TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS

CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION . 3 2. CHAPTER I 5 Communicative Approach in Teaching English Language: 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. Historical background The importance of communication at English classes Communicative competence and ability

3. CHAPTER II .. 10 Peculiarities of Teaching Communication Skills: 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. Communicative skills Teaching accuracy influence in speech Micro-skills of oral communication Types of classroom teaching performance

4. CHAPTER III . 15 Teaching Communication through Games: 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 4.8. 4.9. 4.10. Consensus game The buzz group The debate Finding differences and similarities Story reconstruction Name games Compatibility game Musical association Guess who is Fortune telling

5. CONCLUTION 19 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 20

INTRODUCTION English as a foreign language: fluency practice. It suggests some ways in which pupils may be induced to talk in the classroom, using the language creatively, purposefully and individually. The vehicle of such use is defined as the communication, in a very broad sense of the word. The teachers of foreign language take most of the time teaching particular features of phonology, lexicology or grammar structure, presenting them, getting pupils to practice them. But pupils already knowing all these features find difficulties in using them in verbal communication. In this paper we tried to focus on Communicative Language Teaching as an excellent way of foreign language teaching. We will try to develop thoroughly this topic and to prove that communication teaching at English classes has a similar importance as teaching grammar or phonetics. Showing that communication practice is one of the most important components of the teaching process we intend to demonstrate that it is also one of the most problematical. It is much more difficult to get pupils to express themselves freely than it is to extract right answers in a controlled exercise. The teachers have the duty to teach the pupils acquire the communicative skill which is not an easy job and the present paper constitutes a vivid confirmation of this fact. It also illustrates the best ways of teaching and acquiring communication skills. We focused on the following objectives: - knowledge of communicative techniques use following a variety of different purposes and functions; - knowledge of correct language use according to the setting and the participants (students must know how to use formal and informal speech, to use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication); - knowledge of how to produce and understand different types of texts; - knowledge of how to maintain communication despite having limitations in ones language knowledge (through using different kinds of communication strategies). While developing and analysing the topic of communicative language teaching we consider that it is crucial to mention that we made use of the main types of method analysis, which are investigation, examination, comparison and generalization. We also referred to main authors who wrote about the communication language teaching: Douglas Brown, Jack Richards, Tom Farrell, Mariane Celce-Murcia, Ronald Carter, David Nunan, Diane Larsen-Freeman and others.

The term paper comprises three chapters. The first part focuses on the Communicative Language Teaching theory, Historical Background and the Importance of Communication at English Classes. The second chapter makes reference to Peculiarities of Teaching Communication Skills and the last section is devoted to the practical analysis of the elucidated topic covering the subject of teaching communication through different techniques, mainly through games. In summary, to be effective communicators pupils need to be able to adapt and to adopt their oral language techniques and content to whatever context they find themselves in. To ensure pupils develop these strategies, the skills and process of listening and speaking must be understood, modelled, taught and practical within the classroom.

CHAPTER I COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN TEACHING ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1.1 Historical Background

We can find the origins of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) in the changes in British language teaching tradition that date from the late 1960s. Until then, Situational Language Teaching represented the most important British approach to teaching English as a foreign Language. In Situational Language Teaching, language was taught by practicing basic structure in significant activities based on situations just as the linguistic theory that underlined Audio-linguistic that was declined in the United States in the mid-1960s. British applied linguists questioned and criticised the theoretical assumptions that referred to Situational Language Teaching. This was partly an answer to the sorts of criticisms the prominent American linguist Noam Chomsky pointed while discussing about structural linguistic theory in his now classic book Syntactic Structures (1957). He demonstrated that the current standard structural theories of language were incapable of accounting for the fundamental characteristic of language the creativity and the uniqueness of individual sentences. British applied linguists emphasized another fundamental dimension of language that was inadequately addressed in current approaches to language teaching at that time the functional and communicative potential of language. They saw the use to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency rather than on simple mastery of structures. Scholars who advocated this view of language, such a Christopher Candlin and Henry Widdowson, drew on the work of British functional linguistic (Halliday, Firth) American work in sociolinguistics (Dell Hymes, W. Labov), as well as work in philosophy (John Austin, John Searle). In 1971 a group of experts began to investigate the possibility of developing language courses on a unit-credit system. The group used studies of the needs of European gauge learners, and in particular a preliminary document prepared by a British, D. A. Wilkins, which proposed a functional syllables for language teaching. Wilkins contribution was an analysis of the communicative meanings that lay behind the communicative uses of language. He described two types of meanings: notional categories (concepts such as time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency) and categories of communicative function (requests, denials, offers, complaints). The council of Europe incorporated Wilkinss semantic communicative analysis into a set of 5

