensity a. low intensity: shortage in products from light dependant reactions - rate limiting step where GP is produced b. high concentration: some other factor limiting 2) CO2 Concentration a. low & medium concentration: rate limiting step where CO2 is fixed to make GP - if low on CO2, light dependant products build up b. high concentration: some other factor limiting 3) Temperature a. low temperatures: all enzymes in Calvin Cycle work slower - accumulation of light dependant Rx products b. intermediate temperatures: some other factor limiting c. high temperatures: RuBP carboxylase does not work effectively - rate limiting step carbon fixation - light dependant products accumulate
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Absorption & Action Spectrum - Photorespiration www.uair.edu/botany/botimages.html - direct competition with photosynthesis(increased photorespiration = decreased photosynthesis) - metabolic pathway which reduces yield on photosynthesis(photosynthetic output) - consumes O2, releases CO2, produces no ATP - occurs due to active site of RUBP caboxylase(Rubisco) can accept O2 as well as CO2 - dependant on O2:CO2 ration in atmosphere - some scientists believe photorespiration is a metabolic relic - atmosphere contained more O2 then CO2 - may cause a loss of as much as 50% carbon mass gain - if reduced, crop yields and food supplies would increase - fostered by hot dry days - causes stroma to close(preventing atmospheric CO2 from entering) - photosynthesis depletes available CO2 and increases O2 levels - favors photorespiration Types of Plants - C4 & CAM Plants - evolved ways to minimize photorespiration - <refer to text pg.173 fig7.13> - e.g.(CAM) pineapple, prikly pear, vanilla orchids - e.g.(C4) sugar cane, maize - C3 Plants - 99% of most plants - e.g. rice, wheat, potatoes, most temperate region crops CAM/C4 Plants C3 Plants Enhanced Photosynthesis Reduced Photosynthesis Atmosphere(more O2, less CO2) Atmosphere(more CO2, less O2) PEP Carboxylase RuBP Carboxylase (Calvin Cycle) RuBP Carboxylase(Calvin Cycle) - the extra layer of PEP Carboxylase enables the plant to only take up CO2(selective) - Both cyclic and non-cyclic reactions happen simultaneously - if insufficient levels of NADP+; Cyclic only occurs - cyclic: produces ATP - non-cyclic: produces ATP + NADPH + H+ Chapter 8 Cell Respiration Aerobic Respiration - General Equation: G = -686kcal/mol C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6HOH + ATP(36-38) - cellular respiration is a redox reaction; transfers hydrogen from sugar to oxygen - Part I Glycolosis - occurs in the cytoplasm of cell; does not need oxygen to occur - Glucose 2NADH+H+ + 2pyruvate + 2ATP(net yield 2 ATP used up in process) - Part II Link Reaction - pyruvate 2NADH+H+ + acetyl CoA + CO2 - happens twice for every one glucose - Part III Krebs(Citric Acid) Cycle - Acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate + water citric acid - Each turn of this cycle yields - 3 NADH+H+ - 1 FADH2 - 1 ATP (via substrate level phosphorylation) - 2 CO2 - each glucose became 2x acetyl CoA(+ 2 CO2) produced: - 6 NADH+H+ - 2 FADH2 - 2 ATP (via substrate level phosphorylation) - 4 CO2
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- Part IV Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation - complex I: ETC - complex V: CF0CF1 complex
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Step Glycolysis Link Reaction Krebs Cycle For every:
Location Cytoplasm; outside mitochondria Mitochondrial matrix Mitochondrial matrix
NADH+H+ 2 (2 ATP each*) 2 (3 ATP each) 6 (3 ATP each)
FADH2 0 0 2 (2 ATP each)
- NADH + H+ 3 ATP through chemiosmotic phosphorylation - cannot penetrate mitochondria(passes protons and electrons into mitochondria) - FADH2 2 ATP through chemiosmotic phosphorylation - every pair of electrons pumped 1 ATP - Substrates affecting cell respiration: - poisons that block electron flow (cyanide) - poisons that inhibit ATP synthase (in bacteria & oligomycin (antibiotic)) - poisons make inner mitochondrial membrane leak protons (dinitrophenol) Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation - occurs only in presence of oxygen - doesnt need O2 present - No Krebs Cycle, ETC - uses ETC or ETS - uses ETC or ETS - no O2 required - oxygen is final electron acceptor - uses other substances as e- acceptor - final e- acceptor is organic (e.g. pyruvate) - most ATP from oxidative but some - most ATP from oxidative but some - ATP produced only at substrate lvl from substrate level phosphorylation from substrate level phosphorylation - much less efficient(aerobic back up) - occurs in animals & plants - does not occur in human body - 2 types: lactic acid & alcohol - Control of Cell respiration through negative feedback - Phosphofructokinase: allosteric enzyme in 3rd step of glycolosis - Citric acid(citrate) & ATP: allosteric inhibitors of phosphofructokinase - ADP & AMP: allosteric activators for phosphofructokinase Chapter 25 Plant Physiology Evolutionary trends in plants - plant body increased in complexity as plants moved from water to land - invasion of land required protection, dispersal methods for seeds and developing - plants have a sporophyte(diploid)(2n) and gametophyte(haploid)(1n) generation - diploid sporophyte decreases the chances of a harmful recessive condition from showing up in the population - green algae(phylum chlorophyta) mostly in ponds/lakes; most likely gave rise to land plants - liverworts & mosses(phylum bryophyta) only partially adapted to land - vascular plants or tracheophytes have conducting vessels that also provide support (land adaptation) - seedless vascular plants include club mosses, horsetails & ferns - vascular tissue needed in order for plants to grow tall - seed plants dominate the land; aided by 2 important adaptations - seeds: produced through fertilization - pollen: male component/gametophyte
ATP(via S.L.P.) Total(ATP) 2 6* 0 6 2 24 34 - 36 TOTAL
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Plant Evolution and Diversity - alternation of generations - gametophyte generation haploid - sporophyte generation diploid - from evolutionary perspective, is an advantageous characteristic - product of sexual reproduction, thus greater variation - bryophytes(mosses): gametophyte generation is dominant - filicinophytes(ferns): sporophyte generation dominant - coniferophytes(conifers) & angiospermophytes(flowering plants): sporophyte generation dominant - Vascular Plant Phylogeny <pg 549 figure 25.8> - shows plant division population over time - double fertilization: produces a zygote and a triploid endosperm - triploid endosperm grows to form food source for zygote - required as food source before plant becomes photosynthetic - <figure 25.35, 25.26 pg. 562 565> - anther male component - pistil(carpel) female component Chapter 26: Flower & Plant Reproduction Parts of a flower - NB: male parts and female parts of a flower distribute at different times - pollination: transfer of pollen from stamen to stigma preceding fertilization of plant - vegetative propagation: formation/growth of new plant from fragments/clippings of parent - apomixis: production of seeds without union of two gametes Sexual Activity in Flowers - Events in the ovary: - two ovules formed in plant ovaries - consist of a megasporangium(nucellus) + 2 skin coverings(later becomes skin coat) - undergoes meiosis yields 4 haploid cells - embryo sac: a completed megagametophyte: endospore, central cell, polar nuclei, egg cell - egg and central cell will take part in double fertilization - Events in the anther: - each anther contains 4 pollen sacs - contain many diploid microsphere mother cells which will later go through meiosis to produce sperm cells(male gametophyte) - 2 resulting cells become sperm and tube cell Pollination & Double Fertilization - When pollen germinates, it grows a pollen tube to ovary to deliver male gametophytes - each pollen tube carries 2 male gametophytes - one fertilizes egg yielding diploid zygote - second joins 2 polar nuclei to produce triploid endosperm - flower fades after germination & fruit(angiosperm) will develop - finished product is a seed consisting of: - embryo + some kind of food supply + hardened protective coat or equivalent Post-Fertilization Events in a Dicot Flower i) developments in endosperms ii) growth of cotyledons iii) growth of rest of embryo (known as embryo axis) - within primary endosperm, nuclei keep dividing until mass is formed - cell wall laid down around nuclei in most dicots - zygote does not develop until endosperm has grown to considerable size
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Seed Dormancy - often seeds dehydrate and lose water - pericaps & seed coats harden - more resistance to bacterial/fungal growth - made easier for travel Seed Dispersal - minimizes competition over water, nutrients, light - water: coconut seed - wind: maple, elm, tumbleweed, dandelion - animals: humans, monkeys, raccoons, birds, bats, etc Plant Structure Structural Differences - bryophytes(mosses) - no roots(similar to rhizoids) - simple leaves and stems - maximum growth height of 0.5m - spores produced in capsules formed at stalk end - filicinophytes(ferns) - roots present, non-woody stems, leaves - max height 15m - spores produced in sporangia - unusually on underside of leaves(fronds) - coniferophytes(conifers) - roots. leaves(many from needles). woody stems - maximum height of 100m - seeds develop from ovules found in surface of cones - angiospermophytes(flowering plants) - roots, stems(some woody), and leaves - maximum height of 100m - seeds develop from ovaries; ovaries part of flower; fruits develop as method of dispersal Dicotyledonous Plant - primary growth: increase in height and length - secondary growth: increase in girth - see top right Transport Processes in Plants 1) Cellular(ground cell) - active transport (low concentration to high concentration) - osmosis (diffusion of water) - diffusion (high concentration to low concentration 2) Short Distance (lateral transport) - cell 1 to cell 2 on the same plane - there are 2 pathways which fluid moves towards the xylem from the root - symplastic flow: continuum of cytoplasm - plasmodesmata - apoplastic flow: transport through extracellular fluid outside cell walls - mineral transport into stele(xylem) is selective - only minerals that are admitted into cells by selective membranes gain access to the vascular tissue; due to switching from apoplast to symplast - Casparian strip: gate keepers to the stele - prevents backflow of H2O & minerals from stele to cortex - path of minerals; epidermis of roots(root hairs)root cortex stele(lateral)parts of apoplast(vertical) 3) Long Distance (whole entire plant) - xylem: water & mineral conduction (upwards direction) - TACT mechanism(Xylem transport) T transpiration loss of water vapor from plant body A Adhesion waters ability to cling to other surfaces C Cohesion waters ability to cling to itself(due to hydrogen bonds) T Tension negative pressure created in xylem (pulls water from areas of great hydrostatic pressure)
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Leaf Cross-Section - stomata - structure:
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- is a physical space (pore) - created by 2 guard cells - regulate size - located in epidermis - usually on underside of leaf - can be found on herbaceous(evergreen) stems - function: - gas exchange - controls the removal of water vapor via transpiration - usually involves CO2 movement into plant via diffusion - O2 diffuses in/out pending on concentration - mechanism: - opening widens when water osmosis into guard cells - increases turgor pressure - causes lengthening of guard cells - osmosis of water due to K+ pumping into cell - reverse events for stomata closing - factors influencing K+ transport - CO2 - ABA(hormone) - water - CAM - CAM plants at night store CO2in erassulacean acid for quick use - conserves water in droughts - phloem: photosynthetic produce transport (downwards direction) - pressure flow hypothesis - source(leaves) to sink(users of organic solutes) - water follows solute - moves opposite direction to transpiration stream - H2O diffuses into stream near sink and recycled because sugar goes to source - bulk flow: movement of water due to hydrostatic pressure difference between 2 locations - absorption of sun causes evaporation responsible for transpiration pull Plant Structure and Growth I Plant Anatomy A) Types of Tissue - Epidermis: dermal tissue system - prevents water loss - Vascular tissue system (xylem/phloem) - transport & support - Ground tissue system - photosynthesis, storage support B) Types of Cells Cell Type Characteristics Function
Parenchyma Collenchyma Fibers Sclereids Sieve cell Albuminous cells Sieve tube member Tracheid Vessel member Living at maturity Living at maturity often(not always) dead at maturity living/dead at maturity living at maturity; lacks or contains nucleic remenants living at maturity living at maturity, no nucleus at maturity Dead at maturity (xylem) Dead at maturity (xylem) respiration, digestion, storage , photosynthesis, conduction, regeneration Support Support in xylem and phloem Mechanical & Protective food conducting(phloem) found in gymnosperms(trees) movement of food in phloem food-conducting element in angiosperms(flowering plants) water conducting element in gymnosperms water conducting element in andiosperms
- Companion cells: aids sieve tube members in meeting their energy requirements
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Seed Germination - seeds must dry out and undergo a period of dormancy - factors needed for seed germination: - re-hydration (water) of dry tissue - oxygen for aerobic respiration - suitable temperatures(varies pending on species) - metabolic events during germination - re-hydration aloes greater metabolic activity - gibberellin(hormone) produced in cotyledons causes production of enzyme amylase - amylase catalyses the digestion of starch into maltose in the food stores of seed - maltose transported to growth regions of seedling (embryo root & shoot) - maltose converted to glucose & used in either catabolic(anaerobic respiration) or anabolic(growth) - photosynthesis begins as soon as leaves surface Mitosis & Meiosis Virchows Principle Cell Theory - all cells come from pre-existing cells - the cell is a unit of structure and function for all living things - all living things are composed of cells Mitosis vs. Meiosis - reproduction in number - keep chromosome number constant - growth development of zygote - genetic variation - replacement of damaged or aged cells - gametophyte production - regulation of surface area : volume ratio - Bacterial Division Prokaryotic cells - Binary fission : cell physically splits in half - numbers of organelles not always the same - Eukaryotic Cell Division - Mitosis (karyokenisis: division of nucleus) - 2 daughter cells identical to parent cell - somatic cells: cells of the body - diploid: 2 copies of each chromosome(46 in humans) - haploid(monoploid): one copy of each chromosome(23 in humans) Chromosome Number - equational division: mitosis always ends up with the same number of chromosomes compared to the parent cell - chromatin: uncoiled genetic material (both made of histone & non-histoneproteins) - chromosomes: coiled genetic material - Meiosis(reductional growth) - Meiosis I - Meiosis II - Metaphase - Random chromosome assortment - Recombination crossing over - Nondisjunction - Meiosis in humans
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Cell Cycle - interphase - G1(1st Growth) phase - just after mitosis; restriction point occurs late phase - moves onto S phase if more divisions needed - moves into non-dividing state is not needed - S(synthesis) phase - DNA replicated 2(2N) - ensures identical genetic material - G2(second growth) phase - organization of microtubules(spindle proteins) prior to cell division (mitiosis) - mitosis(haploid vs. diploid stages & events/role of micro tubules) The Cell Cycle
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- cytokinesis (cleavage furrow vs. cell plate) - cleavage furrow pinches in from the sides - cell plate grows out from center Control of Cell Division(restriction point) - point in late G1 phase which determines whether or not the cell will undergo mitosis - key factor in determining restriction point is Cytoplasmic volume : genome(DNA) size ratio - divides after certain volume is passed; growth = increase in numbers and size - prevents cells from getting progressively smaller
