Module 07 B1 Mechanical Book 1

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engineering
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION################################################################################1 $ SA%ETY PRECAUTIONS##################################################################1
$#1 %i&e###################################################################################################1 2.1.1 The Fire Triangle...............................................................2 2.1.2 Classes of Fire....................................................................2 2.1.3 Fire Extinguishants and their Uses.....................................3 $#$ %i&'( Ai)###########################################################################################* $#+ ,-&"'h-. an) /an0a& Sa1e(2########################################################* 2.3.1 Machinery...........................................................................5 2.3.2 Electricity............................................................................ 2.3.3 !oise.................................................................................." 2.3.# $igh%&ressure 'ases........................................................." 2.3.5 'as (ottle )dentification......................................................* 2.3. $igh%&ressure 'as +e,lenishing........................................* 2.3." -xygen .yste/s................................................................0 2.3.* 12iation -ils and Fuels.......................................................13 2.3.0 Che/ical and &hysiological $a4ards..................................11 2.3.13 5ifting and .horing............................................................11 2.3.11 .linging.............................................................................12 $#3 %li0h(4Line Sa1e(2###########################################################################1+ 2.#.1 To6ing and Taxying...........................................................1# 2.#.2 &ar7ing...............................................................................15 2.#.3 Marshalling.........................................................................1 2.#.# Fuelling...............................................................................1" 2.#.5 8eather +adar...................................................................1*
+ ,OR5S/OP PRACTICES################################################################1
+#1 Ca&e -1 T--l'###################################################################################1 +#$ C-n(&-l -1 T--l'##############################################################################$ +#+ Cali6&a(i-n -1 T--l' an) E7!i.men(##############################################+ 3.3.1 'eneral !otes on Cali9ration.............................................3 3.3.2 &rocedures.........................................................................# +#3 U'e -1 ,-&"'h-. Ma(e&ial'############################################################6 +#* S(an)a&)' -1 ,-&"man'hi.###########################################################7
3 TOOLS################################################################################################1
3#1 C-mm-n /an) T--l'######################################################################1 #.1.1 Engineers +ule..................................................................1 #.1.2 .cri9er................................................................................2 #.1.3 :ey%.eat +ule....................................................................2 #.1.# Fitters .;uare....................................................................3 #.1.5 Co/9ination .et.................................................................# #.1. .urface &lates and Ta9les..................................................5 #.1." < (loc7s.............................................................................5 #.1.* .urface 'auge =.cri9ing (loc7>.......................................... #.1.0 ?i2iders.............................................................................." #.1.13 Calli,ers..........................................................................." #.1.11 $a//ers..........................................................................*
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#.1.12 &unches...........................................................................0 #.1.13 Metal%Cutting Chisels........................................................13 #.1.1# (ench <ice.......................................................................12 #.1.15 $and <ice.........................................................................13 #.1.1 $ac7sa6s.........................................................................1# #.1.1" .heet Metal .hears and .ni,s.........................................15 #.1.1* Files..................................................................................1 #.1.10 Filing Techni;ues.............................................................10 #.1.23 $and (race =$and ?rill>....................................................21 #.1.21 T6ist ?rills........................................................................22 #.1.22 .to,@ and &ress =?i/,ling>@ Countersin7ing Tools............2" #.1.23 +ea/ers...........................................................................20 #.1.2# )nternal .cre6 Thread@ Cutting Ta,s................................32 #.1.25 External .cre6 Thread@ Cutting ?ies................................3# #.1.2 .cre6dri2ers.....................................................................3 #.1.2" &liers................................................................................3* #.1.2* 8ire .ni,s =!i,,ers>.........................................................30 #.1.20 .,anners@ .oc7ets and 8renches....................................30 3#$ C-mm-n P-8e& T--l'####################################################################3* #.2.1 Electrically &o6ered &illar ?rills..........................................#5 #.2.2 Electrically &o6ered $and ?rills.........................................# #.2.3 &neu/atically &o6ered $and ?rills....................................# #.2.# &neu/atically &o6ered +i2eting $a//ers........................#* #.2.5 &neu/atic Miller =Microsha2er>..........................................#0 #.2. !i99lers..............................................................................#0 #.2." &neu/atic Tool Maintenance.............................................53 #.2.* 19rasi2e 8heels.................................................................53 3#+ P&eci'i-n Mea'!&in0 In'(&!men('##################################################*$ #.3.1 External Micro/eters..........................................................52 #.3.2 )nternal Micro/eters...........................................................5 #.3.3 Micro/eter ?e,th 'auge...................................................5" #.3.# <ernier Micro/eters...........................................................5* #.3.5 <ernier Calli,ers................................................................. 3 #.3. <ernier $eight 'auge......................................................... 1 #.3." <ernier &rotractor............................................................... 2 3#3 Mi'cellane-!' Mea'!&in0 T--l'####################################################6+ #.#.1 'auge (loc7s..................................................................... 3 #.#.2 ?ial Test )ndicator =?T)>...................................................... # #.#.3 Feeler 'auges.................................................................... # #.#.# .cre6 &itch and +adius 'auges........................................ 5 #.#.5 'oA!o%'o 'auges.............................................................. 5 #.#. .traight Edges.................................................................... 5 3#* L!6&ica(i-n Me(h-)' an) E7!i.men(############################################66 #.5.1 5u9rication Methods........................................................... #.5.2 5u9rication E;ui,/ent........................................................ 0
* ENGINEERING DRA,ING9 DIAGRAMS AND STANDARDS#########1

*#1 T2.e' -1 D&a8in0############################################################################1 *#$ Me(h-)' -1 D&a8in0 S-li) O6:ec('################################################$ 5.2.1 &ictorial &roBections............................................................3 5.2.2 -rthogra,hic &roBections....................................................#
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5.2.3 .ectional <ie6s..................................................................5 5.2.# Ex,loded <ie6s.................................................................. 5.2.5 ?ra6ing 5ines@ .y/9ols and 199re2iations........................" 5.2. Con2entional +e,resentations............................................0 5.2." 'eneral and 'eo/etric Tolerances....................................0 *#+ D&a8in0 I)en(i1ica(i-n S2'(em#######################################################1; 5.3.1 Title (loc7...........................................................................11 5.3.2 ?ra6ing !u/9er.................................................................11 5.3.3 $anded &arts......................................................................11 5.3.# .heet !u/9ers...................................................................11 5.3.5 ?ra6ing Changes...............................................................11 5.3. &art +eferencing.................................................................12 5.3." <alidation of ModificationA+e,air ?ra6ings.........................12 5.3.* .u//ary of +eco//ended ?ra6ing )nfor/ation..............13 *#3 A!<ilia&2 Dia0&am' an) Cha&('######################################################13 5.#.1 Electical 8iring ?iagra/s...................................................1# 5.#.2 Co/,onent 5ocation ?iagra/s..........................................15 5.#.3 .che/atic ?iagra/s..........................................................1 5.#.# (loc7 ?iagra/s..................................................................1" 5.#.5 5ogic Flo6charts.................................................................1" *#* Mic&-1ilm9 Mic&-1iche an) C-m.!(e&i'e) P&e'en(a(i-n'##############1= 5.5.1 Microfil/.............................................................................10 5.5.2 Microfiche...........................................................................10 5.5.3 Co/,uter C?%+-M............................................................23 5.5.# .u,,le/entary )nfor/ation.................................................23 *#6 Ae&-na!(ical S(an)a&)'##################################################################$1 5. .1 1ir Trans,ort 1ssociation .,ecification !o. 133.................21 5. .2 )nternational -rganisation for .tandardisation =).->..........2# 5. .3 (ritish .tandards =(.>.......................................................2# 5. .# Military .tandard =M.>.......................................................2# 5. .5 1ir Force and !a2y =1!>....................................................2# 5. . !ational 1eros,ace .tandard =!1.>.................................2#
6 %ITS AND CLEARANCES#################################################################1