specifications that had a strong influence on the design of communicative language programs in Europe. Both American and British proponents now see CLT as an approach that aims to: a. Make communicative competence the goal of language teaching; b. Develop procedures for the teaching of the four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication. Thus CLT presupposes: dialogues, that centre across communicative functions, and are not normally memorized, translation, comprehensible pronunciation and effective communication. Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methodology. Contextualization is also a basic premise, because language is created by the individual often through trial and error since fluency and acceptable language are the primary goals. The speakers accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context. Common to all versions of CLT, however, is a theory of language teaching that starts from a communicative model of language and language use, and that seeks to translate this into a design for an instructional system, for materials, for teacher and learner roles, for classroom activities and techniques.

1.2 The Importance of Communication at English Classes

If we search in the dictionary the word communication we will find the next explanation: communication means the exchange of information between people, it is a spoken or a written message or the communication of the information. Also through communication we understand the sense of mutual understanding. It is most common form of the oral language. It involves at least two people and it has its own structures and devices. Communication also involves effort, skills, content and technique. What about communication in English class? Is it important in the process of language learning? What is the importance of oral language in the school Curriculum? We can answer these questions in the following way: the oral language is the greatest use of a language and it is the basis of the communication, it is the basis of literacy. Language plays a vital role in the personal and social development of the children. It enables them to gain understanding of the selves and others and strengthens their social relationship. Through listening and speaking students learn about their world. They learn to express their thoughts, ideas and feelings, and being able to respond to the communications of the others. This enables pupils to participate in society successfully. Communication is a very important link in the process of students learning and development of the 6

language skills. As children talk about themselves and their experiences, they are learning to organize their thinking and their ideas. It is important to provide opportunities for oral language to continue to grow in the classroom from those foundations. Before students achieve proficiency in reading and writing, communication or we can also say the oral language is one of the most important means of learning and acquiring knowledge. In the fact throughout life the oral language skills remain essential for communication of ideas and intelligent conversation. One of the most effective ways to facilitate the learning of the communicative skills is to take in account the background and everyday life of the students. Once students prior knowledge and facility with oral language is determined, the classroom programme can be planed o develop necessary skills on the development continuum. For this starting point the techniques and skills which are taught in the classroom programme need to be further extended and used across the whole curriculum. Although the oral language programme is delivered at the classroom level, the policy for the development of language skills needs to exist, and be implemented across the whole school. But the development of the communication at English lesson does not mean teaching children to speak so much as providing them with skills and opportunities to communicate more effectively. Speech involves thinking and knowledge. Effective communication is developed through practice and training. While language acquisition is a natural process this does not mean that all children acquire effective communication skills in a foreign language. We may give three criteria for communication competence: fluency, clarity and senility. The responsibility of the teacher lies in helping the children to develop to develop these levels of development. In the classroom programme teachers will need to provide activities and modelling to promote the development of discussions skills in all area of the curriculum from one year onwards. There are no specified activities that, if used, will magically cause the skills of communication to emerge.