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Abnormal Cell Division tumor growth - uncontrolled mitotic division - cells do not respond to stop signals(density dependant inhibition & contact inhibition) - metastasis: cancer which has spread to other body parts from origin - treatment: radiation & chemotherapy(deals with G1 & G2 of cancer cells) - oncogenes: genes responsible for causing tumor growth - turned of by tumor suppressing genes Meiosis - reductional division: chromosome number reduced by - production of gametes; occurs before fertilization - homologous chromosomes may or may not be the same in composition; are the same from macrospective - Meiosis I = reductional Meiosis II = equational Meiosis I - Prophase I - meiosis interphase prior; G1 (n), S (2n), G2 (2n) - chromatin condense to individual chromosomes - Synapsis: process resulting in homologous chromosome physical pairing tetrads - Crossing over: exchange of chromosome parts between non-sister chromatids - gives genetic diversity/variation - forms a chiasma(physical evidence) - Metaphase I - centromeric spindle fibers form and attach to centromeres of chromosomes(1 per chromosome) - synapsis tetrads along cell centre - tetrad is made up of a pair of duplicated homologous chromosomes - Anaphase I - centromeres do NOT split - tetrad splits into 2 diploid chromosomes - post-anaphase chromosomes have parental chromosome numbers - Telophase I - same as mitosis - cytokinesis
Meiosis II - diploid cell containing parents chromosome number goes through mitotic division Genetic Variation i) crossing over ii) sexual reproduction iii) mutation - sexual reproduction i) independent chromosome assortment (Meiosis I) ii) random fertilization any sperm can fertilize any egg
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Nondisjunction - failure of chromosomes to separate properly during anaphase - gametophytes with genetic material irregularities may abort Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) - polymer of nucleotides - nucleotide(below) is the building block for DNA - Nitrogen Bases - Cytosine pyrimidine(single ring) - Thymine pyrimidine - Guanine purine(double ring) - Adenine purine Important People - James Watson & Francis Crick - Model of DNA(1953) 2 complementary anti-parallel strands - double helix twisted ladder with two main chains composed of sugar and phosphate groups - Fredrick Miescher(1868) Isolated DNA - Fred Griffith(1928) transforming principle; genetic material passed on - Chargaffs Rule(1950) - # of Adenine+Guanine = # of Thymine+Cytosine = 50% DNA Structure - two H-bonds between A and T - three H-bonds between C and G - two strands are anti-parallel (53) (35) - nitrogen bases are complementary (fit one another) Dimensions 2.9nm width of double helix 0.34nm vertical distance between N-bases 3.4nm one complete twist Requirements of Genetic Material 1) carry genetic material from cell to cell & between generations 2) must contain information for replicating itself 3) must sometimes mutate to allow for natural selection/evolution 4) must have mechanism for decoding & putting into action - nucleosome - consists of 8 small histone protein wrapped with DNA and held together by another histone protein - only a small portion of DNA makes up genes - majority of DNA contains repetitive sequences - useful for DNA fingerprinting DNA Function - controls chemical activity & cellular reproduction - determines protein structure - DNA found in chromosomes which contain subunits(genes) - carries genetic code instructions for all proteins DNA Replication - SEMI-CONSERVATIVE process - occurs during S=phase of interphase
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DNA Replication The Replication Fork - Helicase: unwinding enzyme (breaks H-bonds) - RNA primase: produces RNA primer (provides 3 OH-) - allows polymerase III to bind - DNA Polymerase I: involved in both continuous and discontinuous replication - removes RNA primer & replaces with DNA nucleotides - exonucleases activity(proofread & repair) - DNA Polymerase III: involved in both continuous and discontinuous replication - adds nucleotides to primer - exonucleases activity - DNA ligase: joins Okazaki fragments (discontinuous) - Gyrase: undos supercoiling ahead, replication fork - Deoxynucleoside triphosphates: required to form nucleotides for DNA replication - Okazaki fragments: necessary because DNA polymerase III only functions in 5 to 3 direction - single strand binding proteins: stabilize replication fork - Origins of Replication: random sites which spread to increase replication speed - H-bonds broken by helicase - DNA only duplicates in a 5 3 direction - DNA Polymerase I & III - attaches 5 phosphate to 3 OH group limitations: - Polymerase III cannot begin a new daughter strand alone needs RNA polymerase & RNA primer to provide 3 OH for polymerase - can only add new bases to the 3 end of a growing strand Formation of the Lagging Strand - unpaired template bases accumulate on lagging strand - RNA primase forms RNA primer - DNA Polymerase III begins adding bases in 5 3 direction starting at RNA primer - segments of DNA formed called Okazaki fragments - DNA polymerase I cuts out RNA primer & fills in gap - Ligase joins all DNA segments
Eukaryotes - multiple replication sites - replication complexes slower (500-5000 base pairs/min) - long linear DNA molecule formed Prokaryotes - 2 replication sites - replication complex faster (1million base pairs/min) - single circular shorter DNA formed
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Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) - found in nucleus & cytoplasm - involved with protein synthesis; messenger RNA (mRNA) 5 leader initiator codon cistron termination codon 3 trailer - 5 leader offers physical space for ribosome to bind - cistron: codes for proteins - subunits: introns & exons - exons: code for protein - introns: unknown purpose - post transcriptional modification: - capping: addition of guanine nucleoside to 5 end - aids in binding and positioning on ribosome - poly-A tail: addition of long series of adenines to 3 tail - may aid transport of mRNA out of nucleus - determine how many times mRNA can be translated before it degrades - splicing(in nucleus): removal of introns
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- transfer RNA (tRNA) - can be covalently linked to an amino acid - charging enzymes join the two amino acids - anticodon: series of 3 bases located opposite to amino acid - base pair with mRNA codons - structure allows recognition by tRNA activating enzyme (amino acytl-tRNA synthase) - ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - structural differences between RNA & DNA RNA - sugar ribose - nitrogen base: Uracil - usually single stranded - shorter strand - less stable several types Protein Synthesis - Transcription + Translation = Protein Synthesis - Transcription - chemical process: information in DNA copied to RNA - gene: segment of DNA which specifies a protein(1gene1polypeptide) - 2 parts: - coding region (region transcribed) - regulatory region (regulates transcription) 1) RNA polymerase binds to specific DNA sequence at promoter (regulatory region) & breaks H-bonds 2) Free RNA nucleotides begin to attach to unwound DNA 3) DNA rewinds while RNA transcribed - RNA synthesized in a 5 to 3 direction 4) transcription continues until RNA polymerase encounters a termination signal; breaks from DNA strand 5) RNA strand known as mRNA (carries message to ribosomes) Translation - initiation + elongation + termination - converting mRNA information to protein 1) Initiation - base pairing between mRNA initiator (AUG) and anticodon(UAC) only found on methionine tRNA - allows ribosomal subunit to bind with the polypeptide assembling complex - small ribosomal subunit = 40s - large ribosomal sub unit = 60s - functional ribosomal complex = 80s A amino acid entrance; P peptide formation; E exit pocket DNA - sugar deoxyribose - nitrogen base: thymine - usually double stranded - longer strand (1 billion times longer) - more stable - one type
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2) Elongation - amino acids remain attached to tRNA in P-site - peptide bond formed before tRNA exit - peptidyl transferase: integral part of large ribosomal subunit - catalyses formation of peptide bond - GTP provides energy to move tRNA to pockets 3) Termination: occurs when ribosomeal complex reaches a terminal codon - derails ribosome & causes ribosomal subunits to separate; H2O hydrolyse ribosome/peptide bond
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Mutations - Mutation: permanent DNA change/alteration - environment determines whether mutation is positive/negative Types of mutations - Base Pair Substitutions - Point mutations i) silent mutation: base pair substitutions where resulting codon does not change amino acid produced ii) missense mutation: base pair substitution where codon produces a different amino acid iii) nonsense mutation: base pair substitutions changes amino acid codon to termination codon or vice versa - Insertions or deletions - result in frame shift mutation: reading of codons altered - effect of codon dependant on where it takes place(beginning or end) - may result in extensive missense which ends in nonsense - Chromosomal Mutations: segments or whole chromosomes altered i) deletion: segment of DNA removed sticky ends glue the strand back together ii) duplication: segment of DNA duplicated and repeated in gene strand iii) inversion: gene on genetic strand flipped 180 degrees iv) transposon: segment of gene transferred between non-homologous chromosomes Biotechnology Techniques & Tools - Restriction enzymes (EcoRI, BamHI, Hind III) - Bacterial enzymes that cut DNA(in palindromes) creating sticky sites which can base pair with other fragments - Can join to form recombinant DNA; only cut at palindromes; staggered cut - Gel electrophoresis: separates particles based on charge and size on electrified gel slab - restriction fragments form distinct bands - Sanger Method(DNA sequencing): - Polymerase Chain Reaction: DNA repeatedly melted & mixed with primers, DNA polymerase, and nucleotides - Rapidly produces multiple copies of a gene/DNA segment - RFLP analysis: Restriction fragments separated by gel electrophoresis; southern blotting transfers single stranded fragments to filter, radioactive probe added and bands revealed using autoradiography - Make DNA fingerprints, map chromosomes, diagnose genetic diseases - DNA fingerprinting: - paternity testing identifying childs father - forensic testing identifying victims from long ago - genetic screening testing for presence of gene on individual
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Gene Splicing - inserts genes from one organism into another - DNA is universal - human insulin has been successfully inserted into bacterium to produce insulin to gather. - same restriction enzyme used to cut DNA to ensure proper insertion DNA ligation - generates recombinant DNA molecules(new combinations) - DNA ligases enzymes that join DNA strands; finds 5phosphate and 3hydroxyl groups of adjacent nucleotides Genetics - Transmission and Distribution of Hereditary Factors Genetics: study of characteristic transmission from parents offspring The Human Genome Project - international project = objective to map all genes in human DNA - only about 5% of chromosomes made of genes Positive Negative - international project - projects would take away from other project budgets - information which helps everyone - costly - ability to predict specific diseases/genes in individuals - patient cost & difficulty controlling environment - understand how genes work - beneficial genes could be eliminated - understand bodily functions - protection of gene piracy? - increased understanding on gene regulation - genetic influence on human behavior - new technologies discovered Genetic Screening: testing an individual for a certain characteristic or trait Advantages Disadvantages - fewer children with genetic disease can be reduced - frequency of abortion could increase - frequency of alleles causing tumors can be decreased - harmful psychological effects - Genetic diseases - creation of a genetic underclass Genetic Modification Benefits Harmful - less pest damage > higher crop yields < food shortage - consumers could be harmed by genetic modification - less land needed for crop production - insects that are not pests could be killed - less insecticide spray needed - populations of wild life might change (crosspollination) Examples: (tomato plant salt tolerance; delayed tomato ripening; herbicide resistance) The Mendelian Model - Gregor Mendel: Austrian monk father of genetics; pea plant breeding to form modern genetics base - studied traits: seed color, texture, flower position, color, pod color, shape, stem height - crossed 2 pure homozygous plants to form hybrid(monohybrid cross) - first filial generation (F1): plants which grew from resulting seeds - second filial generation (F2): later hybrids which were crossed - results: - in all F1, one of the traits disappeared - characteristic that disappeared in (F1) reappeared in (F2) - characteristic that appeared in (F1) called dominant trait (denoted as a capital letter) - trait that disappeared in (F1) called recessive trait (denoted as lower case) - in F2, the phenotypic ratio of dominant to recessive was always 3:1 - conclusions: - each phenotype determined by unit factor or genotype - assumed each individual carried paired genes - alternative forms for the same gene exist on same spot on chromosome(alleles) Replacement of Defective Genes - removal of WBCs or bone marrow cells by a vector - introduction and insertion of normal gene into chromosome - cells repaced into patient so normal gene is expressed clone: a group of persons genetically identical to another individual
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Cloning Dolly the sheep
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Ethics of Cloning Humans FOR - happens naturally when monozygotic(identical) twins are born - cloning embryos genetic screening easier - Infertile couples have better chance at making a baby AGAINST - groups of genetically identical people might suffer physiological problems over identity & individuality - cause suffering: high risk of miscarriage - DNA from differentiated cells ages faster creation of a super race eugenics
Differences between prokaryotes & eukaryotes in DNA use
Prokaryotes Nucleosomes Repetitive Base Sequences Points of initiation Introns (non-coding) Gene Regulation Operon absent usually absent one Absent groups Present
Eukaryotes present present & numerous multiple Present separately Absent
- operon: a group of genes that are regulated together (Lactose operon/Tryptophan operon) Regulation of a metabolic pathway - Repression: end product represses gene expression for pathway - more efficient then Negative Feedback - Feedback inhibition: End product inhibits activity of first enzyme pathway Tryptophan (Tryp-) Operon - regulated anabolic pathway of product synthesis catalyzed by repressible enzymes - 5 structural genes coding for pathway grouped into an operon - operon has a promoter and operator - RNA Polymerase attaches to promoter region (can be a poly-A tail) - considered a repressible system; tryptophan presence represses gene expression - tryptophan acts as a co-repressor & activates an inactive repressor active state - when present, it binds to operator site and blocks promoter; thus RNA Polymerase cannot bind Lactose (Lac-) Operon - Absence of lactose - lac-repressor binds to lac operator site - prevents gene expression; no RNA/protein made - Presence of lactose - lactose binds to lac-repressor allosteric site inducing conformational change in structure - conformational change inactivates lac-repressor - Presence of cytoplasmic glucose - transported into cell by glucose transport system (GTS) phosphorylated by ATP in GTS - glucose also activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase - cannot activate adenylate cyclase if used in GTS - result: as glucose is transported into cell cAMP concentration falls - adenylate cyclase is used in GTS; thus no cAMP formation - Absence of cytoplasmic glucose - GTS not operational - phosphate donor component free to activate adenylate cyclase - result: the concentration of cAMP rises.