6#1 Dimen'i-n'######################################################################################1 .1.1 1llo6ances.........................................................................1 .1.2 Tolerances..........................................................................2 6#$ D&illin0 Si>e' 1-& /-le'###################################################################+ 6#+ Cla''e' -1 %i('#################################################################################+ .3.1 !e6all .yste/....................................................................# .3.2 (ritish .tandards .yste/...................................................5 6#3 Sche)!le -1 %i(' an) Clea&ance'###################################################* .#.1 5i/its for 8ear................................................................... .#.2 5i/its for -2ality................................................................. .#.3 5i/its for (o6....................................................................." .#.# 5i/its for T6ist....................................................................*
7 RI?ETING###########################################################################################1
7#1 T2.e' -1 S-li) Ri@e(########################################################################1 ".1.1 +i2et Materials....................................................................2 ".1.2 (asic +i2et 5ocation Ter/inology.......................................2
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7#$ T2.e' -1 Ri@e(e) J-in('##################################################################3 7#+ Cl-'in0 S-li) Ri@e('#######################################################################3 7#3 Cl-'in0 /-ll-8 Ri@e('###################################################################* ".#.1 Tuc7er%,o,.........................................................................5 ".#.2 Cho9ert...............................................................................5 ".#.3 12del.................................................................................. ".#.# Cherry Max........................................................................." ".#.5 $i%5o7.................................................................................* ".#. +i2nuts...............................................................................* 7#* In'.ec(i-n -1 Ri@e(e) J-in('##########################################################= 7#6 Ri@e( Rem-@al P&-ce)!&e###############################################################1;
A PIPES AND /OSES###########################################################################1

A#1 Pi.e Ben)in0###################################################################################1 *.1.1 .i/,le (ending Cigs...........................................................2 *.1.2 $and &i,e%(ending Machines............................................2 A#$ Pi.e %la&in0#####################################################################################+ *.2.1 Flaring Tool........................................................................3 *.2.2 .tandard Flared &i,e Cou,lings.........................................# *.2.3 Flareless Cou,lings............................................................5 A#+ In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 Pi.e' an) /-'e'#################################6 *.3.1 (ore Testing of &i,es........................................................." *.3.2 $ydraulic &ressure Testing of &i,es..................................." *.3.3 &neu/atic and -xygen &ressure Testing of &i,es............." *.3.# Cleaning 1fter Test............................................................." *.3.5 Testing Flexi9le $oses.......................................................* A#3 In'(alla(i-n an) Clam.in0 -1 Pi.e'################################################A *.#.1 &i,e .u,,orts.....................................................................* A#* C-nnec(i-n -1 Pi.e'#######################################################################1; A#6 Main(enance -1 Pi.e' an) /-'e'##################################################1; A#7 Pi.e I)en(i1ica(i-n Ta.e##################################################################11
= SPRINGS############################################################################################1
=#1 In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 S.&in0'################################################1
1; BEARINGS#######################################################################################1
1;#1 Cleanin0 an) In'.ec(i-n -1 Bea&in0'##########################################1 1;#$ In'.ec(i-n -1 Bea&in0'#################################################################$ 13.2.1 !or/al Fatigue.................................................................2 13.2.2 Excessi2e 5oads...............................................................2 13.2.3 )nstallation and Misalign/ent...........................................3 13.2.# 5oose Fit...........................................................................3 13.2.5 (rinelling...........................................................................3 13.2. -2erheating and 5u9rication Failure.................................# 13.2." Conta/ination and Corrosion...........................................5 1;#+ Sa1e(2 P&eca!(i-n'########################################################################* 1;#3 S(-&a0e##########################################################################################*
11 TRANSMISSIONS############################################################################1
11#1 Gea&'##############################################################################################1 11#$ Bel(' an) P!lle2'##########################################################################1
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11#+ Chain' an) S.&-c"e('##################################################################$ 11#3 Sc&e8 Jac"'##################################################################################+ 11#* Le@e&'############################################################################################3 11.5.1 &ush%&ull +od .yste/s....................................................5
1$ CONTROL CABLES########################################################################1
1$#1 S8a0in0 -1 En) %i((in0'###############################################################1 1$#$ In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 C-n(&-l Ca6le'##################################1 12.2.1 Ca9le 8ear.......................................................................1 12.2.2 (o6den and Teleflex Ca9le .yste/s...............................3 1$#+ In'.ec(i-n -1 C-n(&-l Ca6le P!lle2'############################################3
1+ S/EET METAL ,OR5####################################################################1

1+#1 Ma&"in0 O!(###################################################################################$ 1+#$ %-&min0 -1 Shee( Me(al Pa&('#######################################################+ 13.2.1 Cutting..............................................................................3 13.2.2 (ending and Calculation of (end 1llo6ance....................# 1+#+ In'.ec(i-n -1 Shee( Me(al ,-&"###################################################A
13 ,ELDING9 SOLDERING AND BONDING######################################1

13#1 ,el)in0##########################################################################################1 13#$ Me(h-)' -1 ,el)in0######################################################################1 1#.2.1 -xy%1cetylene Fla/e.......................................................1 1#.2.2 Manual Metal 1rc..............................................................2 1#.2.3 Metal 1rc 'as%.hielded =M1'.>......................................2 1#.2.# Tungsten 1rc 'as%.hielded =T1'.> ................................2 1#.2.5 Flash (utt 8elding...........................................................3 1#.2. .,ot 8elding....................................................................3 1#.2." .ea/ 8elding..................................................................3 13#+ In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 ,el)'#################################################+ 13#3 S-l)e&in0#######################################################################################3 13#* Me(h-)' -1 S-l)e&in0###################################################################3 1#.5.1 $ard .oldering =(ra4ing and .il2er .oldering>.................# 1#.5.2 .oft .oldering...................................................................5 1#.5.3 Using )ndirectly $eated =Electric> .oldering )rons............. 1#.5.# 1cti2e and &assi2e Fluxes................................................* 1#.5.5 Flux +e/o2al....................................................................13 13#6 In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 S-l)e&e) J-in('#################################1; 13#7 B-n)in0#########################################################################################1; 13#A Me(h-)' -1 B-n)in0#####################################################################11 1#.*.1 Ther/o,lastic 1dhesi2es..................................................11 1#.*.2 Ther/osetting 1dhesi2es.................................................12 13#= In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 B-n)e) J-in('###################################1$
1* AIRCRA%T MASS AND BALANCE################################################1

