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4. PRAGMATICS - HANDOUT 4.1 What is pragmatics? Consider the following situation:

Alan walked across, smiled, greeted his acquaintance and, with a momentary look at the mens glasses, asked: What are you drinking? They were all pleasantly surprised. Wh ? What happ!"!#? The people at the pub thought that he was offering to buy a round of drinks, but Alan was not aware of this.

Ca" $% imagi"! $th!r c$"t!&ts 'h!r! s%ch a (%!sti$" c$%)# *! %s!# a"# 'hat pragmatic m!a"i"gs it '$%)# ha+!? There is more to being a competent user of the language than working out the literal meaning of sentences. "1# $A little boy comes in the front door.% &other: Wipe your feet, please.

Children pro ide illuminating e!amples of this:

'e often dont say what we mean or we may mean something quite different from what we say: "(# )ts hot in here. "*# +ice of you to do the shopping yesterday.

,e eral questions arise from these obser ations:

o 'hy dont we -ust say what we mean. o /ow is it that we manage to understand one another.

4., What pragmatics is a*$%t 0ragmatics is about e!amining language as it is used. 1anguage is a form of s$cia) acti$", i.e. it is used to do things. What t p!s $- thi"gs #$ $% thi". ca" *! #$"! 'ith )a"g%ag!?

1anguage is iewed as always sit%at!#, i.e. conte!tual.

The same piece in a different conte!t can mean a different thing. "2# /er handwriting is e!cellent.

0ragmatics studies ho meaning is -ointly negotiated by speakers in interaction and how it is dynamically constructed. 0ragmatics understands language as a s!t $- r!s$%rc!s

4./ H$' is pragmatics #!-i"!# There are se eral definitions of pragmatics: o The study of language use o The study of the relationship between form and function and between language and conte!t o The study of the science of language in relation to its users o The study of meaning in use or meaning in conte!t o The study of how meaning is created o The study of speaker meaning o The study of utterance interpretation

4.4 Utt!ra"c! An utterance is a stretch of speech, defined by use: o )t is situated. o )t is a unit of spoken beha iour. o )t is not a priori right or wrong3 o 4sually preceded and followed by silence. o )t may not be a complete5grammatical sentence. 4.0 Wh!r! #$!s m!a"i"g c$m! -r$m? Wh!r! #$ $% thi". m!a"i"g c$m!s -r$m?

4.1 2$rc! 6orce is the speakers intention: praise, criticise, request, offer, gi e ad ice, scold, etc. 4sually, both utterance meaning and force are understood: "7# A: 1ets go for a drink. 8: ) cant. &y doctor wont let me. A: 1ets go for a drink. 8: ) cant. &y mother9in9law wont let me.

A: 'hats wrong with you.

,ometimes, utterance meaning is understood, but not force: ,heldon, from The Big Bang Theory does not understand sarcasm "http:55www.youtube.com5watch. :;6<&roT1;f4=feature:related# ,ometimes "rarely#, force is understood, but not utterance meaning: "># 8reak a leg?

@ en more rarely, none of the two is understood: "<# A: 0edro me ha propuesto que in ierta en su empresa. 8: 0edro es un chanta.

This is an e!ample from Argentinian ,panish. Chanta means AembaucadorB. )f ) dont know what the word means, ) wont know whether )m being told that its a good idea or a bad idea. 4.3 C$"t!&t The conte!t includes all those features in and around the utterance that are rele ant for communication. 45S6 o ,peaker and addressee:

o 0lace:

o Time: What a nice day today! o /istorical time: Shes a single mother. o Culture: oure a !ery kind old lady. o 0re ious utterance"s#: Whats "rong "ith you? o 1inguistic channel: o NO6

The conte!t is not static. )t changes alongside with the con ersation. 8esides, its not only conte!t that influences the interpretation of the utterances. A gi en utterance can also produce a change in the conte!t. "C# Teacher: Whats up?

4.7 Sp!!ch acts 4.7.1 8.9 A%sti" : How to do Things with Words 1;1,. O&-$r#6 O&-$r# U"i+!rsit Pr!ss /e was a philosopher, an Dordinary language philosopher. /e de eloped his theory in a series of lectures gi en at E!ford 4ni ersity between 1F7( and 1F72 "later also deli ered at /ar ard in 1F77#. /e died une!pectedly in 1F>G, and his famous book was based on Austins own notes and recordings of his lectures. A number of earlier philosophers "e.g. 8ertrand Hussell# had the iew that e eryday language is defecti e, full of ambiguities, imprecision and contradictions. Austin "and his group# wanted to understand how people managed to communicate e!tremely efficiently and with ery little problems with language -ust the way it is. Austin claimed that we do not use language -ust to say things. Actually, we do things with language. 4.7., 9$c%ti$"< i))$c%ti$"< p!r)$c%ti$" As we ha e seen, utterances ha e sense "Dwhat is said# and force "Dwhat is meant#. Austin made a three9fold distinction: 1ocution )llocution 0erlocution the actual words uttered the force or intention behind the words the effect of the illocution on the hearer

"F# "1ooking at somebody with a piece of chocolate cake#

'e ha e seen that often both the locution and the illocution are understood, but there may also be misunderstandings. "1G# "A man and a woman enter an art gallery. The man is carrying a plastic carrier bag. The woman goes to buy the admission tickets, while her husband has gone ahead into the gallery#. Efficial: 'ould the gentleman like to lea e his bag here. &an: Eh no, thank you. )ts not hea y. Efficial: Enly ... we ha e had ... we had a theft here yesterday, you see. The same locution can ha e different i))$c%ti$"ar -$rc! in different conte!ts. "11# /ow old are you.