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***Thus there is an inverse relationship between [glucose] and [cAMP]*** - Dual Regulatory System of Lac-Operon - presence of two separate control systems allows cell to respond more sensitively to the needs imposed by changing growth conditions 1) NO GLUCOSE & NO LACTOSE - high [cAMP] in cell; CRP(protein which binds to DNA strand) bound at lac promoter - assist RNA polymerase binding to promoter - will not activate transcription because the lactose repressor will remain bound to the operator - no transcription of lac operon - without sugar, cell cannot metabolize - but remains poised to use whatever it can whenever it can 2) GLUCOSE PRESENT BUT NO LACTOSE - low [cAMP] in the cell; CRP not bound at lac promoter - activity of lactose permease also inhibited. - no transcription of the lac operon. - glucose presence creates little need to metabolize lactose 3) GLUCOSE & LACTOSE PRESENT - low [cAMP] in cell; CRP not bound to lac promoter - Lactose permease inhibited but some lactose still enters cell - low level transcription of lac operon - glucose presence creates little need to metabolize lactose - lactose presence, the cell would be foolish to ignore sugar supply completely 4) LACTOSE PRESENT BUT NO GLUCOSE - high [cAMP] in cell; CRP bound at lac promoter - Lactose permease not inhibited transports lactose into cell - maximal transcription of lac operon. - With lactose as the sole sugar source, the cell must use every available molecule Genetics Theoretical Genetics
- Genotype: - Phenotype: - Dominant allele: - Recessive allele: - Codominant alleles: - Locus: - Homozygous: - Heterozygous: - Carrier: - Test cross: alleles possessed by an organism characteristics of an organism has same effect on phenotype in both dominant and recessive only takes effect on phenotype in homozygous state pairs of alleles both affect phenotype in heterozygous state particular gene position on homologous chromosome two identical alleles of a gene two different alleles of a gene individual has a recessive allele of a gene not affecting phenotype testing suspicion of heterozygous by crossing with known homozygous recessive
Gregor Mendel: Father of genetics - studied traits: seed color, texture, flower position, color, pod color, shape, stem height - crossed 2 pure homozygous plants to form hybrid(monohybrid cross) - first filial generation (F1): plants which grew from resulting seeds - second filial generation (F2): later hybrids which were crossed - results: Punett Square Law of Inherited Characteristics - inherited characteristics controlled by factors found in pairs Law of Dominance - one factor in a pair may mask the other preventing it from having an effect - factor called a dominant factor
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Monohybrid Cross - organism with only ONE pair of genes involved - solve using a test cross by drawing a punett square
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Dihybrid Cross - examines organisms dealing with two traits - Law of Independent Assortment - genes separated/distributed to gametes irrelevant
Sex Determination - gender is an inherited trait - 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans determines gender (XX female; XY male) - sex determination mechanism in humans - male gamete determines offspring gender (50:50 chance) - NB: X & Y chromosomes are structurally different - they pair up during metaphase because parts of them are homologous Sex Linkage Sex Linkage Question Example: - genes can be linked specifically to the X or Y Q: In humans, red-green colorblindness is a chromosome recessive sex-linked trait. It is found on the X - X-linkage: a trait only found on the X chromosome chromosome, Determine the phenotype and the - colorblindness, hemophelia, muscular dystrophy genotype of the F1 generation - males more heavily affected by recessive traits n R: - X Y (active) - females are not as heavily affected - XNXn (inactive) XnXn (active) - only females can be carriers Multiple Alleles - more than two alleles which may occupy a particular gene - ABO blood system (3 alleles) - A, B, O Blood Type Genotypes A IAIA or IAIO B IBIB or IBIO AB IAIB O O O I I or ii - A & B are co dominant - A & B are dominant over O - O is recessive Multiple Genes (Polygenetic Inheritance) - genes with individually a very small effect on phenotype - Compound expression produce characteristic variety - genes have an additive effect
(skin color, foot size, nose length, birth weight, height, IQ)
- Taking a close-up look: Height - assuming 3 genes control height (ABC) - each dominant allele increases height by 3 cm aabbcc 160cm aaBbCC 175cm AABBCC 190 cm
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- Environmental factors also have an influence (e.g. nutrition) Types of Genetic Variation Discrete (Discontinuous) genes only influence Continuous genes + environment influence.
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sex, eye color, blood type phenotype = genotype
body weight & height phenotype = genotype + environment
Environmental Influences on Gene Expression - Conditional Gene Expression - Environmental Influences - e.g. Siamese cats with fur pigmentation temperature sensitive - depending on environment temperature - Incomplete Penetrance: having a dominant genotype without showing it (e.g. rolling tongue) - Variable Expressivity: the mutant phenotype expresses to varying degrees (Polydactyly(having a 6th finger)) - sex limited & sex influenced Effects - sex limited trait: shows up in only ONE sex or the other - sex influenced trait: can show up in both traits but may vary between gender (baldness) - variavility in age onset - pleiotrophy many turnings: allele expressed in different ways ant tissues Gene Linkage - genes move together as groups - linkage group: a pair of genes which move together - law of independent assortment does NOT apply - Genes that are closer together will be separated less frequently then those farther apart - Cross over frequencies used to construct gene maps -takes place: Prophase I(before fertilization) - detect gene linkage by comparing actual genotype with expected(with independent assortment) percentages - if actual percentages are different, Gene linkage occurs - Recomination Frequency = centimorgans x distance - centimorgan(cM): a.k.a. map unit (m.u.) - unit of recombinant frequency for measuring genetic linkage
e.g.
47% e.g. 3% 47% 47% Recombinant Frequency map distance = ----------------------------------------------Total Frequency COUPLING REPULSION recombinant % < normal recombinant % > normal
47%
3%
3%
3%
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Pedigrees Family Trees - chart which tells one all of the known phenotypes for an organism - Normal Pedigree uses letters as symbols - e.g. dd, Dd, dD, DD - Gene-linked Pedigree uses chromosome with superscript - e.g. XNXn, XnY
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The Chi-Square (X2) Test - statistical method used to determine if actual raw numbers match with expected new numbers - Steps: 1) State simple hypothesis null hypothesis that states an expectation for expected ratio 2) Calculate the Chi-square - Always calculate from actual numbers 3) estimate probability - to determine p, calculate degrees of freedom (df) - (df) = # of phenotypic classes 1 4) reject or accept the null hypothesis - if p is less then 5%, reject null hypothesis - if p is more than 5%, accept null hypothesis e.g. Dominant Heterozygous x Dominant Heterozygous (AaBb) x Recessive x Recessive (aabb) - actual results dominant x dominant = 140 dominant x recessive = 110 recessive x dominant = 115 recessive x recessive = 135 - expected phenotypic ratio 1:1:1:1 due to lack of linkage Class DD DR RD RR Observed (O) 140 110 115 135 Expected (E) 125 125 125 125 X2 = (O E)2 225 225 100 100 (df) = (O-E)2/E 1.8 1.8 0.8 0.8
TOTAL = 5.2 Since the distribution factors (X2) are greater than 5%, the null hypothesis is accepted meaning the chromosomes are assorted independently; thus they are on different chromosomes Recombinants Recombinant Frequency = ------------------------------Total # of offspring Codominance Sickle-cell Anemia - both alleles are expressed (heterozygote shows both traits) - affects hemoglobin in RBC
- each genotype has a different phenotype - MN Blood Group System Genotype add Anti-M add Anti-N
MM + MN + + NN + - + clumping or angulation: same antigen & antibody mix - conclusion: MN blood system is codominant
- HbAHbA normal HbSHbS severe anemia HbAHbS no anemia; RBC sickle only under abnormally low O2 concentrations - Organism level with regards to anemia HbA is dominant - Cellular level - cell shape incomplete dominance - Molecular level hemoglobin codominance, each type of genotype produces a new type of hemoglobin
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Gene Interaction
Type Typical Dihybrid Complementary Gene Action Recessive Epistasis A/a over B/b gene Dominant Epistasis A/a over B/b gene A_B_ 9 9 9 12 3 A_bb 3 aaB_ 3 7 4 3 1 aabb 1
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Epistasis is the interaction between genes. Epistasis takes place when the action of one gene is modified by one or several other genes, which are sometimes called modifier genes. The gene whose phenotype is expressed is said to be epistatic, while the phenotype altered or suppressed is said to be hypostatic.
Microevolution & Changing Alleles - population: localized group if individuals of the same species - gene pool: aggregate of genes in a population - microevolution: relative frequencies of alleles in a population which change over a succession of generations Hardy-Weinberg Theorem - allele frequency in populations gene pool remains constant over generations - unless acted upon by agents other than sexual recombinance or - shuffling of alleles due to meiosis - random fertilization has no effect on the overall genetic make-up of a population - refers to evolutionary stasis (non-evolutionary population) - if the allele & genotype frequencies remain the same from generation to generation, the population is in HardyWeinberg Equilibrium p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 p & q allele frequencies P2 heterozygous dominant gene p+ q = 1 2pq heterozygous genotype Example: q2 recessive genotype A red flowers Allele Frequencies a white flowers FrequencyA = 800/1000 x 100% = 80% 500 plants (20 white(aa), 480 red(320 AA, 160Aa)) Frequencya = 200/1000 x 100% = 20% Genotype Frequencies Hardy Weinberg maintained if: FrequencyAA = 0.64 = 64% A a i) large population size FrequencyAa = 0.32 = 32% 2 p = 0.64 pq = 0.16 A ii) isolation from other populations Frequencyaa = 0.04 = 4% iii) no net mutations pq = 0.16 q2 = 0.04 a iv) random mating v) no natural selection Causes of Microevolution - Mutations: rare non-adaptive event (doesnt change with environment) - Population size Genetic Drift - random change in small gene pool(100 or less) - not adaptive - bottle neck effect: gene pool drastically reduced unselectively by disaster - founder effect: new colony formation Migration Gene Flow - due to immigration & emigration - not adaptive - Non-random mating: reduces frequency of heterozygous individuals - Natural Selection: different success in reproduction increases frequencies of some alleles and decreases others Variability - Balanced polymorphism - natural selection pressures variation maintaining population diversity - heterozygote advantage greater reproductive success - e.g. Hemoglobin: HbAHbS presence of few sickle cells, however malaria resistant - recessive gene maintained in population Inbreeding Out breeding - decreases variation to obtain stable desirable genotype - mating of unrelated organisms to make hybrids - line breeding: all mating done with one individual - e.g. donkey + horse = mule (sterile) Clines & Ecotypes (Geographic Variation) - cline: graded change in a trait along geographic axis (altitude, latitude) - e.g. average body size, skin pigmentation - ecotype: species which inhabit many habitats may appear slightly different (finches)
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Population Genetics Theory of Acquired Characteristics (Jean Baptiste de Lamark) - present day life forms evolved from pre-existing forms by inheritance of characteristics from parents - strive to meet demands of environments and acquire traits from environment to pass on to offspring - Theory of Use and Disuse = problem not all characteristics are passed onto offspring Theory of Natural Selection (Charles Darwin) - organisms overproduce & environment selects favorable characteristics - organisms pass some inherited characteristics onto their offspring (Finches) Macroevolution - evolution of larger divisions (species & up) - uses comparative anatomy, embryology, fossil record, comparative molecular biology - focuses on major evolutionary trends, mass extinctions, Neo-Darwinism - natural selection acts on heritable(genetic) variations in individuals caused by mutations only - responsible for small microevolutionary changes (can be extrapolated to yield macroevoluation) Natural Selection - organisms most suited to environment most likely to survive and leave offspring Source of Genetic Variation Mechanisms Generating Variation Relevance to Natural Selection
Mutations - spontaneous & inheritable - variation source from both sexual & asexual organisms - Gene mutations - small scale change in one or more nucleotides - Chromosome mutations - large scale altering entire chromosome - Mutagenes - catalyzed by radiation - Independent assortment - ensures random mix of parent traits - homologous pairs separate random - Cross over - homologs exchange corresponding segments of DNA - Random fertilization - mass amount of combinations - Random mating - create large scale changes in ones genome + create new alleles - Natural selection\ - weeds out harmful mutations - ensures good mutations spread
Sexual Reproduction Eukaryotes i) independent assortment ii) cross over iii) random fertilization
- generate new combinations - Natural selection determines if it is +/-
Natural Selection Stabilizing Selection - maintains high incidence of optimal - eliminates extreme population forms - results in optimum phenotype - stable population Directional Selection - gradually changing environment - favors one extreme - creates new optimum phenotype - e.g. human influence on environment/habitats of animals Disruptive Selection - favors two extremes - gives rise to bimodal distribution - two distinct groups predominate - naturally rare Speciation - species: a group of individuals genotypically different & capable of producing fertile offspring - Allopatric Speciation - evolution of two or more species from ancestors due to geographical separation - ancestral gene pool split & gene flow severed(more prevalent in animals) - Sympatric Speciation
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- evolution of two or more new species at the same place and same time (more prevalent in plants) - Ring species: species which have undergone Allopatric speciation & come back into contact - Traditional Gradualist Problem Punctuated equilibrium - gradual divergence from common ancestor - speciation occurs in rapid bursts over short time
Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms - preventing two species from hybridizing - pre-zygotic barrier: blocking sperm from egg i) Geographical Barrier ii) Ecological Barrier different parts of ecosystem iii) Behavioral Barriers mating seasons & cycles iv) Mechanical Barriers genetalia do not match v) Gametic barriers sperm & egg incompatibility - post-zygotic barrier: i) hybrid failure ii) hybrid inviability iii) hybrid sterility iv) hybrid breakdown Population Density: Dp = N/A (N = unit; A = area) Rate of Density Change: R = D/T = (DF DT)/ T Population Growth Curves - S-shaped Growth Curve - exponential phase - population spike due to: - high natality(birth) > mortality rate - abundance of food & little predators - transitional phase - population rate slows due to increasing mortality and decreasing natality rates - plateau phase - population growth halts: - natality % mortality rates equal - food shortage, more predators, diseases & parasites - J-shaped Growth Curve - exponential growth: species is reproducing at near biotic potential(abundant resources, no predators, no disease & paracites) - Population Crash - fast steep drop in species population due to exceeding carrying capacity Dynamics of Population Growth - environmental resistance: food & space available - closed population: natality & mortality - open population: natality, mortality, immigration, emigration - population change = (natality + immigration) (mortality + emigration) - population size = (n1n2)/n3 n1 = # individuals caught in first sample * assumes probability that organisms will n2 = # of total individuals caught in second sample get caught a second time remains constant n3 = # of marked individuals in second sample Predator Prey Relationship Ecological Succession - Climax community: highest most stable ecosystem possible - Primary succession: increase in foliage from bare land - Secondary community: reclamation back to climax community Symbiotic Relationships
Commensalism Mutualism Parasitism Organism 1 ----+ + (parasite) Organism 2 + + (host)