1*#1 De1ini(i-n'#####################################################################################1 1*#$ Ma'' an) Balance#########################################################################$ 15.2.1 Mass and (alance ?ocu/entation...................................3 1*#+ %&e7!enc2 -1 ,ei0hin0################################################################3 15.3.1 Fleet Mass and C' &osition.............................................#
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1*#3 ,ei0hin0 Re7!i&emen('###############################################################3 1*#* Cen(&e -1 G&a@i(2 Limi(' (CG En@el-.e ######################################* 1*#6 Rec-&)'#########################################################################################* 1*#7 Calc!la(i-n -1 Ma'' an) CG -1 an2 S2'(em################################* 1*#A P&inci.le' -1 ,ei0h( an) Balance -1 Ai&c&a1(##############################7 1*#= Calc!la(i-n -1 Ma'' an) CG -1 Ai&c&a1(#######################################7 1*#1; Ai&c&a1( ,ei0hin0 Me(h-)'#########################################################A 15.13.1 &re,aration for 8eighing................................................0 15.13.2 8eighing on 1ircraft Cac7s.............................................0 15.13.3 Calculation of 1ircrafts C'.............................................13 15.13.# C' as &ercentage .tandard Mean Chord =.MC>...........12 1*#11 Chan0e' in Ba'ic ,ei0h(###########################################################1$ 15.11.1 Exa/,les of 1lterations to ?ry -,erating Mass..............13 1*#1$ L-a)in0 -1 Ai&c&a1( (T2.ical Ai&c&a1( L-a) Shee( #####################1*
16 AIRCRA%T /ANDLING AND STORAGE#######################################1

16#1 M-@in0 Me(h-)' ###########################################################################$ 1 .1.1 Mo2ing 9y $and and .teering 1r/...................................2 1 .1.2 Using a (ridle and .teering 1r/.......................................2 1 .1.3 Using a &ur,ose%Made To6ing 1r/.................................3 1 .1.# &recautions 6hen To6ing 1ircraft....................................3 1 .1.5 Taxiing 1ircraft..................................................................# 16#$ Ai&c&a1( Jac"in0#############################################################################* 1 .2.1 .,ecial Considerations.....................................................5 1 .2.2 1ircraft Cac7s.................................................................... 1 .2.3 Cac7 Maintenance and 'eneral !otes.............................." 1 .2.# Cac7ing &recautions.........................................................* 1 .2.5 Cac7ing &rocedures..........................................................* 1 .2. Trestles.............................................................................0 1 .2." 5o6ering 1ircraft off Cac7s................................................13 16#+ Slin0in0 #########################################################################################1; 1 .3.1 5ifting Tac7le....................................................................11 16#3 Pa&"in0 an) M--&in0 Ai&c&a1(#######################################################1$ 1 .#.1 &ar7ing.............................................................................12 1 .#.2 Mooring =&ic7eting>...........................................................13 1 .#.3 Ty,ical ./all 1ircraft &rocedures.....................................1# 1 .#.# 5arge 1ircraft &rocedures.................................................1# 1 .#.5 Choc7ing of 1ircraft..........................................................15 16#* Ai&c&a1( S(-&a0e#############################################################################16 16#6 Ai&c&a1( %!ellin0 P&-ce)!&e'########################################################$; 1 . .1 Fuelling .afety &recautions .............................................23 1 . .2 +efuelling.........................................................................21 1 . .3 Chec7ing Fuel Contents...................................................21 1 . .# ?efuelling.........................................................................22 16#7 G&-!n) De4Icin0BAn(i4Icin0 -1 Ai&c&a1(#########################################$+ 1 .".1 )ce Ty,es..........................................................................23 1 .".2 ?efinitions.........................................................................25 1 .".3 ?e%)cing and 1nti%)cing Methods.......................................25 1 .".# Che/ical ?e%)cing............................................................2
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1 .".5 Treat/ent of Frost ?e,osits.............................................2 1 .". +e/o2al of )ce and .no6 ?e,osits..................................2" 1 ."." $old -2er Ti/es...............................................................20 1 .".* )ns,ection after ?e%)cingA1nti%)cing &rocedures................33 16#A G&-!n) Elec(&ical S!..lie'##########################################################+1 16#= G&-!n) /2)&a!lic S!..lie'##########################################################++ 1 .0.1 .afety@ $ealth and .er2icing &recautions.........................33 1 .0.2 +ig Maintenance...............................................................3# 16#1; G&-!n) Pne!ma(ic S!..lie'######################################################+3 16#11 E11ec(' -1 En@i&-nmen(al C-n)i(i-n' -n /an)lin0###################+* 1 .11.1 Cold and 8et..................................................................35 1 .11.2 .no6 and )ce..................................................................3 1 .11.3 $igh 8inds.....................................................................3 1 .11.# $igh Te/,erature...........................................................3"
17 PRE?ENTATI?E MAINTENANCE TEC/NICUES##########################1