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;ifferent utterances can perform the same sp!!ch act "another e!pression for illocutionary act, illocutionary force, force#. "1(# ,peech act: requesting something to turn off the lights: Turn off the lights? Can you please turn off the lights. ;id you forget about the lights. Are you a 8asicpower shareholder. 'hat do big boys do when they lea e a room, 0eter. 'hen the typical form for a speech act is not used, we talk about indirect speech acts.

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Which $"! $- th! %tt!ra"c!s i" =1,> '$%)# *! a" !&amp)! $- a" i"#ir!ct sp!!ch act? 4.7./ 8. R. S!ar)! /e studied under Austin at E!ford. /is most important book is Speech #cts: #n $ssay in the %hilosophy of &anguage . 1F>F. Cambridge: Cambridge 4ni ersity 0ress. )n it he distinguishes between Dpropositional content "locution3 what is said# and Dillocutionary force "illocution3 what is meant#. /e also established a classification of speech acts "DA classification of illocutionary acts. 1F<7. &anguage in Society, 7, 19(*#, formulated a theory of indirect speech acts "D)ndirect speech acts in 0. Cole = I. &organ "eds.#. 1F<7. Synta' and Semantics (: Speech Acts. +ew Jork: Academic 0ress, 7F9C(# and attempted to establish a set of rules for speech acts "1F>F#. 4.7.4 S!ar)!?s c)assi-icati$" $- sp!!ch acts R!pr!s!"tati+!s : speech acts that commit a speaker to the truth of the e!pressed proposition: assertions, affirmations, claims. Dir!cti+!s : speech acts that make the hearer carry out a specific action: requests, commands, ad ice C$mmissi+!s : speech acts that commit the speaker to some future action: promises, threats, oaths 5&pr!ssi+!s : speech acts that e!press the speakerKs attitudes and emotions towards the proposition: congratulations, e!cuses, apologies thanks

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D!c)arati$"s : speech acts that change the reality with the proposition of the declaration: baptisms, pronouncing someone guilty, pronouncing someone husband and wife.

4.7.0 S!ar)!?s r%)!s -$r sp!!ch acts

0ropositional act 0reparatory condition ,incerity condition @ssential condition

,peaker ",# predicates a future act "A# of ,peaker ",# , belie es that doing act A is in /s best interest and , can do A. , intends to do act A. , undertakes an obligation to do act A.

Analysis of Iohn promising ,ally to come to her party: )ll come to your party tomorro". 0ropositional act 0reparatory condition ,incerity condition @ssential condition

'hat can go wrong. 'hat can make this speech act non9felicitous. 1# 0reparatory condition: (# ,incerity condition: *# @ssential condition:

4.; H.P. Gric! /.0. Lrice worked with Austin at E!ford. /is seminal paper is D1ogic and con ersation, 1F<7, in 0. Cole = I. &organ "eds.# Synta' and Semantics (: Speech Acts. +ew Jork: Academic 0ress, 2197C. Although he ne er fully de eloped his theory and his work is somehow problematic, his attempt to

e!plain how a hearer goes from what is said to what is meant is e!tremely important. 4.;.1 C$"+!rsati$"a) imp)icat%r! A con ersational implicature is the additional or different meanings that a gi en utterance has, in a gi en conte!t: "1*# Are you a 8asicpower shareholder. "12# Lreat, thats -ust great? 4.;., Th! C$$p!rati+! Pri"cip)! The C0: &ake your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk e!change in which you are engaged.

'hen we are faced with someone +ET being cooperati e, instead of assuming that they are being non9cooperati e, we try to find a meaning for their utterance: "17# "A has accidentally locked herself out of her house. )t is winter, the middle of the night and she is stark naked# A: ;o you want a coat. 8: +o, ) really want to stand out here in the freeMing cold with no clothes on. 4.;./ Th! -$%r c$"+!rsati$"a) ma&ims
@%a"tit 6 @%a)it 6 R!)ati$"6 Ma""!r6 &ake your contribution as informati e as is required "for the current purpose of the e!change#. ;o not make your contribution more informati e than is required. ;o not say what you belie e to be false. ;o not say that for which you lack adequate e idence. 8e rele ant. A oid obscurity of e!pression. A oid ambiguity. 8e brief "a oid unnecessary proli!ity#. 8e orderly.

'hen the ma!ims are obser ed, there is nothing ery interesting: "1># A: 'hens &arys plane arri ing. 8: Tomorrow at fi e oclock.

4.;.4 2)$%ti"g a ma&im A)ata"t) not obser ing a ma!im. @!ploiting the ma!im of Nuality "12# Lreat? Thats -ust great? 1# (# *# 2# 7# ># <# C# Another e!ample would be: "1<# A: 'hats your name. 8: )m the Nueen of ,heba. @!ploiting the ma!im of Nuantity

"1C# A: ) heard /enry is a great pianist. ) wanted to hire him for my party. 8: Jes, he plays the piano.

@!ploiting the ma!im of relation

"1F# "At a dinner, a con ersation is going on about politics, and it is becoming a little awkward, because two of the speakers hold widely different iews. Then the host speaks# A: /as anyone seen the new /arry 0otter film.

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@!ploiting the ma!im of &anner

"(G# "This interaction occurred during a radio inter iew with an unnamed official from the 4nited ,tates @mbassy in 0ort9au90rince, /aiti# )nter iewer: ;id the 4nited ,tates Lo ernment play any part in ;u aliers departure. ;id they, for e!ample, acti ely encourage him to lea e. Efficial: ) would not try to steer you away from that conclusion.