1.3. Communicative competence and ability

Communication is the process of interpersonal interaction and requires the knowledge of social convention, the knowledge of rules about proper ways to communicate with people. In accordance with the social conventions, participants in communication perform communicative functions (to socialize, to inform, to persuade, to elicit information, to manipulate behaviour and opinions, to perform rituals), communicative roles (leader, informer, witness, participant, catalyst, entertainer). 7

The process of communication is characterized by communicative strategies of achieving a goal through communication. The success of communication depends very much on the knowledge of successful strategies chosen by the speakers. Communication strategies can be goal-oriented (having a particular goal in mind), partneroriented and circumstances-oriented (behaving according to the situation). In choosing a strategy (guessing, paraphrasing but achieving the goal) or a reduction strategy (co-operation, avoidance and sometimes giving up ones goal partially or completely) the speakers must have good language knowledge. An integral part of communicative competence (the knowledge of how to communicate with people) is the non-verbal communication. It includes proxemics (physical distance and life space in the process of communication), kinesics (smiles, eye-contact), clothing and physical appearance in the process of the communication (the concept of decency in clothing and physical appearance), paralanguage (um-m, uh-huh). Many non-verbal expressions vary from culture, and it is often the cause of cultural misinterpretation. Gestures and postures can be inappropriate and there can be a lack of smile and eye-contact. Touching somebodys body during conversation can be taken as offensive. The dressing habit can be alien. Vocal information (Aha!) can be also inappropriate. The idea of competence in the language started to develop with the construct of how to use the language in the real world, without which rules of grammar would the useless. Communicative competence breaks down into the two major component of the language: knowledge of the language and knowledge of how to achieve the goal of communication. In 1980, the applied linguists Canale and Swain published an influential article in which they argued that the ability to communicate required four different sub-competencies: - Grammatical (ability to create grammatically correct utterances) - Sociolinguistic (ability to produce socio-linguistically appropriate utterances) - Discourse (ability to produce coherent and cohesive utterances) - Strategic (ability to solve communication problems as they arise) While referring to communicative competence we can also mention the jigsaw task. A jigsaw task is a specific kind of information gap task, that is, a task that requires learners to communicate with each other in order to fill in missing information and to integrate it with other information. For example, in the video, the students are not aware that their note cards contain a

communicative problem (e.g. a violation of prescriptive grammar, ambiguous reference, etc.) that indicates a deficiency in one of the sub-competencies of communicative competence.

CHAPTER II PECULIARITIES OF TEACHING COMMUNICATION SKILLS 2.1. Communicative Skills

School is an excellent environment in which learners develop knowledge of the communication in a wide variety of situations. However, many books and creative teaching materials, even native speakers of English language are not going to give ESL pupils English communicative ability. Only using English communicatively with their teacher and classmates will enable pupils develop the ability to speak English. If pupils are taught primarily in their native language they may learn how to read English, they may learn how to write English, they may learn how to translate English, but they are not very likely to learn how to speak English. For achieving these aims a regular English Curriculum states that pupils should: Be able to talk clearly about experiences and ideas; Be able to engage with and enjoy communications at English class in all its variety; Be able to understand, to respond, and use oral language effectively in range of context; Develop skills that enable them to develop their thoughts, ideas and feelings clearly and appropriately and respond to their thoughts, ideas and feelings of others with purpose and courtesy; In order to develop these strategies pupils will need: Structured, planned, meaningful tasks and experience the classroom environment to acquire effective listening and speaking skills; Opportunities to learn how to think about what they hear and to use communication skills to gather, process and present information; Pupils should invite all other students to join the discussion and questioning; They should ask or offer help; Joke and give humorous comments; Give others a change to talk; Accept all groups members questions and contribution; Accept agreed strategies, selected to ensure an equal opportunity for all members to speak; Listen attentively to each other; Remind peers not to interrupt each other. 10

Concomitant to the development of the communication skills it is worth mentioning that there will be a growth in the pupils confidence when communicating in a wide variety of social context to a wide variety of audience.