17#1 T2.e' -1 De1ec('###########################################################################1 1".1.1 External ?a/age..............................................................2 1".1.2 )nlets and Exhausts..........................................................3 1".1.3 5i;uid .yste/s.................................................................3 1".1.# 'aseous .yste/s............................................................# 1".1.5 ?i/ensions.......................................................................5 1".1. Tyres................................................................................5 1".1." 8heels............................................................................. 1".1.* (ra7es.............................................................................. 1".1.0 5anding 'ear 5oc7s........................................................." 1".1.13 )ndicators........................................................................" 1".1.11 External &ro9es..............................................................* 1".1.12 $andles and 5atches......................................................* 1".1.13 &anels and ?oors...........................................................* 1".1.1# E/ergency .yste/ )ndication........................................0 1".1.15 5ifed )te/s......................................................................0 1".1.1 5ight (ul9s......................................................................0 1".1.1" &er/itted ?efects...........................................................0 17#$ L-ca(i-n' -1 C-&&-'i-n in Ai&c&a1(###############################################1; 1".2.1 Exhaust 1reas..................................................................13 1".2.2 Engine )nta7es and Cooling 1ir <ents..............................13 1".2.3 5anding 'ear....................................................................13 1".2.# (ilge and 8ater Entra,/ent 1reas..................................11 1".2.5 +ecesses in Fla,s and $inges.........................................11 1".2. Magnesiu/ 1lloy .7ins.....................................................11 1".2." 1lu/iniu/ 1lloy .7ins......................................................11 1".2.* .,ot%8elded .7ins and .and6ich Constructions.............12 1".2.0 Electrical E;ui,/ent.........................................................12 1".2.13 Control Ca9les................................................................12 17#+ C-&&-'i-n Rem-@al9 A''e''men( an) Re.&-(ec(i-n##################1+ 1".3.1 Cleaning and &aint +e/o2al............................................13 1".3.2 Ferrous Metals..................................................................1# 1".3.3 1lu/iniu/ and 1lu/iniu/ 1lloys......................................1# 1".3.# 1lclad................................................................................15 1".3.5 Magnesiu/ 1lloys............................................................1
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1".3. 1cid .,illage.....................................................................1 1".3." 1l7ali .,illage...................................................................1 1".3.* Mercury .,illage...............................................................1" 17#3 Pe&manen( An(i4C-&&-'i-n T&ea(men('#######################################1A 1".#.1 Electro%&lating..................................................................1* 1".#.2 .,rayed Metal Coatings...................................................1* 1".#.3 Cladding...........................................................................1* 1".#.# .urface Con2ersion Coatings...........................................10 17#* N-n4De'(&!c(i@e Te'(in0BIn'.ec(i-n (NDTBNDI Techni7!e'#####$; 1".5.1 <isualA1ssisted <isual )ns,ections....................................21 1".5.2 +e/ote <ie6ing )nstru/ents............................................22 1".5.3 &enetrant Fla6 ?etection =&F?>.......................................25 1".5.# Ultrasonic Fla6 ?etection =UF?>......................................3# 1".5.5 Eddy Current Fla6 ?etection =ECF?>...............................#3 1".5. Magnetic &article Fla6 ?etection =M&F?>........................#" 1".5." +adiogra,hic Fla6 ?etection =+F?>.................................53 1".5.* Miscellaneous +adiation Techni;ues ..............................50 17#6 Di'a''em6l2 an) Re4a''em6l2 Techni7!e'###############################6; 1". .1 Co/,lete 1irfra/es.......................................................... 3 1". .2 +e,lace/ent of MaBor Co/,onentsAModules................... 1 1". .3 +e,lace/ent of Minor Co/,onentsAModules................... 2 1". .# ?isasse/9ly and +e%asse/9ly of MaBor Co/,onents...... 2 1". .5 ?isasse/9ly and +e%asse/9ly of Minor Co/,onents...... 2 1". . (asic ?isasse/9ly and +e%asse/9ly Techni;ues............ 3 1". ." ./all &art and Co/,onent )dentification.......................... # 1". .* ?iscarding of &arts........................................................... 5 1". .0 Freeing .ei4ed Co/,onents............................................ 5 1". .13 Use of Correct Tools....................................................... 5 1". .11 Mur,hys 5a6................................................................
1A ABNORMAL E?ENTS#####################################################################1
1A#1 T2.e' -1 a6n-&mal -cc!&&ence'##################################################1 1A#$ T2.e' -1 )ama0e###########################################################################1 1A#+ Li0h(nin0 S(&i"e' ##########################################################################$ 1*.3.1 Effects of a 5ightning .tri7e..............................................2 1*.3.2 )ns,ection.........................................................................2 1A#3 E<am.le -1 a P-'( Li0h(nin0 S(&i"e P&-ce)!&e ##########################+ 1*.#.1 (asic &rotection................................................................3 1*.#.2 .tri7e 1reas......................................................................# 1*.#.3 .igns of ?a/age..............................................................5 1*.#.# External Co/,onents at +is7...........................................5 1*.#.5 Electrical Co/,onents at +is7.......................................... 1*.#. Exa/ination of External .urface....................................... 1*.#." Functional Tests..............................................................." 1*.#.* Exa/ination of )nternal Co/,onents................................* 1*.#.0 +eturn the 1ircraft to .er2ice............................................0 1A#* /i0h In(en'i(2 Ra)ia(e) %iel)' (/IR% Pene(&a(i-n#####################= 1*.5.1 .,ecific Testing D $)+F....................................................13 1*.5.2 &rotection against $)+F )nterference................................11 1A#6 /ea@2 Lan)in0'############################################################################1$
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1*. .1 Exa/,le of &ost $ea2y 5anding )ns,ection......................12 1A#7 %li0h( (h&-!0h Se@e&e T!&6!lence###############################################13
1= MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES#####################################################1
1=#1 Main(enance Plannin0##################################################################1 1=#$ M-)i1ica(i-n P&-ce)!&e'##############################################################$ 10.2.1 MaBor Modifications...........................................................2 10.2.2 Minor Modifications...........................................................2 1=#+ S(-&e' P&-ce)!&e'########################################################################+ 1=#3 Ce&(i1ica(i-n an) Relea'e P&-ce)!&e'#########################################+ 10.#.1 )nterface 6ith 1ircraft -,eration.......................................# 1=#* Main(enance In'.ec(i-nB C!ali(2 C-n(&-l an) A''!&ance#######* 1=#6 A))i(i-nal Main(enance P&-ce)!&e'###########################################6 1=#7 C-n(&-l -1 Li1e4Limi(e) C-m.-nen('###########################################6
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&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:
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engineering
1 INTRODUCTION
Most accidents are@ in the /ain@ caused 9y hu/an carelessness and accidents in the 6or7 ,lace are a/ong the /ain causes of death and disa9ility. They are@ additionally@ the cause of a great loss of /an%hours and@ thus@ cost co/,anies =and indi2iduals> large a/ounts of /oney. 1ll ,ersonnel should 9e a6are@ not only of the ,otential for accidents and inBury@ 6here2er they 6or7@ 9ut also of the legislation and infor/ation that is a2aila9le in an atte/,t to ,re2ent accidents actually ha,,ening. 8hile it is incu/9ent u,on co/,anies =in accordance 6ith The Manage/ent of $ealth and .afety at 8or7 +egulations 1002>@ to ensure that all ,ersonnel recei2e ade;uate training in $ealth and .afety /atters@ this Module contains a re/inder of so/e of the general safety ,recautions 6hich are necessary@ 6hen 6or7ing in the aeros,ace industry. The Module continues 6ith further to,ics@ 6hich are concerned 6ith the ,ractices reco//ended for the safe and efficient /aintenance of aircraft and aeros,ace co/,onents.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
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engineering