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Support and Movement Hydrostatic Movement Hydrostatic Skeleton: fluid filled spaces for support and movement. - pseudocoelom: internal body cavity like a coelom but lacking mesodermal lining - coelom: cavity within the body formed by splitting of mesoderm into two layers. cnidarians nematodes mollusks annelids jellyfish round worms clams earthworms - longitudinal muscle - real coelom - fluid filled cavity - support via fluids fibers + pseudocoelom - segmented Hard Skeletons - exoskeletons: hard outer structure providing protection/support for an organism - derived from ectoderm - antagonists: muscles which work in opposing pairs - every muscle has an origin (base) and insertion(movable part) - endoskeleton: internal supporting skeleton derived from the mesoderm. Vertebrate Tissue Epithelial Tissue - thin, membranous tissue composed of one or more layers of packed cells - grows from below; dead cells slough off - simple epithelium: single cell layer - stratified epithelium: multiple cell layers - squamous epithelium: flattened surface cells - cuboidal epithelium cube-like surface cells - columnar epithelium elongated surface cells Connective Tissue - connective tissue matrix holds body together - collagen = glue; produced by fibroblasts - elastin: come back to normal shape (arteries maintaining blood pressure) - cartilage: chondrocytes (cell unit) - bone: support, muscle attachment, protection Bone Structure - periosteum: membrane covering bone - spongy bone: porous sponge-like makes up shaft of bone; contain red marrow for RBC production - compact bone: thick dense shaft casing of bone hardened by calcium phosphate - fed by Haversian systems - osteoblasts: cells that lay down bony matrix; divide to form osteocytes - osteocytes: found in lacunae (cavities) interconnected by canaliculi - osteoclast: made from WBCs; destroy/reabsorb bone Vertebrate Skeleton Skeleton Organization - axial skeleton: cranium, vertebral column, rib cage, sternum - backbone: consists of vertebra - spinal canal: spinal cord track - upper torso rests all on sacroiliac joint - appendicular skeleton: limbs, pectoral girdle - pectoral girdle: 2 scapulae + 2 clavicles - joints: bone meets bone - hinge (knee), ball-and-socket (hip), suture (in head), symphysis (pelvis slightly movable), gliding (wrist) - ligaments: between bone to bone - tendon: bone to muscle - synovial joint: ligaments form capsule enclosing joint fluid; decrease friction
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Importance - support & structure - attachment site for muscles - protective (cranium, rib cage) - production of red blood cells - natural reservoir of bodys calcium Muscle Tissue - smooth muscle: involuntary spindle-shaped, one nucleus sheets - cardiac muscle: involuntary striated, one nucleus, intrinsic contraction (external stimulation) - form interlocking disks; allow charges to leak - skeletal muscle: voluntary (somatic) striated, multinucleate, can tire, motor neurons - fascicle: bundle of muscle fiber - fascia: connective tissue casing around fascicle Neuromuscular Junction - nerve-muscle interface (contraction stimulation) - sarcolemma: muscle plasma membrane - T-tubules: transverse sarcoplasmic reticulum - sarcoplasmic reticulum: ER dump calcium when stimulated - myofibril: contractile muscle fiber bundle - sarcomere: unit of contraction in myofibril - I-band: actin only - A-band: overlapping actin and myosin - H-zone: light strip of myosin only(disappears during muscle contraction) - microfilaments - actin: (thin) contains actin, troponin, tropomysin - tropomysin blocks actin binding sites for myosin - myosin: (thicker) spirally wound protein rods ending in myosin heads - heads contain ATPase creates myosin bridges - the two proteins react with one another causing muscle contraction Muscle Contraction - Z-disks move together - nerve impulse (electrical disturbance) travels to sarcoplasm, T-tubules - triggers calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum - calcium ions bind to troponin; alters tropomysin - cannot bind to acting binding sites - actin & myosin bind: myosin heads change shape; pull on actin using ATP - nerve impulse stops; calcium pumped back into SR, relaxed state restored. - graded contraction of muscle - changing frequency of the action potential compound effect - tetanus: full contraction - tetin: sustained full contraction - motor neurons can innervate multiple cells at once Fast and Slow Muscle Contractions - slow-twitch fibers: remain contracted longer - caused by varying calcium content; calcium stays in muscle longer - important for maintaining constant contraction level (e.g. jaw) - fast acting muscles: involved in quick, strong, time-limited movements - more glycogen stores than slow-twitch - quick energy supply Cells of the Nervous System - Glial cells (neuroglia) - 90% of cells in brain - support functions in Central Nervous System, CNS (brain/spinal column) - structural framework for neurons + carry out metabolic functions - regulate K+ - selective barrier to materials moving in and out of brain neurons * secrete white matter; forms the myelin sheath
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- called Schwann cells in Peripheral Nervous System PNS - Neuron (nerve cell) - transfers information from dendrites cell body axon - cellular unit of the nervous system - function: detecting, processing, responding to information Types of Neurons - Sensory Neuron (afferent neuron) - carry info to CNS for processing - long dendrites originating from receptors - Interneuron (mixed/association neuron) - transfer information from sensory to motor neurons - integration of stimuli - response coordination - Motor Neuron (efferent neuron) - carry info from CNS to effectors - transfer impulses from interneuron to effector Neuron Structure - dendrites: highly branched projections; carry electrochemical signals - cell body: produces neurotransmitters; houses nucleus - axon: carries signal towards synaptic knob - neurotransmitters: trigger impulses/activate effectors - Glial/Schwann cells: insulating myelin sheath - Nodes of Ranvier - increase transmission speed - impulse jumps - Multiple Sclerosis: myelin sheath wears down - nerve: chain of neurons
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Origin & Transmission of Neural Impulses - electrochemical event (action potential); uses cell energy + electricity = current generation - slower than electricity; no resistance - neuron semi-permeable K+, Na+, Cl- impulse moves as waves of polarity shift Saltatory Propagation - action potentials occur only at Nodes of Ranvier along the myelinated sheath - impulse conduction speed increased - reduce amount of ATP needed to send an impulse by 5000x All-or-None Response - size of the action potential does not vary with strength of the impulse - the action potential will not fire unless threshold level has been reached or exceeded - neurons fire at maximum or not at all - different neurons have different threshold levels - Impulse intensity varies by: - variation in frequency - variation in number of pathways to a particular effector
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The Action Potential
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A Resting Membrane Potential

- inside is -70mV vs. outside - difference in ion [ ] causes polarization - membrane more permeable to K+ than Na+ - Na+ activation gates closed - Na+ inactivation gates open - Cl- leaks back and forth - K+ gates closed
B Exceeding Threshold
- stimulus received; all or none response - if sub-threshold, AP does not occur - changes permeability only if threshold exceeded - Na+ activation gates open - Na+ inactivation gates open - Na+ ions flow into axon - flow down charge and concentration gradient - exceeds rate Na+/K+ pump can keep up
C Depolarization
- occurs when threshold exceeded - Na+ influx creates a wave of reversed polarity - causes negative surroundings to open Na+ gates - travels down axon
D Maximum Depolarization
- charge has changed 110mV (+40mV) - shift in charges causes: - Na+ activation gates open - Na+ inactivation gates close - K+ gates open - K+ ions move down concentration and charge gradient
E Repolarization
- charge returns towards resting membrane potential - as membrane potential restored: - Na+ activation gates close rapidly - Na+ inactivation gates open slowly - K+ gates close slowly
F Hyperpolarization
- K+ gates stay open a little longer before closing - axon becomes more negative on inside (-90mV)
G Na+/K+ Pump
- actively transports (ATP used) 3 Na+ out for 2 K+ in - re-establishes original ion [ ] - resets original resting membrane potential (-70mV)
H Absolute Refractory Period

- absolutely impossible to cause another action potential - the time it takes for depolarization to occur
I Relative Refractory Period

- time it takes to reset charges from Hyperpolarization
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Synaptic Transmission - synapse: neuron neuron communication - formed by axon-dendrite communication - electrical synapse: occur at gap junctions; electrical impulse easily transmitted; cytoplasm interconnected - e.g. intercalated disks in he heart muscle - chemical synapse: neurons make no physical contact; a new action potential must be generated - impulse transmitted across the synaptic cleft - pre-synaptic neuron (1st neuron) to post-synaptic neuron (2nd neuron) - neurotransmitters: chemical transmitters (acetylcholine, noradrenalin) - released by a specific type of neuron - excitatory synapse - action potential reaches terminus; triggers voltage sensitive gates open (calcium ion channels) - calcium influx causes laden vesicles (holding transmitter) to fuse with pre-synaptic membrane - neurotransmitter released into the synaptic cleft - transmitter diffuses across cleft; fuses with receptors on post synaptic membrane - if enough transmitter binds to exceed threshold, action potential fires - inhibitory synapse - cause hyperpolarization instead of depolarization - receptors open chemically gated Cl- channels - opening of potassium channels; escape of potassium ions counteracts sodium ion uptake - cancels out depolarization - recovery at the synapse: neurotransmitters cannot remain in the cleft; must be dismantled - e.g. acetylcholinesterase dismantles and removes acetylcholine from cleft. - summation: multiple pre-synaptic neurons acting on a post synaptic neuron; accumulation - one-way transmission Reflex Arc - impulses from sensory neuron relayed directly to a motor neuron - dramatically reduces distance neural impulse needs to travel - patellar response "knee jerk reflex" - increase speed of impulse transmission by shortening number of nerves an impulse needs to travel The Human Central Nervous System - NB: there are two nervous systems in the body (CNS & PNS) - The Human Brain - three parts: forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain - forebrain includes cerebrum: relative size related to intelligence - meninges: tough connective tissue surrounding the brain - cerebrospinal fluid: shock absorber; fills open spaces (ventricles) in brain - Circle of Willis: ring of arteries in brain to minimize brain damage from block - Blood-brain barrier: materials must pass into astrocyte to go from blood to brain - astrocyte is highly selective prevents toxins from entering brain\ - The Forebrain - largest and most dominant part of brain (conscious thought ant movement) - The Cerebrum - cerebral hemispheres: left/right halves of cerebrum - cerebral cortex: outer grey layer (consists of dense nerve cell bodies) - convolutions (sulci): divides cortex into sections - cerebrum lobes - occipital lobe: vision (receives raw info from eyes) - if damaged, black spots in vision - temporal lobe: hearing & smell - bordered by lateral fissure - frontal lobe: precise voluntary movement - speech center located here - prefrontal area: seat of consciousness - parietal lobe: contains receptors for skin & cortical areas - responsible for determining body position - behind frontal lobe; separated by central fissure - damage causes numbness & depth misconception
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- Sensory & Motor receptors of the Central Cortex - gyrus: raised folds between fissures - motor area located in front of central fissure - Two brains: the two halves of each brain are not identical - corpus callosum: bridge linking left to right brain - aphasia: inability to speak and interpret (damage to left brain) - other side of brain can relearn lost function - looses ability over time with age - Language Centers - speech is dominant in three centers of left brain; the various centers work with one another a) Wernicke's area: - deciphers incoming words - spoken words originate here b) Brocas Area: - activates motor cortex c) Angular gyrus: - converts text to spoken word - incoming information Wernicke's area Brocas area activation of motor cortex vocal chords activate - The Thalamus the great relay station - densely packed clusters of cell bodies; sensory input to cerebrum passes though - prioritizes sensory input to brain - reticular system: arousal system to activate train or stimulus receptor - helps maintain consciousness - easier to fall asleep in soft, dark, quiet room - less material to prioritize - The Hypothalamus - regulates body homeostasis & general behavior - feeding, fighting, fleeing, fornication - coordinates nervous system with hormonal release (endocrine system) - Limbic System - links forebrain to hindbrain - consists of: hypothalamus + thalamus + center cerebral cortex pathways - controls certain aspects of muscle tone & positioning - influences emotion: fear, rage, sexual arousal, aggressiveness, motivation - amygdale: structure which causes rage when stimulated (docility if removed) - hippocampus: memory recall & storage - The Midbrain - joins forebrain to hindbrain - processes any input before sending to forebrain - The Hindbrain - medulla oblongata: involuntary control of vital functions - cerebellum: coordination of voluntary movement in limbs; fine muscle control - helps maintain body posture and balance - mainly through inhibition of muscle contraction than stimulation - pons: connects spinal cord to brain; contains ascending/descending nerve tracks - links cerebellum to conscious control & aids in breathing
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The Spinal Cord - major link between Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - encased by vertebrae in spinal canal - surrounded by meninges + cerebrospinal fluid - outer layer is white (myelination); inner is grey (cell bodies) - foramen magnum: hole in skull base which spinal cord emerges from - paired spinal nerves emerge from spaces between vertebrae - form 2 roots from chord: - dorsal root: sensory root (toward back) - cell bodies lie in ganglia - clumps of cell bodies - ventral root motor root (toward front) - cell bodies lie in grey matter - reflex arc: gives spinal cord certain degree of autonomy
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Chemicals in the Brain - interaction of neurons are excitatory or inhibitory - neurotransmitters: modified amino acids - monoamines: norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, serotonin - neuropeptides: enkephalins & endorphorphins - modify perception of pain and mood elevation - enkephalins cause runners high - opioid neurotransmitters: mood-elevating peptides which mimic neuropeptides - e.g. morphine - cocaine amplifies action of neurotransmitters Electrical Activity in the Brain - measured via electroencephalograph - Sleep measured in 4 stages: The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - autonomic nervous system - internal workings - less voluntary actions - somatic nervous system - commands voluntary muscles - carries sensational impulses The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - motor system carries impulses from CNS to effectors - critical to homeostasis; works in harmony with medulla oblongata sympathetic stimulatory parasympathetic inhibitory - final neurotransmitter = norepinephrine - final neurotransmitter = acetylcholine - all sympathetic nerves pass through or synapse within rows of sympathetic ganglia(solar plexus)
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Inner White Matter - 3 types: - commissural fibers: transmit impulses between hemispheres - association fibers: connect fibers in same hemisphere - projection fibers: transmit to remote CNS areas not in brain - Cranial Nerves: 12 pairs - #1 = Facial: coordinates facial expression - #2 = Abducent: muscles in eyes - #3 = Olfactory: smell - #4 = vision - #10 = Vagus Nerve: parasympathetic nerve - #12 = Vestibule cochlear = hearing Thermoregulation, Osmoregulation , Excretion Homeostasis: maintaining stable internal conditions - illness and body malfunction result of homeostatic disrepair - mechanisms used to maintain homeostasis: a) Negative Feedback Loop (thermostat) - product produced in excess inhibits the process producing the product - lack of product stimulates process which produces the product - receptors responsible for detecting imbalances - helps prevent unnecessary loss of energy and materials b) Positive Feedback Loop - produces reaction which further accelerates the process - usually occurs during illness Thermoregulation - ability to maintain internal body temperature - variation could freeze cells/denature enzymes & proteins - affects cell structure and metabolism - Endothermy: heat generation via internal metabolic processes - Ectothermy: heat absorbed from environment for warmth - categorizing organisms: a) Homeotherms endothermy to thermoregulate b) Poikilotherms ectothermy to thermoregulate c) Heterotherms endothermy & ectothermy to thermoregulate Endothermic Regulation - Advantage - maintaining constant body temperature prevents inhibition of activity in fluctuating temperatures as chemical reactions can occur normally - Disadvantage - low core temperature (temperature deep within body) range toleration - places body-size restrictions; small body = larger surface area ratio - excess heat loss; waste of energy <see thermoregulation in birds and mammals> - must eat frequently to meet constant energy demand to stay warm Counter-current Heat Exchanger - heat, mineral and water transfer between afferent and efferent vessels flowing in opposite directions - blue-fin tuna have rete mirable to stay warm Thermoregulation in Birds and Mammals Heat Generation - all methods require conversion of chemical energy into heat - oxidative respiration: production of heat during ATP synthesis - shivering: rapid alternate contacting of antagonistic muscle pairing groups - brown fat utilization: fat containing excessive mitochondria lacking F1complex - chemiosmotic gradient directly produces heat - body size and heat generation - the smaller the body size the greater the metabolic rate - traditional relationship: small animals, with proportionately larger surface areas must maintain high metabolic rates to compensate their larger surface areas - proven otherwise because small ectotherms have same body temperature as larger ectotherms