2.2. Teaching Accuracy Influence in Speech

An issue that pervades all of languages, performance centres on the distinction between accuracy and fluency. In spoken languages the question we face as teachers is: How shall we prioritize two clearly important speaker goals of accurate (clear, articulate, grammatically and phonologically correct) language and fluent (flowing, natural) language? In the mid to late 70s, egged on by a somewhat short-lived anti-grammar approach, some teachers turned away from accuracy issues in favour of providing a plethora of natural language activity in their classrooms. The argument was, of course, that adult second language acquisition should simulate the childs first language learning processes. Our classroom must not become linguistic courses but rather the locus of meaningful language involvement, or so the argument went. Unfortunately, such classrooms so strongly emphasized the importance of fluency with a concomitant playing down of the bits and pieces of grammar and phonology that many students managed to produce fairly fluent but barely comprehensible language. Something was lacking. It is now very clear that both fluency and accuracy are important goals to pursue in CLT. While fluency may in many communicative language courses be an initial goal in language teaching, accuracy is achieved to some extent by allowing pupils to focus on the elements of phonology. If you were learning to play tennis instead of a second language, this same philosophy would initially get you out on the tennis court to feel what its like to hold a racquet, to hit the ball, to serve, and then have you focus more cognitively on certain fundamentals. Fluency is probably best achieved by allowing, the river banks of instruction on some details of phonology, grammar, or discourse will channel the speech on a more purposeful course. The fluency/accuracy issue often boils down to the extent to which our techniques should be message oriented (or, as some call it, teaching language use) as opposed to language oriented (also known as teaching language usage). Current approaches to language teaching lean strongly toward message orientation with language usage offering a supporting role.

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2.3. Micro-skills of Oral Communication

Produce chunks of language of different lengths; Orally produce differences among the English phonemes and allophonic variants; Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed position, rhythmic structure, and intonational contours; Produce reduced forms of words and phrases; Use an adequate number of lexical units in order to accomplish pragmatic purposes; Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery; Monitor your own oral production and use various strategic devices-pauses, fillers, selfcorrections; Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs) systems (tense, agreement, plurality); Produce speech in natural constituents-in appropriate phrases, pause, groups; Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms; Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse; Appropriately accomplish communicative functions according to situations, participants, and goals; Use appropriate registers, pragmatic conversations; Convey links and connections between events and communicate such relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization and exemplification; Use facial features, kinesics body language and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language in order to convey meanings; Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such as emphasizing key words, rephrasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how well your interlocutor is understanding you.

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2.4. Types of Classroom Speaking Performance

We have here six categories to the kinds of oral production that pupils are expected to carry out in the classroom. a. Imitative Imitation is carried out not for the purpose of meaningful interaction, but for focusing on some particular element of language form. (e.g., learners practicing an intonation pattern a certain vowel sound.) Drills offer pupils an opportunity to listen and to orally repeat certain strings of languages that may pose some linguistic difficulty. Here are some useful guidelines for successful drills: Keep them short (a few minutes of a class hour only); Keep them simple (preferably just one point at a time); Keep them snappy ; Make sure pupils knowledge they are doing the drill; Limit them to phonology or grammar points; Make sure they ultimately lead to communicate goals; Dont overuse them.

b. Intensive Intensive speaking goes one step beyond imitative and includes any speaking performance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language. Intensive speaking can be self-initiated, or it can even form part of some pair work activity, where learners are going over certain forms of language. c. Responsive A good deal of pupils speech in the classroom is responsive: short replies to teacher- or student-initiated questions or comments. These replies are usually sufficient and do not extend into dialogues. Speech can be meaningful and authentic: T: How are you today? S: Pretty good, thanks, and you? T: What is the main idea of this essay? S: The United States of America have more authority. S1: So, what did you write for question one? S2: Well, I wasnt sure, so I left it blank. 13

d. Transactional (dialogue) Transactional language, carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information, is and extended form of responsive language. e. Interpersonal (dialogue) It carried out more for the purpose of maintaining social relationships than for the transmission of facts and information. These conversations are a little trickier for learners because they can involve some of all of the following factors: A casual register; Colloquial language; Emotionally charged language; Slangs Ellipsis; Sarcasm; A covert agenda.

f. Extensive(monologue) Finally, pupils at intermediate to advanced levels are called on to five extended monologues in the form of oral reports, summaries, or perhaps short speeches. Here the register is more formal and deliberative. These monologues can be planned or spontaneous.

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CHAPTER III TEACHING COMMUNICATION TROUGH GAMES

In this part of the work I will consider activities which complain as far as possible with the characteristics that were said before to be necessary for communicative activities. The following games are designed to provoke spoken communication between pupils and between the teacher and the pupils. The activities can be divided in several categories: reading a consensus, discussion, relaying instructions, communication games, problem, solving, talking about oneself, simulation and role-play. In these examples pupils have to agree with other after a certain amount of discussion. The task is not complete until they do. Consensus activities have been very successful in promoting free and spontaneous language.