&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:
&age 2
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engineering
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SA%ETY PRECAUTIONS
1ircraft@ 9y their 2ery nature and design@ /a7e for a dangerous 6or7ing en2iron/ent. The danger is further increased 9y the 6ide 2ariety of /achines@ tools and /aterials re;uired to su,,ort and /aintain aircraft. &ersonal safety starts 6ith 9eing a,,ro,riately dressed for the 6or7 9eing underta7en@ co/9ined 6ith the correct use of eye and ear ,rotection 6hene2er necessary. Technicians should only o,erate e;ui,/ent 6ith 6hich they are fa/iliar and 6hich they can o,erate safely. $and tools should 9e 7e,t in good 6or7ing order. 'ood house7ee,ing in 6or7sho,s@ hangars@ and on flight line ra/,s is essential to safe and efficient /aintenance. &edestrian and fire lanes should 9e clearly /ar7ed and !E<E+ o9structed. They should al6ays 9e used to 7ee, non%technical ,ersonnel clear fro/ the 6or7 area. 1ny s,illage of oils@ greases and fuels should 9e i//ediately co2ered 6ith a9sor9ent /aterial and cleaned u,@ to ,re2ent fire or inBury. .,illage should 9e ,re2ented@ fro/ running into floor drains. )t is 2ery i/,ortant@ that all ,ersonnel 7no6 the location of the fixed ,oints 6here fire fighting e;ui,/ent and First 1id treat/ent are a2aila9le. They /ust also 9e a6are of the ty,es of e/ergency that can occur in the 6or7,lace =6hether in the 6or7sho,@ hangar or on the ra/,>@ and of the ,rocedures to 9e follo6ed in any e/ergency. $#1 %i&e 81+!)!'F 1581E. E!.U+E T$1T C-++ECT F)+E &+EC1UT)-!. 1+E -(EEE? 1!? T$1T E.C1&E +-UTE. 1+E !-T -(.T+UCTE?. 5ET$15 FUME. 1!? .M-:E C1! (E &+-?UCE? (E CE+T1)! M1TE+)15. 1!? T$EE C1! (U+! <E+E +1&)?5E. &ersonnel@ engaged in the /aintenance@ o2erhaul and re,air of aircraft@ should 9e fully con2ersant 6ith the ,recautions re;uired to ,re2ent out9rea7s of any fire. They should 9e ;ualified in the o,eration of any fire ,rotection e;ui,/ent that is ,ro2ided@ and should 7no6 the action to 9e ta7en in the e2ent of disco2ering a fire.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
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engineering
2.1.1 The Fire Triangle
Fire results fro/ the che/ical reaction that occurs 6hen oxygen co/9ines ra,idly 6ith fuel to ,roduce heat@ =and light>. Three essentials of this ,rocess for/ the Fire Triangle =refer to Fig.1>.
The Fire Triangle Fig. 1 1s can 9e seen@ a fire re;uires three co/,onents to 9urn@ and the re/o2al of any one of these co/,onents 6ill extinguish the fire. The re;uire/ents of the three co/,onents@ for/ing the Fire Triangle@ areF FuelF a co/9usti9le /aterial@ 6hich /ay 9e a solid@ li;uid or gas -xygenF in sufficient 2olu/e to su,,ort the ,rocess of co/9ustion $eatF of sufficient intensity to raise the te/,erature of the fuel to its ignition =or 7indling> ,oint.
2.1.2 Classes of Fire There are@ generally@ four classes of fires@ each deter/ined 9y the ty,e of /aterial that is 9eing 9urned. )n al,ha9etical@ order the classes of fire areF Class 1F often 7no6n as solid fires@ 6hich occur in /aterials such as ,a,er@ 6ood@ textiles and general ru99ish. Class (F often descri9ed as li;uid fires@ and include fires in /aterials such as internal co/9ustion engine fuels@ alcohol@ oils@ greases and oil%9ased ,aints. Class CF include fires in2ol2ing fla//a9le gases and electrical fires =6hich can occur in fuse 9oxes@ s6itches@ a,,liances@ /otors and generators>. Class ?F refer to fires of high intensity@ 6hich /ay occur in such /etals as /agnesiu/@ ,otassiu/@ sodiu/@ titaniu/ and 4irconiu/. The greatest ha4ard in these /aterials@ is 6hen they are either in li;uid =/olten> for/@ or in finely di2ided for/s such as dust@ chi,,ings@ turnings or sha2ings.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 2
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engineering
2.1.3 Fire Extinguishants and their Uses The /ethods of extinguishing fires ha2e led to the de2elo,/ent of se2eral ty,es of extinguishants to cater for different ty,es of fire. These /ethods includeF Cooling the fuel Excluding the oxygen .e,arating the fuel fro/ the oxygen
The /aterials@ used as general do/estic and co//ercial extinguishants@ differ fro/ those used in aircraft Fire &rotection syste/s and@ 6hile the aircraft syste/s are discussed in other Modules of this course@ consideration is gi2en here only to the extinguishants and extinguishers 6hich confor/ to the E!3 .tandard fire extinguisher code. The /aterials used in these extinguishers areF 8ater =8aterA'as> 1;ueous Fil/%For/ing Foa/ =1FFF> Car9on ?ioxide =C-2> ?ry &o6der
1,,lying the incorrect extinguishant to a fire can do /ore har/ than good and /ay@ actually@ 9e dangerous. )t is@ therefore@ i/,ortant that extinguishers are 6ell /ar7ed for ;uic7 identification in an e/ergency. )t is also 2ital that all ,ersonnel are a6are of the /ar7ings@ 6hich a,,ear on extinguishers@ so that the correct one is chosen to deal 6ith a s,ecific fire. Ta9le 2 sho6s ho6 the E!3 .tandard fire extinguisher code has re,laced the older .tandard@ 6here9y the extinguisher containers 6ere colour%coded all o2er to signify their contents. The E!3 .tandard has the 9odies of e2ery fire extinguisher coloured red all o2er@ 6ith an identifying 9and of colour@ se,arated 9y 6hite lines@ identifying the extinguishant contained in the extinguisher. Ta9le 2 F)+E EGT)!'U).$E+ )?E!T)F)C1T)-! 1!? U.E. E!3 .tandard Extinguishers =1ll%red Container> Extinguishant (and Colour Ty,es of Fire 8ater +ed .olids only@ 9ut !-T Electrical !-+ =8aterA'as> Fla//a9le 5i;uids 1;ueous Fil/%For/ing Foa/ Crea/ -il@ Fats@ &aint@ &etrol@ and .olids@ =1FFF> 9ut !-T safe on Electrical fires Car9on ?ioxide (lac7 'ases@ Electrical@ Fla//a9le 5i;uids =C-2> and .olids 9ut !-T (urning Metals ?ry &o6der (lue (urning Metals@ Fla//a9le 5i;uids@ and Electrical =H1333 <@ I1 /> fires
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
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engineering
Fro/ Ta9le 2 it can 9e seen that 8ater or 8aterA'as extinguishers are -!5E to 9e used on fires in2ol2ing 9urning solids =Class 1 fires>. 8ater could also cause li;uid fires to s,read and@ o92iously@ using 6ater on electrical e;ui,/ent could ha2e lethal results@ so these extinguishers /ust !-T 9e used on Class ( !-+ on Class C fires. 8ater should@ also@ !-T 9e used on 9urning /etal =Class ?> fires@ as the oxygen@ in the 6ater@ 6ill cause the fires to 9urn /ore fiercely and its use could lead to 2iolent ex,losions. 1;ueous Fil/%For/ing Foa/ =1FFF> is 9est suited for Class ( fires@ due to its s/othering and cooling action and to the fact that its finer ,articles 6ill not cause the fire to s,read. 1FFF extinguishers can also 9e used on Class 1 fires =though its cooling action is not as effecti2e as the 6ater extinguishers>@ 9ut@ 9ecause Foa/ does contain 6ater@ 1FFF extinguishers are considered to 9e !-T safe on electrical fires 6here high 2oltages are encountered. Car9on ?ioxide =C-2> is the uni2ersal fire extinguisher and@ 9eing non%corrosi2e@ non%conducti2e@ and lea2ing no residue@ it is suita9le for al/ost all ty,es of fire. C-2 extinguishers /ust !-T@ ho6e2er@ 9e used on Class ? fires@ as the extinguishant reduces the te/,erature 2ery ;uic7ly@ 6hich =in a si/ilar 6ay to the use of 6ater extinguishers> could cause serious ex,losions. ?ue to the fact that C-2 gas tends to dissi,ate ;uic7ly@ the extinguisher is ,ro2ided 6ith a horn de2ice@ 6hich hel,s to concentrate the C-2 at the site of the fire. This horn /ust !-T 9e held 6ith 9are hands@ as the intense cold of the released C-2 6ill free4e the s7in to the horn@ resulting in se2ere inBury to the hands. 1 ru99er@ insulated coating is ,ro2ided on the discharge tu9e and the C-2 /ust 9e directed to6ards the fire 9y gras,ing and /ani,ulating the insulated tu9e. ?ry &o6der is another extinguishant 6hich is suita9le for /ost classes of fire@ and@ in ,articular@ those in2ol2ing 9urning /etals =aircraft 6heel 9ra7e fires>. )t is@ ho6e2er@ li/ited in its use on electrical fires@ as the ,o6der ,articles are ca,a9le of conducting high 2oltages =in excess of 1333 <> and@ ,ossi9ly@ lesser 2oltages if they are used at distances of less than 1 /etre fro/ electrical fires. ?ry &o6der =in a si/ilar 6ay to Foa/>@ lea2es a /essy residue after its use@ 6hich could ,resent a ,ro9le/ to electrical contacts and circuitry. !oteF )t is ,ossi9le that the older .tandard $alon fire extinguishants =in green% coloured containers> /ay 9e found at /any indoor locations. Unfortunately@ 6hile $alons =$alogenated $ydrocar9ons> are extre/ely effecti2e as extinguishants of 2irtually e2ery class of fire@ it is felt that they contri9ute to the de,letion of the o4one layer surrounding Earth and@ so@ they are 9eing ,hased out of use. (uc7ets of dry sand /ay also 9e ,laced at the F)+E &-)!T in 6or7sho,s =and es,ecially in hangars> as an additional aid to fire fighting.
&age #
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engineering
$#$ %i&'( Ai)
)t has 9een ,re2iously discussed that@ 6hen 6or7ing indoors@ 6hether it is in an office@ a 6or7sho, or a hangar@ there 6ill 9e fixed ,oints 6here fire%fighting e;ui,/ent is a2aila9le. .i/ilarly@ there 6ill 9e First 1id ,oints 6here e/ergency 7its@ eye 6ashing e;ui,/ent and call 9ells are installed and there 6ill 9e trained First 1id ,ersonnel to assist in the treat/ent of inBuries. )t is the res,onsi9ility of e2ery ,erson at 6or7 to 7no6F