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- Slowing Heat Loss is regulated physiologically and behaviourally - counter-current heat exchangers - shunting blood to core (maintains core temperature) - blubber/fat: act as insulation from cold - blubber has rich blood supply - vessels close in frigid water; prevents large heat loss - vessels open in warm water; prevents overheating - hair & feathers: act as insulation by trapping air layer; holds heat - under hair: small layer of hair under guard hair; provides insulation - guard hair: long coarse hair; protects against moisture and abrasion; provides coloration - hair in arctic seals & polar bears conduct UV light to body for extra heat - heat loss occurs in 3 ways: 1) Radiation: warm surface air 2) Conduction: warm surface cooler surface; via direct contact 3) Convection: heat carried away via air flow (evaporation) - evaporation can be increased by wetting a surface - standing water, saliva, urine, etc. Human Thermoregulation - hypothalamus (brain): monitors passing blood; indirectly monitors information from sensory receptors - influences ANS (sympathetic & parasympathetic) - stimulates adrenal gland in SNS to release epinephrine - speeds up glycogen glucose conversion in liver - increased metabolism greater heat generation - vasodilatation & vasoconstriction; increases/decreases heat radiation - stimulates pituitary gland thyroid-stimulating hormone secretion - causes thyroid gland to secrete thyroxin increases cell resp. activity - monitors Ca+ ions as indicator of heat levels - flooding brain with Ca+ lowers body thermostat; cryogenic surgery Ectothermic Regulation: lower metabolic cost but limited activity pending on temperature Physiological Adaptations to Freezing - formation of ice crystals within cells causes permanent damage to cell membrane - ice crystal formation between cells protective mechanism - antifreeze in blood; excess glycoprotein/glycogen in blood lowers freezing point Osmoregulation and Excretion Osmoregulation: maintaining proper water/ion balance Excretion: process removing water/metabolic wastes from body - Egestion: removal of wastes never involved with metabolism Producing Nitrogen Wastes - some amino acid breakdown produces nitrogen which forms ammonia in the body - deamination: process in liver which removes nitrogen group from protein ammonia - ions highly toxic in higher concentrations - animals excrete ammonia by converting into uric acid (semi-solid) or urea - 2 ammonia + 1 carbon dioxide = 1 urea - Marine Environment - osmoconformers or osmoregulators counteract ions diffusing in from sea and water out from body - osmoconformer: inner solute [ ] equals matches surrounding [ ] - osmoregulators: inner solute [ ] constant despite surrounding [ ] - more efficient kidneys & rely on other organisms for water - Freshwater Environment - flame cell system: small blind sacs leading into tubule network which empty outside via excretory pores - internal water transported into flame cells via pinocytosis - cilia in flame cell facing flame bulb make current taking water out nitrogenous wastes dissolve with water through flame cells - Terrestrial Environment - nephridia: <in invertebrates> conserve water by draining fluid back into body before excretion; dissolved wastes excreted through the excretory pore - Malpighian tubules: <in insects> uric acid secretion; less water usage - requires active energy to transport and complex system
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The Human Excretory System 3 Major Excretory Organs 1) skin: sweat secretion contains water, ions, organic molecules, and heat in excess 2) lungs/nose: exhaled air removes metabolic wastes; CO2, H2O, and heat 3) kidneys: urine removes urea & minerals in excess - regulates pH, water, and ionic substances - excretion also found in digestive tract - salivary amylase: water, ions released - large intestine: heat, carbon dioxide, water, salts - ureter: carries urine to bladder - bladder: holds urine - 200mL message to brain - 400mL > receptors activate - 600mL voluntary control lost Function of Kidney 1) Elimination of wastes 2) water regulation 3) pH regulation Regions of the Kidney - Renal Cortex: connective tissue outer layer - Renal Medulla: within cortex - Renal Pelvis: hollow chamber connected to urethra (collecting ducts merge) The Nephron (base kidney unit) - Blood flow through kidney - dorsal aorta L/R renal artery kidney filtration L/R renal vein inferior vena cava - Structures - Afferent Arterioles: blood arteries entering glomerulus - Glomerulus: cluster of arteries under high pressure (non-selective) - force filtration: fluid squeezed into bowmans capsule by pressure - Efferent Arterioles: blood arteries leaving glomerulus - Bowmans Capsule (cortex): collects filtrate (capsule urine) - Proximal Convoluted Tubule (cortex): - Reabsorption: active transport of valuable substances back into blood - glucose, Na+, K+, aa, Cl- follows sodium passively - water from filtrate re-enters blood from filtrate following osmotic gradient - blood very hypertonic from force filtration - Secretion: NH33, and H+ pumped into tubule - Loop of Henle (medulla): - counter-current exchange: concentration mechanism for salt & urea - (descending) water diffuses out following concentration gradient - salty environment in medulla - (ascending) Active transport of Na+ ions out (impermeable to H20) creates osmotic gradient - vasa recta: capillary system parallels Loop of Henle - carries off water and excess salt to maintain osmotic gradient - Distal Convoluted Tubule: - Na+ ions pumped out; H2O & Cl- follow passively - filtrate becomes isotonic in relevance to blood vessels outside - H+ & NH3 ions actively pumped into tubule - Collecting Ducts: empty unto ureters bladder & hormonally regulated Hormonal Regulation - water control; low water levels hypertonic blood lower blood pressure (BP) - hypothalamus monitors BP - drop in BP causes hypothalamus to shrink - stimulates pituitary gland to release Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) (vasopressin) - increases water permeability of collecting tubule epithelial cells - vice versa for high water levels; used more often then aldosterone
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Hormonal Regulation < Cont.>
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- salt and BP control; receptors in juxtaglomerular complex monitor BP; if below normal: - release renin: converts angiotensinogen angiotensin - causes constriction of blood vessels - stimulates adrenal gland in cortex to secrete aldosterone - mainly increases Na+ reabsorption - also increases water reabsorption via osmosis - increases H+ movement into nephron Endocrine System The Chemical Messengers - endocrine hormones: chemical messengers acting in areas other then where they are produced - paracrine hormones: act on adjacent cells - autocrine hormones: act in the cell which they are produced - endocrine glands: secrete hormones directly into bloodstream (ductless) - exocrine glands: ducted glands - neurosecretion: hormones secreted by neurons into blood Characteristics of Hormonal Control - hormones bind to specific receptor sites on cells - target hormones: specific cell type affected - non-target hormones: multiple cell types affected - trophic hormones: activate other endocrine glands - non-trophic hormones: stimulate other types of tissue - active usually for ~1 hour & usually enzymatically degraded after stimulating a cell - not necessary to have hormonal action repeated unnecessarily - allows for short-term & long-term responses Hormonal Categories - Protein based: attaches to receptor site on cell membrane promoting cAMP formation - Peptide Hormones: range from 5-80 aa chain; soluble in water (e.g. insulin) - Catecholamines: modified tyrosine amino acid hormones (single amino acids) - Steroid based: derived from lipids: diffuse into cell & binds to DNA promoting DNA synthesis - Lipid Hormones: traditional 4 based ring steroids (sex steroids) - Prostaglindins: complex & long-tailed carbon chain Chemical Messengers and Target Cells Peptide Hormones & Second Messengers - First messengers: peptide hormone binding to cell membrane sites - Second messengers: events triggered inside cell - cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)(also known as protein kinase) - epinephrine & effect on liver cell - binding to cell membrane triggers adenylate cyclase(second messenger) - causes a cascade(second reaction) - breaks down Cytoplasmic ATP into cAMP - cAMP activates phosphorylase kinase - phosphorylase kinase activates glycogen phosphorylase a - causes glycogen conversion into glucose - glucose passes into blood - after use cAMP rapidly degraded and recycled Steroid Hormones & Gene Control - becomes tightly bound Cytoplasmic binding protein when it enters cytoplasm - binds with acceptor protein in nucleus resulting in mRNA production new proteins The Human Endocrine System Thymus Gland - lymphatic tissue mass which degenerates after puberty - development of disease immunity - secretes thymosin T-lymphocyte formation Pineal Gland - controls seasonal fertility (inhibits gonadotrophic hormones in winter) - releases melatonin (skin pigment) - associated with cicardian rhythms (sleep-wake cycle)
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Thyroid Gland - secretes thyroxin (T4)(storage form) & Triiodothyronine (T3) - regulate metabolic rate - Hypothyroidism: myxedema sluggish behavior, puffiness, fluid retention - Hyperthyroidism: weight loss & nervousness (Graves disease) - Goitre: enlarged thyroid - calcitonin: works with parathyroid - regulates calcium & phosphate levels - lowers blood calcium levels through body absorption - Negative feedback loop: - low thyroxin: hypothalamus releases TRH, stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete TSH - causes thyroid to secrete thyroxin - high thyroxin: negatively inhibits its own production by suppressing TSH secretion Parathyroid Gland - regulates blood calcium levels - increases calcium levels - PTH: increases calcium absorption digestive system & stimulates bone decalcification - low levels: muscle spasms - high levels: severe calcium loss & muscle contraction irregularities Adrenal Gland - cortex: stimulated by ACTH released from anterior pituitary - aldosterone: corticoid which increases K+ & lowers Na+ excretion - cortisol: increases blood glucose & triggers insulin release - sex hormones: influence development & sex drive - androgens: male-based hormone(released from anterior pituitary) - long term stress response (adrenal cortex) - stress stimulates hypothalamus secretion of releasing factor - causes anterior pituitary to release ACTH in blood to stimulate adrenal gland to release: - Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) - sodium & water retention - increased blood volume & pressure - Glucocorticoids (cortisol) - increased blood sugar - protein & fat conversion to glucose for energy - short term stress response (adrenal medulla) - stress stimulates sympathetic nervous system - stimulates adrenal medulla to release epinephrine into blood - fight or flight responses(heart rate & BP elevated, bronchioles dilate, decreased urine output, etc) Gonads - production based on gonadotrophic hormonal presence - Ovaries - estrogen: stimulated by FSH from pituitary; growth of reproductive system and traits - progesterone: stimulated by LH(causes ovulation) from pituitary; acts on corpus luteum - follicle cells convert into corpus luteum - Testes - produce testosterone stimulated by LH(ICSH) Pituitary - bilobed structure: anterior & posterior pituitary - stimulated by the hypothalamus; acts through negative feedback - Anterior Pituitary - releasing & inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus encourage/inhibit anterior pituitary glandular secretions (e.g. growth releasing hormone & growth hormone release-inhibiting hormone) - Hormones present: - ACTH(adrenocorticotropic hormone): targeted at adrenal cortex & gland - release of corticoid to regulate fat metabolism - TSH(Thyroid stimulating hormone): stimulates the thyroid gland - stimulates release of thyroxin & triiodothyronine - gonadotrophins: affecting testes/ovaries - FSH(Follicle Stimulating Hormone): stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen - LH (Luteinizing hormone): stimulates spermatogenesis
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- Anterior Pituitary - MSH(melanocyte-stimulating hormone): stimulates pigment melanocyte dispersal, skin darkening - GH(Growth Hormone): also called somatotrophin; promotes glycogen glucose - acromegaly(giantism): over-secretion - dwarfism: undersecretion - FSH(Follicle stimulating hormone): stimulates ovaries to produce estrogen - ICSH(interstitial cell stimulating hormone): stimulates testes to produce testosterone - Prolactin (+ oxytocin from post. pituitary): milk production - Posterior Pituitary - receives & releases neurosecretions formed in hypothalamus - storage tank for hormones produced in hypothalamus - Hormones present: - Oxytocin: causes uterine contractions in smooth muscle - draws fluid into uterus by increasing contraction waves - starts labor process; promotes milk production - Antidiuretic hormone(ADH/vasopressin): increases water recovery in kidneys - Prostaglandins - produced by most tissues & released during tissue irritation - e.g. inflammatory & pain responses - blood platelets thromboxane: platelets stick together & artery walls shut - prostacyclin: inhibits clot formation - Pancreas(Islets of Langerhans) - Glucagon: produced in alpha cells - elevates blood glucose by increasing glycogen glucose conversion in liver - Insulin: produced in beta cells - lovers blood glucose by stimulating cell glucose uptake (glucose glycogen) - avg. blood glucose level = 4-6mmol/L - Diabetes mellitus(sugar diabetes) - hyperglycemia(high blood sugar) caused by: - lack of insulin, insulinase overproduction - target cell receptor insufficiency/inactivity - symptoms: glucose in frequent/excessive urination - dehydration & constant thirst, excessive weight loss - hypoglycemia: low blood glucose - affects brain, dizziness, violent temper, etc. - most diabetics have normal insulin levels - Juvenile Diabetes: B-cell degradation(auto-immune/pancreatic tumor) - body unable to take up glucose; thus uses own fat reserves - accumulation of ketones & other metabolites Negative Feedback - used in all of the endocrine functions to maintain homeostasis - Regulates all hormone secretion in the Endocrine system <see thermoregulation pg 37> Digestion and Nutrition Digestion: Mechanical and Chemical break down of food into smaller particles Nutrition: The process of obtaining food Human Digestive System Oral Cavity - Salivary Glands - 3 gland pairs which secrete saliva - Saliva components: water, ions, lubricating mucus, salivary amylase - Salivary amylase: starch maltose + starch fragments - Chemical digestion / Hydrolysis - Tongue - monitors texture, nature & taste (via taste bud chemoreceptors) - stimulation of taste buds enhances saliva flow - positions food for chewing, swallowing, sorting - bolus: chewed food mass in the mouth or alimentary canal - pharynx: area where oral cavity joins nasopharynx