3.1. Consensus game

In this activity pupils are told that they are going on holiday and have to decide what ten objects to take with them. They will have rich a consensus on these objects. Stage 1: All the pupils are asked to write down the ten items they would choose to have in their luggage if they were going to stay in New York for two weeks. Stage 2: When all the pupils have completed their lists, they are put into pairs. Each pair has to negotiate a new list of ten items. This will involve each member of the pair changing their original list to some extent. Stage 3: When the pairs have completed their lists, two pairs are joined together to negotiate a new lists that all four pupils can agree to. Stage 4: When the teacher thinks the activity has gone on for long enough a feedback session is concluded with the whole class in which each group explains and justifies its choices. This activity, which can be used from elementary level upwards, it great fun and produces a lot of English. Of course is not particular reason for selecting New York as the destination. Other place can be used.

3.2. The buzz group

One way of encouraging short sharp burst of discussion is through the use of buzz groups. There is where pupils are put into loose groups of three or four and asked to think of the topic. Frequently the teacher may ask to think of as manyas possible. Examples might be: the pupils may read a text about addiction. First the teacher puts them into groups for a two-minute session. 15

They should think for as many form of addiction as they can, or the pupils are doing some work about the winter holidays and they can tell an activity that they can do in the winter. Buzz group can form the prelude to a larger communicative session.

3.3. The debate

In the classroom the teacher should use the debate games because the pupils are eager to participate in the debates and they like to prove that their point of view is right. Pupils are given a controversial proposition. A variation of formal debate is the Balloon debate. Pupils must each choose a character. Them they are told that all the characters are in the basket of hot-air balloon. The balloon is losing air and so people must jump from the basket to save the lives of the others. Who should be chosen as the sole survivor? The characters must make convincing arguments in favour of their own survival. A final vote decides which characters should jump and which should remain. Communication activities are an important part of many lessons. The main thing to remember is that proper organization can ensure their success. Lack of it can provoke their failure. Communication games are based on the principle of the information gap. Pupils are put I the situation in which they have to use all or any of the language they possess to complete a game-like task.

3.4. Finding differences and similarities

Pupils are put in pairs. In each pair Pupil A is given a picture and Pupil B is given a picture which is similar, but different in some vital respects. They are told not to look at each others material but they must find out a certain number of differences between the two pictures through discussion only. In the following example Pupil A looks at the picture: and Pupil B gets this picture. (They must note that the colours are different, etc.)

3.5. Story reconstruction

Pupils are given different parts of a picture story. They have to reconstruct the whole narrative even though individually they have seen a small part of it. This is done because each member of the group has seen a different picture; by talking about their pictures together the narrative emerges. Here is a procedure for the technique: Stage 1: The class is divided in four large groups A, B, C and D. Stage 2: Each group is given one of the following pictures and told to study it. Stage 3: After a couple of minutes the teacher takes the pictures back from the groups. 16

Stage 4: The teacher makes new groups with one pupil from each original group. Stage 5: The pupils in the new groups have to try and reconstruct the story by discussing what they saw on each of their pictures. Stage 6: Then the teacher gets different groups to tell their stories. Often with picture sequences there will be more than one version of the story. The teacher shows than all of the pictures.

3.6. Name games

1. How they feel about their name (do they like it, etc) 2. What name they would choose one that was different form the one they love (and try). Clearly this activity is very simple, but it demonstrates the advantages of talking about oneself. Many people have strong opinion about their names and form such simple question an interesting personal discussion can develop.

3.7. Compatibility game

This game is an ideal ice broker. Pupils are put in pairs at random and told to discover five things which they have in common. This encourages them to cover a number of areas and topics including positive activity since it investigates what joins people together, not what breaks apart.

3.8. Musical association

In this activity the teacher encourages the pupils to use the title of a song to provoke discussion of feeling and memories, etc. Stage 1: The teacher asks the pupils to write down the name of a song which they like. It can be a pop song, a folk song, anything. They should not show the title to anybody else for the moment. Stage 2: The teacher than tells the pupils that they are going to discuss this song with a partner the title of their song and the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. How the song makes them feel What the song makes them feel like of What the song makes them feel like doing Where they should most like hear the song.