The location of the First 1id &oints The /ethods of calling for hel, The locations of alar/ 9ells@ and the siting of a,,ro,riate tele,hones 6hich /ay 9e used to su//on hel, in an e/ergency The identity of the trained First 1id ,ersonnel in their 2icinity
)n the e2ent of an inBury =ho6e2er slight>@ it is i/,ortant that the inBured ,erson@ or the attending First 1ider@ should co/,lete an entry in the 1ccident (oo7@ 6hich is usually 7e,t near the First 1id &oint. $#+ ,-&"'h-. an) /an0a& Sa1e(2 8hen 6or7ing in a 6or7sho, or in any hangar@ there are a nu/9er of safety ,recautions that /ust 9e follo6ed@ if inBury =or death> is to 9e a2oided. 2.3.1 Machinery 1 /achine can 9e defined as an a,,aratus for a,,lying ,o6er@ ha2ing fixed and /o2ing ,arts@ each ha2ing a definite function. )n ,articular@ /achines e/9raceF

-,erational &arts % ,erfor/ing the ,rinci,al out,ut function =Chuc7s or (its> !on%-,erational &arts % con2eying ,o6er or /otion =Motor ?ri2es>.
The 6ide range of /achinery@ a2aila9le in 6or7sho,s and hangars@ ,recludes gi2ing s,ecific rules and regulations for each /achine. The 9asic drilling@ grinding and /illing ty,es of /achine@ all re;uire the use of eye ,rotection@ attach/ent of guards@ secure holding of 6or7 and@ /ost i/,ortantly@ correct training 9efore 9eing o,erated. &ossi9le accidents fro/ /achinery@ in general@ include ,ersonnelF

Co/ing into contact 6ith the /achinery (eing tra,,ed 9et6een /achinery and /aterial (eing struc7 9y /achinery or 9eing entangled in its /otion (eing struc7 9y eBected ,arts or /aterial +ecei2ing electric shoc7s fro/ the /achinery
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
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engineering
2.3.2 Electricity
The hu/an 9ody conducts electricity. Further/ore@ electrical current@ ,assing through the 9ody@ disru,ts the ner2ous syste/ and causes 9urns at the entry and exit ,oints. The current@ used in do/estic 223%2#3 2olt@ 53$4 ac electricity@ is ,articularly dangerous 9ecause it affects ner2es in such a 6ay that a ,erson@ holding a current%carrying conductor@ is una9le to release it. Ta9le 2 sho6s so/e ty,ical har/ful 2alues and effects of 9oth ac and dc electricity su,,lies. Ta9le 2 $1+MFU5 <15UE. -F E5ECT+)C)TE <oltageACurrent &ossi9le -utco/e 53< ac or 133< dc May gi2e rise to dangerous shoc7s 1 /1 $ar/less tingle 1 D 12 /1 &ainful@ 9ut can 9e released 12 D 23 /1 <ery ,ainful@ cannot 9e released 23 D 53 /1 &aralysis of res,iration I 53 /1 $eart sto,,age .ince 6ater also conducts electricity@ great care /ust 9e ta7en to a2oid handling electrical e;ui,/ent of all 7inds 6hen standing on a 6et surface or 6hen 6earing 6et shoes. The 6ater ,ro2ides a ,ath to earth and heightens the ,ossi9ility of electric shoc7. To ensure that e;ui,/ent is safe@ the /ini/u/ re;uire/ent is through the use of three%core ca9le =6hich includes an earth lead> and@ ,ossi9ly@ a safety cut%out de2ice. )n conBunction@ /ore often than not@ 6ith ignorance or carelessness@ electrical ha4ards generally arise due to one or /ore of the follo6ing factorsF

)nade;uate or non%existent earthing 8orn or da/aged 6iring@ insulation@ ,lugs@ soc7ets and other installations (ad 6iring syste/s and the /isuse of good syste/s )ncorrect use of fuses )nade;uate ins,ection and /aintenance of ,o6er tools and e;ui,/ent
1ll electrical e;ui,/ent /ust 9e regularly chec7ed and tested for correct o,eration and electrical safety. To sho6 that this has 9een done@ a dated la9el should 9e attached@ sho6ing 6hen the e;ui,/ent 6as last tested and 6hen the next ins,ection is due. 1ny ne6 ite/ of e;ui,/ent /ust ha2e a test la9el attached. The ,resence of a test la9el does not@ ho6e2er@ a9sol2e the user fro/ chec7ing the e;ui,/ent for any external signs of da/age@ such as a frayed ,o6er cord =or /issing safety de2ices> 9efore use. )n the e2ent of a ,erson 6itnessing another ,erson recei2ing an electric shoc7@ the 9asic actions@ to 9e follo6ed 9y the 6itness@ areF
&age "1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering