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- swallowing: soft pallet closes nasopharynx; larynx raises, vocal cords close, epiglottis closes over glottis - choking: food goes down trachea instead of esophagus - Heimlich maneuver dislodges food Esophagus - Upper portion voluntary muscle; lower portion involuntary muscle - Peristalsis: contractions in esophagus which move food to stomach - Intrinsically controlled by hormones and autonomic control - Cardiac sphincter: valve which separates esophagus from stomach Stomach - Function: temporary food storage; acidic environment kills bacteria; liquefies and grinds food diagonal twisting, circular wringing, shortening/relaxing - bolus chyme pyloric sphincter small intestine - Release of gastric juices due to: 1. nervous control 2. gastrin - released Vagus nerve stimulation - released into the bloodstream - regulates gastric juices - Vagus nerve / bolus hitting stomach(gastrin release into blood) - parabiosis: linking of circulatory systems between 2 animals to study hormonal action (Palov) - Rugae: folds in stomach; increase surface area - Two sphincters: cardiac sphincter (top) pyloric sphincter (bottom) - Mucosa (lining): secrete mucus, gastric juices and enzymes - chief cells: secrete pepsinogen enzyme - parietal cells: secrete HCl - HCl activates pepsinogen to pepsin - pepsin breaks proteins peptides - rennin: breaks casein (milk protein) curds - works in neutral/alkaline environment - curdles milk; slow passage through digestive track (baby) - gastric lipase: triglycerides fatty acids + glycerol - mucin: insoluble stomach lining - protects stomach from own digestive juices - ulcer: occurs when mucin breaks down Small Intestine (6m; 20ft. long) - 3 regions: duodenum, jejunum, ileum - occurrence of most digestion + all absorption - most absorption occurs by: - active transport into blood - diffusion into lymphatic vessels - 90% water passes into blood via osmosis (ions as well) - convolutions: better absorption - increasing surface area - fingerlike projections: villi, microvilli - each villus has capillary bed & lacteal - sway to mix food; increase absorption - enzymes embedded in plasma membrane - part of glycocalyx - Aminopeptidase breaks N-terminal bonds into free aas - Dipeptidase, Nuclease, Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase
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Accessory Organs: Liver & Pancreas - secrete enzymes to the duodenum - Liver - functions (gatekeeper) - produces bile (stored in gall bladder via cystic duct) - gall bladder duodenum via bile duct - emulsifying agent (mechanical digestion) - contains cholesterol, bile salts/pigments - gives feces color - detoxification - production of plasma (blood) proteins - glycogen storage - biochemical alteration of food molecules - deanimation: removes amine group - 2 amine + CO2 = urea NB: inflammation of the liver = hepatitis Prefix for liver = hepa- Hepatic Portal System (one organ directly to another) - hepatic portal vein: carries nutrients from intestine liver - maintain consistency of Extra-cellular fluid - storage and distribution of vitamins: A, B12, D Human Digestive System - Accessory Organs: Liver & Pancreas <cont.> - conversion carbohydratesfats - formation of cholesterol - destruction of dead RBCs - hemoglobin used to manufacture bile pigment - jaundice: accumulation of decomposing RBCs in tissue - 2 types: 1) hemolytic: rapid release of bilirubin (pigment) due high RBD destruction rate 2) obstructive: liver damage/bile blockage Pancreas - function: produces pancreatic juices (digestive enzyme) - Enzymes: - Trypsin: peptides shorter peptides - Chemotrypsin & Carboxypeptidase: (see below) - Ribonuclease: RNA nucleotides - Deoxyribonuclease: DNA nucleotides - Alpha-glucosidase: breaks 1-6 glycosidic linkages - Pancreatic amylase: starch maltose - Pancreatic lipase: triglycerides fatty acids + glycerol - Islets of Langerham cells: produce insulin (glucose absorption) - produces bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) Large Intestine - ileocecal valve: prevents backflow from cecum into ileum - cecum joins small intestine to large intestine - appendix: vestigial to cellulose digestion - segmented: cecum, ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid colon, rectum - water and mineral absorption & harbor E.coli - prepare wastes + manufacture vitamin K, folic acid, biotin - folic acid for infant neural tube development - elimination of feces (egestion) Rectum - large holding tank for feces - Anal canal + anal sphincter - exit of digestive track
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Digestion Chemistry Carbohydrate Digestion & Absorption - begins in oral cavity; salivary amylase breaks carbohydrates into starch fragments differing sizes; - action stalled in stomach but resumes in small intestine - mechanical digestion in mouth and stomach - most of starch digested in small intestine - pancreatic amylase: breaks down amylase maltose - maltase: finishes job maltose 2 glucose - sucrase and lactase also active - active transport into the bloodstream to liver for storage - transported across epithelium by sodium-dependent hexose transporter - sodium binds, conformation change to accommodate hexoses *NB: each glucose actively transported requires one sodium Fat Digestion & Absorption - mechanical digestion in mouth and stomach - small intestine: bile enters through common bile duct - emulsifies fats - fat clusters tiny droplets - lipase (pancreas) triglycerides fatty acids + glycerol - form droplets and diffuse into intestinal epithelial cells - micelles gather form chylomicrons (wrapped in protein) - diffuse into lacteals; transported via lymph vessels to circulatory system; too big to diffuse into bloodstream Protein Digestion & Absorption - mechanical digestion in mouth and stomach - chemical digestion in stomach: - pepsinogen + HCl pepsin - pepsin: breaks bonds within proteins - only attack specific amino acids; thus after products still large peptides - small intestine chemical digestion - 3 pancreatic enzymes: trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase - Carboxypeptidase: peptides from carboxyl-terminal - exopeptidase: cleaves from protein ends - Trypsin & Chymotrypsin: hydrolyse proteins into smaller peptides or amino acids - endopeptidase: cleaves within protein - pancreatic enzymes released inactive; prevent self-digestion - Trypsinogen, Chymotrypsinogen, Procarboxypeptidase - enzymes activated by enterokinase - enterokinase released into bloodstream when chyme enters duodenum - slows gastric juice release; stimulates intestina enzymes - activates Trypsinogen trypsin - Trypsin activates chymotrypsin and procarboxypeptidase - aminopeptidase: cleaves peptide bonds at N-terminal - dipeptidase: cleave p-bonds in dipeptides - absorbed into the bloodstream via active transport by sodium-dependant amino acid transporters (carrier molecules); sodium binds, activates amino acid binding site Nucleic Acid Digestion & Absorption - Chemical digestion in small intestine - pancreas secretes nucleases RNAase, DNAase - break apart nucleotides - exonucleases: cleave off end nucleotides - endonucleases: break bonds within nucleic acid Integration and Control of the Digestive Process - vagus nerve: sends neural impulse to stimulate stomach when stimulated - stomach releases gastrin into bloodstream; regulates gastric juice - enterogastrone: released into bloodstream when fats/acids is detected in duodenum - inhibits gastrin release and gastric juice release - slows stomach contractions
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- secretin: released into bloodstream when peptides/fats detected in duodenum - stimulates release of sodium bicarbonate * - vital for neutralization of stomach acid - cholecystokinin: released to bloodstream when chyme enters duodenum - causes contraction of gall bladder bile into duodenum - pancreozymin: released to bloodstream when chyme enters duodenum - causes secretion of pancreatic enzymes Nutrition Essentials
Carbohydrates - most common sources of ATP - deficiency: - poor vitality - fatigue - constipation - excess: - overweight problems and related diseases Fats - most concentrated form of energy storage - needed to store/dissolve fat-soluble vitamins - deficiency: - dermatitis/skin inflammation - caused by lack of essential fatty acids - excess: - overweight problems and related diseases Protein - required for access to amino acids and nucleotides - provide essential amino acids body requires and cannot make - deficiency: - poor vitality/muscle tone - prone to infections and diseases - extreme: stunted growth, mental retardation, weak immunity Human Mineral Requirements - trace elements: necessary but needed in minute amounts Calcium & Phosphorus - bone/teeth growth, blood clots, muscle contraction, nerve action - deficiency: - tetany - rickets - loss of bone minerals/muscle coordination - excess: - too much phosphorus forces body to remove calcium from bones Iron: - needed for production of hemoglobin - needed for oxygen uptake - deficiency: - Anemia - excess: - damage to liver + other body tissues Iodine: - required for thyroid gland regulation - deficiency: - goiter: swelling of neck - excess - inhibit the thyroid's ability to make hormones Zinc: - helps body uptake nutrients - important for regeneration, growth, reproduction - deficiency: - loss of taste - slow regeneration - excess: - fever - interfere with the metabolism of other minerals Magnesium: - required for healthy nervous system - maintenance of healthy nerves and muscles - deficiency: - muscle tremors - excess: - disturbed nervous system function Vitamins - organic substances essential in small quantities to metabolism Vitamin A (retinol): - helps eyes adjust to dim light - keeps skin healthy - promotes growth and immunity - deficiency: - oversensitivity to light; night blindness - lower infection resistance - excess: - headaches - dry itchy skin; possibility yellow color - stunted growth in children Vitamin C (ascorbic acid): - works with calcium maintaining strong bones/teeth - keeps blood vessels strong - protects other vitamins from oxidation - helps in formation of collagen - increases immunity to disease - deficiency: - scurvy - excess: - diarrhea - kidney/bladder stones Vitamin D (calciferol) - allows body to use calcium and phosphorus - required for healthy strong bones/teeth - nervous system and heart functionality - deficiency: - Osteomalacia softening of bones - inability to absorb calcium - excess phosphorous in kidneys - excess: - loss of apitite; nausea - kidney stones - fragile bones - diarrhea - NB: fat soluable vitamins are Vitamin A, D, E, K
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Chlorine, Potassium & Sodium - regulates water levels in body - maintains normal muscle action - balance acids/alkalis in body - normal function of nervous system - deficiency: - fainting - vomiting - excess: - potassium: muscle paralysis - sodium: high blood pressure - weight problems
Human Circulatory System Blood Vessels Arteries & Arterioles - carries oxygenated blood away from the heart - pulmonary umbilical arteries exception - elasticity: maintains blood pressure, smoothes pulsing blood flow - arteries disperse into arterioles lessen pressure so capillaries dont burst
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- smooth muscle change blood pressure by contracting and relaxing - structure: <see diagram Veins & Venules> - largest artery: aorta - vasoconstriction: narrowing of blood vessel lumen - hypertension: high blood pressure - atherosclerosis: plaque development - by lipids penetrating arterial walls - arteriosclerosis: calcification of plaque - can result in blockage heart attack <see heart contractions> - heparin: injectable anticoagulant; stent; angioplasty - Cholesterol decreases negative polarity in blood vessels - less repulsion between RBCs and artery walls - LDL (low density lipoprotein): responsible for plaque build-up - can result in occlusion (blockage) - HDL (high density lipoprotein): dissolves LDL Blood Pressure - force of blood against arterial walls - pressure in blood vessels - pressure greatest in big arteries - pressure dramatically reduced in arterioles, capillaries, venules - veins very low pressure - systolic blood pressure: maximum pressure in arteries - diastolic blood pressure: minimum pressure in arteries * pulse pressure: difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures * arterial blood pressure: geometric mean of BP during cardiac cycle - result of stroke volume (blood volume entering arteries from heart) - arterial blood pressure regulation: 1. pressoreceptor reflexes: originates from carotid sinus, aorta, heart - frequency increases during systole; decreases during diastole 2. blood volume regulation 3. hormones: adrenaline, vasopressin, aldosterone, renin - arterial blood pressure excess elevation: 1. blood collects in reservoirs (veins, interstitial spaces) 2. urine excretion * Aldosterone increases salt/water absorption in renal tubule * Vasopressin increases water absorption in kidney - relationship between area & velocity - small area = high velocity (vice versa) - measured by sphygmomanometer (measured in mm Hg) - top # on reading = systolic pressure: contraction of ventricles (systole) - bottom # = diastolic reading: relaxation of heart & arteries (diastole) - normal blood pressure 120/80 Capillaries - functional unit of circulatory system; site of all exchanges via diffusion - no diffusion in brain due to blood brain barrier - capillaries bunched too tightly thus active transport needed - O2 & CO2 diffuse freely - structure = lumen, single endothelium layer in porous membrane - link between arterial and venous system - vast network 100,000km+ ; 70m diameter - bring external environment inside - arteriole (afferent) blood pressure forces water filtration out into interstitial fluid - movement into interstitial fluid mainly due to hydrostatic pressure - makes blood hypertonic - (efferent) venous side of capillaries; water recovered + metabolic wastes - hydrostatic pressure difference & hyper tonicity generate concentration and pressure gradient - pre-capillary sphincter: regulate blood-flow based on CO2 levels - greater CO2 sphincter relaxation vice versa
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- acts as a shunt; parts of body require different amounts of oxygen - arterioles dilated interstitial fluid in > absorption into blood - osmotic pressure: afferent > efferent - outward H2O filtration - arterioles constricted interstitial fluid in < absorption into blood - osmotic pressure: afferent < efferent - inward H2O filtration - low plasma-protein concentration interstitial fluid in > absorption into blood - osmotic pressure: afferent > efferent - outward H2O filtration - thoroughfare channel: blood shunted past capillary bed to venules Veins & Venules - hold ~50% blood volume (reservoirs) - more elastic; thinner walls, muscle lining, larger diameter - structure: <see diagram below> - collect blood from capillary beds; feed into Superior & Inferior Vena Cava - one-way valves: prevent backflow - vein pressure (2-5 mm Hg) not enough to overcome gravity - rate of blood return affected by skeletal muscle contraction - fainting can result if skeletal muscles not involved - varicose veins: veins loose elasticity & vein valves fail; veins bulge excessively Circuits Hepatic Portal Circuit (liver) - arteries branch from abdominal aorta to intestinal membranes - collect nutrients in capillaries; merge into hepatic portal vein - hepatic portal vein empties into sinusoids in liver; toxin filtration - merges back into inferior vena cava Renal Circuit (kidney) - abdominal aorta branches into renal arteries; feed into kidneys - removal: urea, excess H20, metabolic byproducts, salts - regulates osmotic conditions and blood pressure - blood returns via renal veins inferior vena cava Pulmonary Circuit (lungs) - vena cava right atrium right ventricle pulmonary arteries - deoxygenated blood becomes oxygenated in lung capillaries (gas exchange) - back to the heart (left atrium) via pulmonary veins Systemic Circuit (body) - left ventricle pumps to the body through aorta - upper systemic circuit feeds head & arms; returns via superior vena cava - lower systemic circuit feeds trunk, legs; returns via inferior vena cava - aorta; arteries; small arteries; arterioles; capillaries; venules; small veins; veins; vena cava Cardiac Circuit - feeds cardiac muscle via coronary arteries; first branch off aorta - coronary arteries branch forming anastomoses (capillary web) - ensures all heart cells are well fed via multiple routes - heart uses 80% of oxygen intake - arteries contract during systole; thus heart receives most blood during diastole - coronary veins enter right atrium - angina & heart attacks result from: - coronary thrombosis blood clot - atherosclerotic plaques - heart muscle capable of repairing over time; will die in minutes if deprived O2 The Heart - pericardium: double layered tissue around heart separating heart from lungs Flow through the Heart 1. superior & inferior vena cava empty deoxygenated blood into right atrium 2. right atrium fills and contracts; pumps blood into right ventricle - 80% of blood moves past tricuspid valve before R.atrium contracts