Stage 3: When the pupils have enough time to feel each other about their songs the teacher can ask if anyone heard anything particularly interesting that they would like to share with the group.

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More pupils seem to enjoy this activity because it allows them to talk about themselves with others should be done calm and supportive atmosphere. The teacher must decide whateverthe pupils want to do activities like those and how far should be encouraged to reveal their feelings.

3.9. Guess who is

The pupils should know each other quit well. Each pupil must write his or her name of a piece of paper. The names are then put into a box and mixed together. Then each of the pupils takes a name from a box at random. We let the pupils prepare, and after preparation time each pupils speak as if he or she is the person named on that paper. They talk about their character, interest, likes and dislikes, habits, etc. For example: -I am very quite. -I like the English lesson although I never speak. -I often eat my sandwich during my lesson. The class decides who that person is.

3.10. Fortune telling

For this game we should divide the class into groups, the pupils should know each other quite well. People love having their fortunes told, even the predication is clearly without my foundation! There are more ways of organizing this game. Essentially, however, each pupil writes a fortune for somebody else. One version goes as follows: in a group of four or five pupils write a fortune or predication for each of the others. In the other words each pupil writes four or five fortunes. Then, in turn, each pupil is given all his or her fortunes. He or she must read them out and comment, for example, on whether some of them are the same, or what he or she hoped for, or highly unlikely. In this chapter of the work I have looked at the activities designed to have the characteristic that are desirable for communicative activities. I have tried to approach at both written and spoken activities and we see how project writing can contribute to the pupils ability to communicate in English, this proves the pupil training contributes to the pupil success. The feedback that is given by the teacher in such activities is seen as vitally important. In cannot be stressed enough that we have a responsibility to rectify to content. Communicative abilities mean getting pupils to actually do things with language and it is the doing that should form main focus of such session.

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CONCLUSION
In this work we analysed the topic of Communicative Language Teaching touching upon the idea that communication it is very important in the language learning. Teaching pupils to communicate is much harder and difficult than to teach them grammatical rules, phonetics. One thing is to teach reading but is a totally different thing to teach a person to express his or her thoughts and feelings in a foreign language. The aim of the communicative teaching is to give some real opportunity for the pupil to express himself in English. Learning materials that reflect the communicative approach to language teaching engage learners in a discovery of the rules of a formal system of English through participation in group activities focused on information exchange and problem-solving tasks. There are a variety of communicative activities that require the spontaneous language use in the classroom. Role-playing, interviews, simulation represent strategies for providing the emotional involvement necessary for authentic interaction in the classroom. Teachers need also to reorient pupils in respect to the basic function of the classroom. Thus the classroom is a place to use the foreign language, and not essentially a place to learn right answers or recite book learning. The role of the activities in the language learning is very important and may be used not only in communication teaching and learning but also can be developed more in grammar matters, this subject is very wide and it can be developed in other paper, for sure we may speak endless on this topic because the results obtained from this method of teaching are positive and helps the students acquire easier communication skills and ability of expressing themselves easier.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Brown, D. (2000), Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, White Plains, Addison Wesley Longman. 2. Carter R., Nunan, D. (2001), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, Cambridge University Press. 3. Dalton, Ch., Seildhofer, B., A Scheme for Teacher Education: Pronunciation, Oxford University Press. 4. Numan, D. (1999), Secondary Language Teaching and Learning, Massachusetts, Boston. 5. Celce-Murcia, M. (1991), Teaching English as a Second or a Foreign Language, University of California, Los Angeles. 6. Gnoinska, A. (1998), Teaching Vocabulary in Colour, English Teaching Forum, 8, pp. 6-11 7. McCarthy, M. (1990), Vocabulary: Language Teaching, A Scheme for Teacher, Oxford University Press. 8. Johnson, D.D., Pearson, P. D. (1984), Teaching Reading Vocabulary, Holt, Reinhart & Winston, New York. 9. Harmer J. (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching, A Scheme for Teacher, Oxford University Press.

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