.hout for hel, and ensure there is no danger of also 9eco/ing a 2icti/ .6itch off the electrical current or re/o2e the 2icti/ fro/ the su,,ly 9y /eans of insulated /aterial )f the 2icti/ has ceased 9reathing@ initiate resuscitation Call for ,rofessional /edical hel, )f the 2icti/ is suffering fro/ 9urns@ exclude air fro/ 6ounds Treat for shoc7 9y 7ee,ing the 2icti/ 6ar/
The a,,ro2ed /ethods of artificial resuscitation /ust@ 9y la6@ 9e dis,layed on 6all charts in 6or7,laces. 2.3.3 !oise 8or7sho,s@ hangars and flight lines can 9e 2ery noisy ,laces of 6or7@ so it is essential that ear defenders@ or so/e other ,rotection such as ear ,lugs@ are used at all ti/es that noise is ,ercei2ed to 9e a ris7. 5oss of hearing@ leading to deafness@ can 9e the result of o,erating in a noisy en2iron/ent 6ithout ade;uate ear ,rotection. Ear ,rotection is o,tional 6here noise le2els are less than *5 d(@ 9ut is /andatory 6hen greater than 03 d(. 2.3.# $igh%&ressure 'ases Co/,ressed gases are fre;uently used in the /aintenance and ser2icing of aircraft. The use of co/,ressed gases re;uires a s,ecial set of safety /easures. The follo6ing rules a,,ly for the use of co/,ressed gasesF Cylinders of co/,ressed gas /ust 9e handled in the sa/e 6ay as any high% energy =and therefore ,otentially ex,losi2e> sources Eye ,rotection /ust al6ays 9e 6orn 6hen handling co/,ressed gases !e2er use a cylinder that cannot 9e ,ositi2ely identified 8hen storing or /o2ing a cylinder@ ha2e the ca, securely in ,lace to ,rotect the 2al2e ste/ 8hen large cylinders are /o2ed@ ensure that they are securely attached to the correct trolley or 2ehicle Use the a,,ro,riate regulator on each gas cylinder !e2er direct high%,ressure gases at a ,erson ?o not use co/,ressed gas or co/,ressed air to 9lo6 a6ay dust and dirt@ as the resulting flying ,articles are dangerous +elease co/,ressed gas slo6ly. The ra,id release of a co/,ressed gas 6ill cause an unsecured gas hose to 6hi, a9out and e2en 9uild u, a static charge@ 6hich could ignite a co/9usti9le gas :ee, gas cylinders clean. -il or grease on an oxygen cylinder can cause s,ontaneous co/9ustion and ex,losions
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&age "
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engineering
2.3.5 'as (ottle )dentification
$igh%,ressure gas cylinders contain 2arious ty,es of gas@ the /ost co//on used on co//ercial aircraft 9eing nitrogen and oxygen. To ensure correct identification of these containers@ they are colour coded and the na/e of the gas is stencilled on the side. )n the U:@ gas containers use (. 3*1C as the standard to deter/ine the correct colour and shade for each gas ty,e. !itrogen 9ottles are ,ainted grey on the 9ody 6ith a 9lac7 nec7@ 6hilst oxygen 9ottles are 9lac7 6ith a 6hite nec7. (e a6are that 9ottles of U. /anufacture use an alternati2e syste/@ the /ain difference 9eing oxygen 9ottles are ,ainted green all o2er. 2.3. $igh%&ressure 'as +e,lenishing 8hen re,lenishing aircraft ser2ices such as tyres and hydraulic accu/ulators 6ith high%,ressure gas@ care /ust 9e ta7en to ensure that only the re;uired ,ressure enters the container. 8hen full@ a gas storage 9ottle can hold as /uch as 233 9ar =3333 ,si> 6hilst an aircraft tyre ,ressure /ay only re;uire " 9ar =133 ,si>. To safely control the gas@ t6o ,ressure regulating 2al2es are used@ one at the storage 9ottle end and one at the deli2ery end of the syste/. )f one 2al2e fails the other 6ill ,re2ent the recei2ing 2essel fro/ ta7ing the full 9ottle ,ressure 6ith the conse;uence of an ex,losion. For added safety the gas 9ottle 2al2e o,ening 7ey should 9e left in the 2al2e 6hilst decanting o,erations are co/,leted. )f ,ro9le/s occur then the high% ,ressure 9ottle can 9e ;uic7ly isolated 9efore the situation 9eco/es dangerous. The transfer of high%,ressure gases fro/ a large storage 9ottle to the aircraft co/,onent is often called decanting and /ust 9e done at a 2ery slo6 rate. )f the gas is decanted ra,idly the te/,erature of the recei2ing co/,onent 6ill increase in accordance 6ith the gas la6s. 1gain using the sa/e gas la6s the te/,erature of the gas in the container 6ill dro, to a/9ient@ and the ,ressure in that 2essel 6ill reduce. The co/,onent ,ressure 6ill no6 9e incorrect and re;uire the decanting ,rocess to 9e re,eated.
&age *
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engineering
)n 6or7sho,s@ co/,ressed air is@ so/eti/es@ ,roduced 9y a co/,ressor =6hich is housed in a re/ote 9uilding>@ and fed@ 2ia galleries@ to 6or7 stations. Care /ust 9e ta7en to ensure that no da/age occurs to the ,i,ing 6hilst in use. )f a concentrated strea/ of co/,ressed air is 9lo6n across a cut in a ,ersons s7in@ then air can enter the 9lood strea/ and cause inBury or death. For this reason@ air%dusting guns are restricted to a9out 2333 7&a =33 ,si>. 1ircraft tyres can re;uire 2ery high ,ressures and /ust 9e inflated inside a strong cage. This cage 6ould ,rotect the ,ersonnel 6or7ing on the 6heels in the e2ent of a tyre or 6heel 9ursting. 2.3." -xygen .yste/s Modern aircraft fly at altitudes 6here life su,,ort syste/s are needed. E2en though /ost of these aircraft are ,ressurised@ e/ergency oxygen /ust 9e carried in the e2ent that the ,ressurisation syste/ fails. ./aller aircraft can carry oxygen in cylinders 6hilst the larger@ ci2il aircraft ha2e indi2idual oxygen generator units. These units are sto6ed in the o2erhead cargo 9ins@ a9o2e the ,assenger seats@ and are 7no6n as the ,assenger ser2ice units or &.Us. 1 &.U ,roduces oxygen@ 9y /eans of a che/ical reaction@ and is acti2ated 6hen its /as7 =6hich dro,s fro/ the o2erhead 9in in an e/ergency> is ,ulled 9y a ,assenger. !oteF 8hen &.Us reach their life ex,iry and ha2e to 9e returned to their /anufacturer@ it is 2ital that all ,recautions are follo6ed to /a7e the units safe for transit. &.Us get 2ery hot 6hen 6or7ing and ha2e caused the destruction@ due to fire@ of an aircraft@ 6hich 6as carrying these units as cargo. The /ain oxygen syste/s are ser2iced fro/ trolleys or 2ehicles that carry a nu/9er of high%,ressure 9ottles of oxygen@ 6hich can 9e at 1#3 9ar =2333 ,si> or /ore. .o/e trolleys /ay also ha2e a 9ottle of nitrogen@ to allo6 the re,lenish/ent of hydraulic accu/ulators and landing gears. The t6o ty,es of 9ottles /ust 9e se,arated@ in order to ,re2ent the accidental /ixing of the gases. )t is extre/ely i/,ortant that oxygen cylinders 9e treated 6ith s,ecial care@ 9ecause@ in addition to ha2ing all the dangers inherent 6ith all other high% ,ressure gases@ oxygen al6ays ,ossesses the ris7 of co/9ustion and ex,losion. 1s ,re2iously stated@ oxygen /ust ne2er 9e allo6ed to co/e into contact 6ith ,etroleu/ ,roducts such as oil and grease@ since oxygen causes these /aterials to ignite s,ontaneously and to 9urn. Further/ore@ an oil%soa7ed rag@ or tools that are oily or greasy =or 9adly oil%stained o2eralls>@ /ust ne2er 9e used 6hen installing an ada,ter or a regulator on an oxygen cylinder.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 0
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engineering
?ue to the ris7 of fire and ex,losion@ re,lenishing trolleys /ust ne2er 9e ,ar7ed close to hydraulic oil re,lenishing rigs@ or in any area 6here ,etroleu/ ,roducts are li7ely to co/e into contact 6ith the oxygen ser2icing e;ui,/ent. .i/ilarly only s,ecially a,,ro2ed thread lu9ricants can 9e used 6hen asse/9ling oxygen co/,onents. 2.3.* 12iation -ils and Fuels 12iation oils@ generally@ are a fairly lo6%ris7 /aterial 6hen co/,ared 6ith the /ore 2olatile@ higher distillates of ,etroleu/ such as the a2iation fuels % ,etrol =gasoline> and ,araffin =7erosene>. Most lu9ricating oils are fla//a9le@ if enough heat is generated 9ut@ 6hen the /aterials are 7e,t a6ay fro/ excessi2e heat sources@ they are =co/,arati2ely> ;uite 9enign. .ynthetic lu9ricating oils@ /ethanol and so/e hydraulic oils /ay 9e har/ful or e2en toxic if their 2a,ours are inhaled. 1lso@ if they co/e into contact 6ith the s7in or eyes@ they can cause inBury or 9lindness. &articular note should 9e ta7en of any 6arnings of dangers to health that /ay 9e contained in the rele2ant /aintenance /anuals and the reco//ended ,rocedures for the handling of these li;uids should al6ays 9e o9ser2ed. -ils and fuels also ha2e an ad2erse effect on ,aint6or7@ adhesi2es and sealants and@ thus@ /ay inhi9it corrosion%,re2ention sche/es. Care should@ therefore@ 9e ta7en not to s,ill any of these li;uids 9ut@ if a s,illage should occur@ it /ust 9e cleaned u, i//ediately. !oteF .6ee,ing u, gasoline s,illage 6ith a dry 9roo/ can cause a 9uild u, of static electricity@ 6ith the acco/,anying ris7 of ex,losion. 8ith gasoline and 7erosene there is a /uch greater chance of fire@ so /ore thorough ,recautions are re;uired. These start 6ith the 9asic rules@ such as not 6earing foot6ear 6ith nails or studs =to ,re2ent s,ar7s>@ not carrying /atches or cigarette lighters and ensuring that 155 re,lenishing e;ui,/ent is fully ser2icea9le. !oteF 1ll references to refuelling@ nor/ally@ also include the action of de%fuelling and 9oth are considered under the co//on ter/ of fuelling. ?uring any fuelling o,eration@ in a 6or7sho,@ a hangar or on the flight line@ the rele2ant fire extinguishers /ust 9e in ,lace.
&age 13
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!"
engineering
2.3.0 Che/ical and &hysiological $a4ards Many che/ical co/,ounds@ 9oth li;uid and solid@ are used in aircraft /aintenance and these /ay need s,ecific ,recautions. 1ny ,recautions can 9e found in the rele2ant /aintenance /anuals and in the Control of .u9stances $a4ardous to $ealth =C-.$$> leaflets a,,lica9le to those /aterials. The range of adhesi2es used for re,air and sealing during the /aintenance of aircraft is 2ast. 1 large nu/9er of these ,roduce 2a,ours 6hich@ generally@ can 9e dangerous in any enclosed s,ace@ 9oth fro/ the results of inhalation of narcotic fu/es and fro/ the fire ris7 associated 6ith those 6hich gi2e off 2olatile@ fla//a9le@ 2a,ours. .urface finishes ,resent another area 6here the 2arious ty,es of /aterial used =etchants@ celluloses@ acrylics@ ena/els@ ,olyurethanes etc.>@ dictate s,ecific ,recautions. The sol2ents used@ 9efore the actual ,ainting and after6ards@ need safety ,recautions 6ith regards to 2entilation@ reaction 6ith other /aterials and@ /ost i/,ortantly@ their ,ossi9le corrosi2e@ toxic@ irritant and addicti2e effects on ,ersonnel. .o/e /aterials ha2e a /ildly radioacti2e ,ro,erty@ although they e/it little ionising radiation in nor/al circu/stances. These /aterials are so/eti/es referred to as hea2y /etals and can 9e found in 9alance%6eights as 6ell as in s/o7e detectors@ lu/inescent EG)T signs and instru/ents. This radiation differs fro/ that used for non%destructi2e testing =!?T> ,rocedures@ 6here high le2els of radiation are e/,loyed@ 9y s,ecially trained ,ersonnel@ and 6hich@ therefore@ re;uire /any safety ,recautions to a2oid ,ersonal inBury. The safety ,recautions for !?T ,rocedures 6ill 9e found 6ithin the /anuals a,,lica9le to their e/,loy/ent. 2.3.13 5ifting and .horing 1ircraft /ust often 9e raised fro/ the hangar floor for 6eighing@ /aintenance or re,air. There are se2eral /ethods of doing this@ ho6e2er@ and the /aintenance /anuals /ust 9e follo6ed@ during 6hiche2er /ethod is used. )t is often necessary to lift only one 6heel fro/ the floor@ to change a 6heel or to ser2ice a 6heel asse/9ly or 9ra7e unit. For this ty,e of Bac7ing@ so/e /anufacturers ha2e /ade ,ro2ision on the undercarriage leg for the ,lace/ent of a short hydraulic Bac7. 8hen using this /ethod@ ne2er ,lace the Bac7 under the 9ra7e housing or in any location that is not a,,ro2ed 9y the /anufacturer.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 11
!"
engineering
8hen Bac7ing an aircraft asy//etrically@ there is usually so/e /o2e/ent 9y the other legs. Care /ust 9e sho6n@ 6hen Bac7ing a single leg@ that the aircraft is raised strictly in accordance 6ith the /aintenance /anual. -ther ,laces 6here a larger Bac7 /ay 9e connected to the airfra/e /ight 9eF