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3. right ventricle contracts; tricuspid valve snaps shut - chordae tendinae & papillary muscles prevent valve backflow 4. exits R.V. through pulmonary semilunar valve into pulmonary arteries to lungs; gas exchange & oxygenation 5. oxygenated blood enters left atrium from lungs through pulmonary veins 6. right atrium fills & contracts; blood enters left ventricle through bicuspid valve 7. left ventricle contracts; blood to aorta through aortic semilunar (mitral) valve into systemic circuit - NB: all valves are one-way - atria fill and contract together; ventricles do the same inversed *- lub: tricuspid & bicuspid valves close from ventricle contraction pressure - dub: pulmonary & aortic semilunar valves close to arterial backflow and ventricle relaxation - valve problems if lub-dub not crisp Heart Contractions - heart cells are myogenic (self-contracting) - stroke volume: blood volume per contraction (ml/min) - cardiac output: blood volume per minute (ml/min) - average heart rate = 72 beats per minute (~80ml per contraction) - heart rate & stroke volume increase with exercise (30-35 extra liters) - baroreceptors: sensors in atria which regulate pressure - regulated both extrinsically & intrinsically - extrinsic control; via autonomic nervous system (ANS) - sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate - epinephrine from adrenal gland increases HR - Acetylcholine decreases heart rate - increases K+ permeability into muscle - body temperature affects heart rate - intrinsic control; within heart - sinoatrial (SA) node in right atrium - pacemaker; generates electrical impulse; heart beat - all-or-none response - heart cannot be tetanised - impulse move across atrial walls to atrioventricular (AV) node - muscle contraction when electrical signal passes - impulse moves from AV node down bundle of His in septum - bundle of His spreads at septum base into Purkinje fibers - Purkinje fibers: impulse-conducting network transmits impulses from A.V. node to ventricles - safeguard to ventricular fibrillation *NB: impulse travels much faster through His/Purkinje system compared from SA to AV node - delay in AV nodal region allows time for atrial contraction - ventricular fibrillation: impulse not uniform non-coordination within heart - results in: - myocardial infarction (heart attack) - angina pectoris (heart failure; angina) - medicine: nitroglycerine - treatment: - angiogram taken to find blockage 1. coronary artery bypass grafting 2. stent: holds collapsed artery open 3. angioplasty: balloon inflated in artery to break up plaque - dangerous; pieces can break off and clog other arteries - defibrillator used to reset heart with strong electric shock - Vitamin E helps prevent heart attacks - aspirin thins blood to prevent heart attack - measuring cardiac output - Fick Principle & indicator dilution technique - cardiac output related to: height, weight, surface area - proportional to O2 consumption in physiological conditions - cardiac ndex = 3.2 l/min/sq.m - systemic circulation consists: pump (heart); resistance vessels: - arteries/arterioles; control vessels: arterioles/pre-capillary sphincters - exchange vessels: capillaries; capacitance vessels: veins
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Cardiac Cycle - atriole systole (left atrium contraction) - bicuspid valve opens; ventricle fills - atriole pressure > ventricular pressure - atriole systole end - bicuspid valve closes; ventricle pressure > atrial pressure closes valve - ventricular contraction begins - ventricular systole (maximum ejection) - isometric contraction increases intraventricular pressure - blood ejected into aorta - aortic semilunar valve opens; bicuspid valve remains closed - blood pumped into arteries - ventricular systole end - aortic semilunar valve closes - ventricular diastole - ventricle relaxes; aortic semilunar closed; atrium fills; bicuspid begins opening - factors facilitating ventricular filling: 1. downward piston-like movement of atria 2. atrial contraction propels extra blood volume (20-30%) into ventricles - end-diastolic volume: volume of blood in ventricles at start of ventricular systole - affecting factors: 1. fast heart rate less filling time decreased end-diastolic volume 2. less venous return less end-diastolic volume 3. negative intra-thoracic pressure sucks abdomen blood to thorax & heart increased - end-systolic volume: volume of blood in ventricles at end of ventricular systole end-diastolic volume - affecting factors: 1. myocardial contractility (ventricle pumping force) 2. arterial blood pressure (resistance arteries push back) *NB: intraventricular & intra-atrial pressure increases/decreases according to systole/diastole - Starlings Law: force exerted by heart depends on muscle fiber length * stroke volume proportionate to end-diastolic volume - cardiac output = venous return Bypasses / Defects in Bloodstream - Forman ovale: hole in septum resulting in blood mixing (cyanotic) blue baby - before birth, infants lungs dont need much blood - Ductus arteriosus: a shunt in fetal growth, joins aorta to pulmonary artery - shunts blood away from lungs - blood mixing cyanotic - Ductus venosus: shunts a blood flow; umbilical vein directly to the inferior vena cava Oxygen Saturation & Acidity - normal oxygen saturation of oxygenated blood 98-99% - >95% considered hypoxic - normal pH of blood is 7.4 - Carbonic acid plays important to gas exchange in blood - CO2 combines H20 carbonic acid - H+ removed bicarbonate HCO3- lowers blood pH - RBC attracted to HCO3- HCO3- enters RBC & expelled - balance between CO2 & carbonic acid vital - controls body fluid acidity - carbonic anhydrase catalyses reaction - temperature affects oxygen saturation - > 38C decreased overall O2 saturation - <38C decreased number of oxygenated RBC
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Electrocardiogram (ECG) - monitors electrical activity of heart over time - valves create pressure build-ups Waves & Intervals - isoelectric line: baseline voltage of an ECG PR Interval - P wave start to QRS complex start - conduction time from atrial to ventricular depolarization - usually 120 - 200 ms P-Wave - atrial depolarization, pulse directed from SA node to AV node QRS Complex - ventricle depolarization - larger than P-wave due to muscle mass difference + His/Purkinje system; coordinates response - usually 60 - 100 ms - QR ventricle depolarization - RS ventricle contraction - S ventricle relaxation ST Segment - connects the QRS complex and the T wave - lag from ventricle repolarization - usually 80 120 ms T-Wave - ventricle repolarization - absolute refractory period - beginning to peak - relative refractory (vulnerable) period - peak to end QT Interval - QRS complex start to T wave end (~400ms) - ventricle activity U-Wave - slow blood build up in atria *NB the earliest place to be depolarized in ventricle is inter-ventricular septum the last is apex (base) of left ventricle The Blood (45% composition) Composition Hematopoiesis: cellular element formation of blood - ABO blood group system: blood categorized on basis of antigen presence - O blood universal donor; no antigens present - AB blood universal recipient; both A & B antigens present - Erythrocytes (RBCs) 6-8m 5 million cells/mm3 - produced in bone (red) marrow, vertebrae, sternum, ribs, pelvis, femur, tibia - most RBC produced in yolk sac, liver, spleen during fetal development - production in legs halt by age 20 - fetal RBC hold oxygen better than adult RBC - all blood cells form from stem cell: hemocytoblast - matures pending on hormonal signals - production process - produced based on oxygen demand - hormone erythropoietin - mainly produced in kidneys (90-95%); produced in liver - stimulates RBC production in bone marrow - hormone causes hemocytoblasts to mature into erythrocytes - released minutes/hours after detection of oxygen deprivation
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- hypoxia: lack of oxygen - ~5 day lag until RBC production begins - can increase production up to 10x - polycythemia: overproduction of RBCs - factors decrease tissue oxygenation - low blood volume (hemorrhage, blood donation) - anemia; pulmonary disease (COPD) - low hemoglobin; poor blood flow (hypoxic disease) - high altitudes - functions: - transports hemoglobin; carries CO2 & O2 to cells - hemoglobin acts as acid-base buffer - lack nuclei & mitochondria (produce ATP via anaerobic metabolism) - flexible; easy passage through capillaries - amount varies with sex, age, altitude - males have more RBCs due to greater muscle mass - more RBCs during years of growth - more RBCs at higher altitude due to less oxygen in air Interstitial Fluid (Plasma) (55% composition) - mostly composed of water (90%) - Plasma proteins - albumins: too big to filter into interstitial fluid; gives blood hypo-tonicity - bind impurities and toxins from interstitial fluid - transport fatty acids & metal ions - globulins: transport lipids & fat soluble vitamins - immunoglobulin (antibodies) - fibrinogen: synthesized in the liver - necessary for blood clotting <see blood clotting process below> - Leukocytes (WBCs) - mobile units of immune system - produced in bone marrow & lymph tissue (also stores) - granulocytes: dotted cytoplasm - neutrophils (62%) 4-5 days; phagocytic & gather at infection sites - eosinophils (2.3%) 4-5 days; destroy larger parasites & involved in inflammation - basophils (0.4%) 4-5 days; involved in inflammation - agranulocytes- clear cytoplasm - monocytes (5.3%) months years; activated into macrophages phagocyte bacteria - triggered by infection - lymphocytes (30%) 100-300 days; backbone of immune system - natural killer cells destroy diseased cells Movement Mechanisms - diapedesis: - squeeze through smaller pores - neutrophils & monocytes - amoeboid motion neutrophils & macrophages - chemotaxis - move toward/away chemical sources - neutrophils & macrophages - agranulocytosis: bone marrow stops producing leukocytes - leukemia: uncontrolled production of leukocytes - Platelets (thrombocytes) - cell fragments from megakaryocyte - platelets replaced every 10 days - form blood clots - hemostasis: process whereby bleeding is halted The Blood Clotting Process Stage 1: platelets rupture at site of hemorrhage releasing thromboplastin (3) - enables cells to initiate the blood coagulation cascades Stage 2: prothrombin activated to thrombin - requires presence of both thromboplastin & calcium ions (4) - removal of either prevents coagulation
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Stage 3: fibrinogen converted to fibrin - fibrinogen is soluble in blood; fibrin not soluble forms threads - fibrin threads trap RBC; clot forms - clot hardened by fibrin contraction: serum excreted from opening - serum: Plasma without fibrinogen - plasmin (enzyme) dissolves blood clot - Vitamin K: necessary for fast clotting - deficiency: slow clotting; liver needs Vit. K to make prothrombin NB: - thrombosis: clotting in unbroken blood vessel * Antihemophilic Factor (8) essential clotting factor - lack results in classic hemophilia (hemophilia A) The Lymphatic System - lymphatic vessels develop from mesoderm - transports interstitial fluid (plasma) of blood - consists of lymph vessels & lymph node clusters - vessels have many blind endings (lymph capillaries) - collect wastes not absorbed by bloodstream - empty into ducts which empty into bloodstream - main duct Thoracic Duct - valves to prevent backflow - colorless ( - 1 mm diameter) - composed of areolar tissue - lymph nodes near appendages to prevent spreading of infection - swell during infection - filter plasma and attack foreign particles - tissue within nodes contain lymphocytes (WBCs) - lymph content moved via muscle contraction - Hodgkins disease: cancer of the lymph nodes Specific Roles - maintain fluid & electrolyte balances; drain residue fluids not reabsorbed - facilitates exchange of materials between blood and body cells - transports fatty acids from villi to blood - absorption into villi at lacteals - part of immune system - secondary circulation for interstitial fluid to re-enter bloodstream The Human Respiratory System Lungs - lungs triangular in shape; air enters from bronchi; terminate in alveoli - pleurae: airtight closure around lungs - create pressure difference needed for inhalation/exhalation - pleural cavity: space between pleurae & lungs - inner pleura attached firmly to lung - attached to diaphragm at base - outer pleura attached to thoracic cavity Larynx - opening to trachea - hyoid bone at top of trachea; only bone in body which does not articulate with another bone Alveoli - ends of the respiratory tree - covered in capillary beds join pulmonary arterioles to veins - aprox. 300 million in normal human lungs ~70m 2 - site of gas exchange in body; thin moist membrane separates bloods stream from outside environment Respiratory Lining - nasal passage & respiratory tree made up of ciliated & mucus secreting cells. - mucus traps particles entering respiratory tract - cilia sweep mucus and trapped particles toward throat for swallowing
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The Flow of Air i) air first enters nasal passage; warmed to prevent sudden shock to lungs from temperature difference - countercurrent heat exchanger warms air - blood flowing opposite direction to air flow - filtration of particles by: nasal hairs, cilia, mucus ii) larynx: (contains voice box and vocal chords) - remains open except during swallowing; closes over epiglottis sealing iii) trachea: carries air to lungs - c-shaped stiff rings of cartilage spaced at intervals - hold airway open -iv)leads into the respiratory tree: - trachea branches into right and left primary bronchi secondary bronchi tertiary bronchi bronchioles alveoli Lung Cancer (closely related to smoking) - smoke inhalation triggers excess secretion of mucus; renders cilia less effective - cilia overwhelmed by mucus eventually leading to emphysema - mucus build-up which causes alveoli to rupture; poor gas exchange less surface area - smoke chemicals accumulate due to cilia ineffectiveness - kills off resident phagocytes - smoke contains caseinogens - basal bodies begin multiplying due to irritation - considered cancerous if cells break into basement membrane - metastasized: spread to other parts of the body Breathing Movements - inhalation (inspiration): forced - diaphragm contracts pulling down thoracic cavity - external intercostals muscles contract raising rib cage - expansion of airtight thoracic cavity creating pressure difference - lower pressure inside compared to outside - air flows from high pressure to low pressure NB: lungs are passive: simply respond by filling and deflating - exhalation (expiration): passive - relaxation of diaphragm and intercostals muscles - decrease volume of thoracic cavity increasing pressure air flows out - during forced/labored breathing: forced - internal intercostals muscles contract pulling rib cage down - abdominal muscles contract pushing diaphragm up - vital capacity: maximum volume to which lungs can be filled - residual air: air left in lungs after exhalation - carbon dioxide left in residual air essential to maintain adequate respiration rate - prevents alveoli from collapsing on themselves Exchange of Gases - partial pressure: the pressure exerted by any one gas in a mixture of gases - (Pg) where g = an undesignated gas - standard conditions: measurements at sea level Gas exchange in Alveoli - takes place over moist membrane surfaces - necessary to allow for gas diffusion - primarily through simple diffusion - PO2 is very low due to usage in mitochondrial respiration thus higher PCO2 - blood entering the alveolus contains: - high p.p. CO2 & low p.p. O2 - air entering alveolus contains: - low p.p. CO2 & high p.p. O2 - partial pressures of gases diffuse till equilibrium reached - CO2 moves into air & O2 moves into blood to even out pressure difference
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Oxygen Transport - association of hemoglobin with oxygen 4O2 + 4Hb 4HbO2 deoxygenated state oxygenated state (oxyhemoglobin) - affinity of hemoglobin to oxygen affected by concentration, pH, partial pressure of CO 2 - concentration principle factor for hemoglobin oxygen affinity Bohr Effect pH dependant - hemoglobin loses affinity for oxygen the lower the pH - acidity of tissues directly proportionate to metabolic activity - due to the build up of carbonic acid (metabolic waste) - allows for more active tissue to take priority in oxygen reception - erythropoietin release can cause RBC production when O2 shortage detected Carbon dioxide Transport - reacts with amino-side groups in other parts of protein Hb + CO2 HbCO2 (carbaminohemoglobin) - remaining CO2 reacts with water in RBC formation of carbonic acid which dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H2CO3 H+ + HCO3- RBCs contain enzyme carbonic anhydrase - speeds up formation of carbonic acid + conversion of acid back to CO2 & H2O - dissociated ions not left unattended - hemoglobin buffers hydrogen ions - bicarbonate ions diffuse into plasma - bind to sodium form sodium bicarbonate - sodium bicarbonate forms important part of bodys acid-base buffering system - helps neutralize acids/bases in blood keeping pH constant near neutral - in alveolus CO2 concentration low causing cascade of chemical reactions 1) carbaminohemoglobin releases CO2 2) sodium bicarbonate increases dissociation into ions - bicarbonate diffuses back into RBC 3) bicarbonate ions form carbonic acid catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase 4) CO2 diffuses from blood into air exhalation Control of Respiration - respiration & circulatory system coordinated response to oxygen levels & demand\ - control of breathing regulated at breathing centers - voluntary breathing in cortex - involuntary breathing in medulla oblongata - inspiratory centers effective during quiet, relaxed periods - expiratory centers effective during strenuous activity (forced exhalation) Chemoreceptors - one located in medulla oblongata 2 others in major carotid arteries - arousal of carotid/aortic bodies when blood CO2 levels rise / pH decreases - chemoreceptor in medulla oblongata monitors pH in cerebrospinal fluid - activates when pH falls - sends impulses to respiratory centers in the pons and medulla - increase rate and depth of breathing to raise pH - balances out oxygen and pH levels - negative feedback slows impulses Immune Syustem Non Specific Defenses: (not selective & always prepared) Front-Line Defenses - skin: - physical barrier outer epidermis is dense keratin dead cells (shield) - sebaceous glands release sweat; contains lysozyme toxic to bacteria - toxic oil secretion from oil glands - body flora compete with invaders - same in intestine E. coli out grows everything
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- mucous membrane: internal surfaces of digestive, respiratory, reproductive passages - traps bacteria & swept away by cilia - resident phagocytic cells live in lungs - hostile acid environment in stomach - lactic acid in vagina and flora out compete bacteria - antibiotics: kill off bacteria (non-specific); also can kill body flora (symbiants) Nonspecific Chemical Defenses - injured cells release/activate chemicals which destroy or slow foreign bacteria - lysozymes: break down cell wall causing lysis in bodily secretions - histamines: modified aa. histidine; secreted by damaged basophils(WBC), mast cells(connective tissue) - cause inflammation & artery dilation - increased blood flow; outward filtration of interstitial fluid - promote WBC movement and blood clotting - pyrogens: alter bodys thermostat - raised temp. slows bacterial growth; over reaction: anaphylactic shock - kinins: same functions as histamines + affect nerve endings and attract WBCs - cause pain sensation & chemotaxis of WBCs to injured site - complement: (20 protein polymer) - opsonization: coats invading bacteria triggering chemotaxis of WBCs - chemotaxis: movement WBCs towards/away a chemical source - decretory property causing cell lysis - interferon: response to viral infection from infected cells - chemical secretion inhibiting viral protein synthesis initiation Nonspecific Cellular Defenses Phagocytic Leukocytes - neutrophils: principle phagocyte; gather at infection sites (strongest) - monocytes: activated into macrophages phagocyte bacteria (strongest) - kill parasitic worms - eosinophils: destroy larger parasites & involved in inflammation Nonspecific Leukocytes (non-phagocytic) - basophils: secrete inflammatory agents - natural killer cells (killer-T cells): destroy diseased cells - antiviral/anticancer agents detect changes in MHC; cause cell lysis - loose effectiveness in elderly Specific Defenses - act against specific antigens; takes time to respond - primary exposure: slow initial immune response - secondary exposure: rapid massive immune response - passive immunity: immunity received from another individual (serum, mother) - acquired immunity: diseases body fights off and develops immunity to (immunization) - T & B cells originate from stem cells in red marrow; mature pending on where they go: - thymus gland: T-cells - bone marrow: B-cells - migrate to secondary lymphatic tissue after differentiation - lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, spleen, Peyers patches - filtration system for bacteria Humoral Response vs. Cell Mediated Response Humor = bodily fluid B-Cells T-Cells (cytotoxic T-Cells) - outside cells - inside cells - antibody production - induce apoptosis (cell death) in body cells - memory cell generation displaying a foreign antigen - effector functions of antibody - virus-infected cells, cancerous cells, - pathogen and toxin neutralization intracellular bacteria, tumors - classical complement activation, and - activates macrophages/ NK cells; destroy - opsonin promotion of phagocytosis intracellular pathogens & pathogen elimination - stimulates cells to secrete interferon
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Lymphocyte Activity B-Cells - extensive rough ER to make and secrete antibodies to fight foreign particles - immunoglobulin: proteins which bind to antigens (immunogen) - highly specialized: only can produce one antibody type - surface antigen receptors + stem to anchor to the plasma membrane - Virgin B-Cells: blank B-Cells which specialize when contact with antigen - will produce antibodies for whichever antibody it comes into contact with * Memory B-Cells: some B-Cells specialize into these; allow for rapid initiation of secondary immune response; mass antibody production in short time Antibodies: bind to foreign particles (markers) - trigger response when contact with antigen. - antigenic determinants: part of an antigenic molecule against which a particular immune response is directed - Heavy chain (Fc region) - common between all antibodies allow for easy phagocytosis - C3b receptors on WBC bind to complement - antibody-antigen interactions: - neutralizing: antibodies bind to antigen active sites cannot spread - viral & bacterial binding - activating complement: antibody activates complement when it binds to antigen - complement opsonizes and prepares for phagocytosis - opsonization: phagocytes with matching Fc receptors bind to antibody - clumps bacteria together to increase phagocytosis effectiveness Immunoglobulin Classes IgG: - targets bacteria, viruses, toxins - facilitate phagocytosis - activates complement - neutralizes antigen IgD: - activates antibody secretion in B-Cells IgE: - allergic reactions - triggers histamine release IgA: - targets bacteria - facilitate phagocytosis IgM: - targets microorganisms, ABO antigens - causes agglutination (clumping) of cells T-Cells & Cell Recognition Major Histocompatibility Complex- Recognition of Self - slight differing between cell surface proteins between individuals makes you unique - complicates organ transplants as difference in MHC - found in all mammals found so far - protein classes (MHC antigens): - classes are labeled during fetal development - MHC Class I: most body cells - MHC Class II: reserved for macrophages, T-cells, B-cells, a few others - distinction between classes important for immune response <see immune response> - act as an identifier preventing T-cells from attacking own body cells - T-cells contain protein recognition sites on plasma membrane - becomes a problem when u have retroviruses (HIV, AIDS) Foreign Particle Detection - two methods of foreign particle detection: 1) - foreign particle bears an antigen on surface stimulates immune response - infected cells often change their cell membrane structure 2) - dual T-cell protein recognition sites - first portion recognizing own MHC complex - second portion recognizing antigens - during maturation in thymus, variety of antigen receptors created *** - self tolerance: receptors similar to own MHC are eliminated
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Dual Receptor & MHC Restriction - T-cell receptors either match own MHC complex or antigens; never both - cytotoxic T-cells (Tc, T8, CD8): T-cell receptors only match own MHC class I - main fighters against foreign bacteria - helper T-cells (Th, T4, CD4): T-cell receptors only match with MHC class II - only interact with immune system components - important for coordination - virgin T-cells: fully matured but stay chaste until touched by antigen - Memory T-cells: specialized T-cellsinitiate rapid secondary immune response <see immune response> Clonal Selection & Primary Immune Response Clonal Selection - clonal selection: proliferation of specific single lines of a lymphocyte - triggered by intermediary macrophage - macrophage eats invader and puts antigens sensitive on its own cell membrane which stimulate T-cells - extracellular pathogens: bacteria combined with MHC class II proteins - induced by external invader: bacteria, fungus etc. - intracellular pathogens: viruses joined with MHC class I proteins - induced by viral or cancerous agent - macrophage becomes antigen-presenting cell - comes into contact with virgin T-cells; allows both cytotoxic and helper T-cells to bind Arousing T-Cells - Spreading the Alarm - interleukin-1 released when T-cells and macrophages bind - activates attached Tc/Th-cell stimulating division - Th cells secrete interleukin-2 rapidly increases division of T-cells - acts as an amplifying effect for Tc cells - small number of T-cells set aside for memory T-cells - cytotoxic T-cells destroy any cells bearing matching antigen - release perforin eats cell membrane away causing lysis - release lymphotoxin activates DNA fragmenting enzymes within infected cell - prevents infected cell from dividing with bacteria inside - release interferon attracts (chemical trigger) phagocytes by chemotaxis - destroy cancerous cells; however after cell has metastasized, cancer adapts cell membrane to similar structure of MHC class I Arousing B-Cells - Antibody Attack - (Th) interleukin-2 activates B-cells result in massive production of antibodies - arousal takes time: clonal selection must occur before effective B-cell attack takes place - proper virgin B-cells must be identified and large clones formed - active B-cells called plasma cells massive antibody production NB: antibodies opsonizes bacteria (neutralization) for phagocytosis - direct arousal: random process - antigen bypasses filters & binds with matching B-cell - B-cell divides rapidly secreting precise antibody inundating antigen Suppressor T-Cells - (Ts) inhibit activation of unaroused virgin T/B cells - keep immune system from running out of control Secondary Immune Response & Vigilant Memory Cells - primary immune response is slower as it takes time for clonal selection to occur - memory B/T Cells recognize former antigens - artificial active immunity: creation of T and B cells via vaccination - passive immunity: no formation of body T and B cells - antiserum: a substance containing specific antibodies against the antigenic agent - antibody diversity from gene rearrangement of variable segments of antibody - somatic mutations can produce single DNA substitution changes in antibody - monoclonal antibodies: clones of selected B-Cells grown in culture by genetically modifying animals - hybridoma: half human half animal cell Immune system resistance - capsule: makes phagocytosis difficult; inhibits lysosome enzyme release - secretion of leukocidins (chemical agent destroys leukocytes - persistent viruses: viruses which hide within hosts membrane
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Immune System Malfunctions Autoimmunity attack against self - autoimmune disease: leukocytes sensitized to MHC similar to cells coats - arouses T/B cells which react with body cells Allergies - harmless substances cause inflammatory response - antigens known as allergens - prompt release of histamines, protestaglandins - antihistamines to fight inflammation - epinephrine fights swelling - increases glucose levels dramatically in blood levels causes hypo-tonicity in blood flow which draws waters into capillaries decreasing swelling AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency Syndrome) - attacks T-helper cells and macrophages of immune system - contracted from exchange of bodily fluid - treatments: - AZT (azidothymide): blocks addition of additional nucleotides - prevents HIV insertion; effect is transient - interleukin-2 showing promise Nervous Coordination Sensory Reception Involves: - reception: receptors energy converters - transmission: sensory neuron - interpretation: association (inter) neuron - response: motor neuron Sensory Receptors (transducers) - detect environmental stimuli - receptor potentials: wave of depolarization similar to action potential in neuron - synapse with sensory neurons yielding action potential - vary in intensity (graded response) is NOT all or none response - increased frequency = increased intensity - Photoreceptors (vision) - light stimulates receptors in retina <see The Eye below> - Mechanoreceptors (movement) - Pressure receptors - tactile receptors (touch): fast-firing neurons which shifts plasma membrane structure - distance receptors: detect stimuli from distance - contact receptors: respond to direct touch - piezoelectric effect: triggered when receptor stimulated - baroreceptors: detect stretching in blood vessels - Proprioceptors: body position by measuring muscle stretch - Balance (inner ear): semi circular canals <see The Ear below> - Chemoreceptors: detect presence of specific chemicals - taste (gustatory receptors), smell (olfactory receptors), oxygen & carbon dioxide receptors - Osmoreceptors: detect water balance - Thermoreceptors (thermoregulators): respond to temperature change - temperature receptors - heat (Ruffini nerve ending) - cold (Krause Bulbs) - Pain receptors: detect pain - touch receptors - light pressure (Meissners corpuscle) - deep pressure (Pacinian corpuscle) The Eye Parts & Functions - conjuctiva: thin transparent membrane covering eye surface; protection against bacteria - cornea: transparent bulge in sclera; covers iris; bends light towards pupil - no blood vessels present; fed by aqueous humor - transplant easy, no antigenic material on corneas - aqueous humor: fluid behind cornea; maintains corneal bulge - supplies cornea with nutrients - iris: colored potion of eye; muscle which opens and closes allowing light to enter eye - melanin pigment gives color, if lacking (blue), if none (albino) - pupil: opening to eye
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- lens: right behind pupil; transparent (yellow to block UV light) - focuses light to back of eye - suspensory ligaments (dorsal and ventral) attach lens to ciliary muscle body - ciliary muscle body: hold lens in place and contract/relax to change lens shape - vitreous humor: transparent jelly behind lens; keeps eye shape - retina: inside layer of eye; light sensitive; four types of cells: - rods, cones [receptors (energy converters)] - bipolar cells (bp-cells): transmit signals from photoreceptor to g-cells - horizontal cells: act in inhibitory interaction among photoreceptor cells - amacrine cells: interact between g-cells - ganglion cells (g-cells): conduct impulses from retina to brain - optic nerve cells: made up of axons of the g-cells - fovea centralis: back centre of eye; greatest sensory detail (only cones) - sclera: outermost layer; maintains shape of eye; muscle attachment site; protective layer - optic nerve: formed from all light sensitive neurons clumping at the blindspot - eyebrows/lashes: prevent large particles from entering eye - lacrimal glands: tear glands; contain lysozyme
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Image Focusing - cornea bends light to pupil; biconvex lens focuses an inverted image on retina - Accommodation: reflex adjustments in lens shape - change focal length to adjust for distance focus - accommodate: to shift focus (lens normally flat) - near objects: ciliary muscles contract, ligament tension decreases, lens gets thicker and more rounded; thus light converges more quickly - vice versa for far objects - pupil dilates for far objects to allow more light to reach eye Light Activation - Rods - used for vision in dim light (sensitive) - function in groups (several rods share one nerve to brain) - during stimulation: rhodopsin (visual purple) broken into retinene & opsin by photon (vitamin A required for opsin) - Cones - provides visual detail in color; 3 types of cones (red, green, blue) - optic nerves cross over at optical chiasma - allows both sides of brain to receive input from both eyes - light absent - rhodopsin molecules stable - Na+ channels open; inflow of Na+ ions depolarizes rods and their synapses - activates bipolar cells which inhibit g-cells ***Rod depolarized(no light) BP excited G-cells inhibited*** -rhodopsin is reformed via oxidation of opsin with vitamin A - light present - light decomposes rhodopsin molecules (process called light reaction) - acts as an enzyme - causes a decrease in concentration of cyclic-GMP - decrease in messenger concentration causes Na+ gated channels to close - hyperpolarizes the rods & their synapses - inhibition of BP-cells allowing increased G-cell activity - g-cells report presence of light to brain
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Vision Defects - glaucoma: bulging of eye caused by increased build up of aqueous/vitreous humor - cataracts: lens/cornea clouds over - astigmatism: light not focused on fovea centralis from abnormal lens/cornea shape - corrected via astigmatic lens - hyperopia (farsightedness): light focused behind retina - corrected with a biconvex lens - myopia (nearsightedness): light focused in front of retina - corrected with a biconcave lens - presbyopia: hardening of lens - color blindness: one or more type of cone not working properly The Ear Hearing - sound transfer: ear drum, ossicles, round/oval windows, cochlear fluid, organ of corti - sound must travel through medium (fastest solid, liquid, gas slowest) - three parts to the ear: 1. Outer Ear - pinna: external ear flap (collects and channels sound into auditory canal - auditory canal: carries & amplifies sound energy to tympanic membrane(eardrum) - sweat glands secrete ear wax top trap particles 2. Middle Ear - tympanic membrane: 64mm2; transmits sound energy to ossicles (air to solid) - ossicles: three tiny bones malleus (hammer)incus(anvil)stapes(stirrup) - vibrates oval window - oval window: 3.2mm2; flap-like bone in wall of inner ear (solid to liquid) - Eustachian tube: air filled tube connecting middle ear to nasal cavity - equalizes pressure against surrounding environment 3. Inner Ear - cochlea: fluid-filled coiled tube; receives sound waves in liquid & converts to electrical impulses (heard as sound) - Organ of Corti: hearing apparatus - single inner row w/ 3 outer rows of hair cells connected to basilar membrane - fluid vibrations bend hair and basilar membrane - stimulates sensory neurons into to brain via auditory nerve - higher amplitude(wave height): higher intensity (decibelsdamage @ 120DB) - frequency (pitch) Equilibrium (in inner ear) - Vestibule (vestibular apparatus) - connected to middle eat via oval window - utricle / saccule: measure static equilibrium movement along one plane (vertical/horizontal) - house hair-like receptors work like hair in cochlea - otoliths: tiny stones of calcium carbonate; move with gravity - Semicircular Canals - fluid-filled; measure dynamic equilibrium - ampulla: pocket of fluid to measure rotational movement by bending hairs - detect body position & motion
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