Under the 6ings@ at the /ain s,ar ,osition Under the nose Under the tail asse/9ly -n the side of the front fuselage =in ,lace of the nose Bac7>
The location and o,eration of 155 Bac7s /ust 9e carried out 9oth 6ith great care and 6ith the correct nu/9er of ,ersonnel@ 6ho /ust 9e 6ell 9riefed. Most of the larger Bac7s ha2e a scre6%ty,e@ safety loc7ing collar@ to ,re2ent the Bac7 colla,sing in the e2ent of a sudden lea7. The Bac7 o,erator /ust ensure that these safety collars are gradually scre6ed do6n@ as the aircraft is 9eing raised@ so that they are 2ery close to the Bac7 9ody at all ti/es. 1s an additional ,recaution@ es,ecially if the aircraft is to 9e 6or7ed on for an extended ,eriod@ trestles or steadies can 9e installed under the 6ings and fuselage to aug/ent the Bac7s and also to ,ro2ide an additional /eans of shoring =su,,orting> the aircraft. 2.3.11 .linging )t can 9e necessary@ on occasions@ to lift either the /aBor co/,onents of an aircraft@ such as 6ing or tail asse/9lies or the co/,lete aircraft =refer to Fig. 2>. For exa/,le@ 6hen reco2ering an aircraft fro/ an o2errun@ it /ay 9e easier@ and safer@ to lift the entire aircraft and ,lace it onto a hard standing@ than to try and ,ull it out of soft ground@ using a tug or si/ilar 2ehicle. 8hen lifting either /aBor co/,onents or an entire aircraft@ the slings /ust 9e ,roduced or a,,ro2ed 9y the /anufacturer of the aircraft. The /anufacturers slings ensure that the centre of gra2ity of the co/,onent@ is al6ays directly 9eneath the lifting hoo7 of the sling.
&age 12
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
5ifting an 1ircraft 6ith .lings Fig. 2 $#3 %li0h(4Line Sa1e(2
Many sources of accidents on the flight line are in2ol2ed 6ith ,ro,ellers and rotor 9lades. They are difficult to see 6hen they are turning@ and ,ersonnel =des,ite 9eing fa/iliar 6ith the ha4ards of ,ro,ellers and rotors>@ so/eti/es 9eco/e distracted and forget a9out the danger. The /ain difference 9et6een these@ and other flight%line accidents@ is that they are al/ost al6ays fatal. Most 9lades ha2e high%2isi9ility /ar7ings@ to ensure that they can 9e seen 6hen they are turning. These /ar7ings 2ary fro/ a yello6 9lade ti, /ar7ing@ to 9lac7 and 6hite alternate stri,es along the full 9lade length. To reduce the ris7 of ,ro,eller and rotor 9lade stri7es@ it is 9est to follo6 strict rules as to the correct 6ay to a,,roach and lea2e the 2icinity of an aircraft or helico,ter 6hilst it is under ,o6er. For exa/,le =and allo6ing for the fact that there are s,ecific rules laid do6n for each aircraft>@ installing and re/o2ing choc7s should nor/ally 9e done fro/ the 6ing%ti, direction. (oarding and lea2ing a helico,ter should al6ays 9e done fro/ the side. 8hen dealing 6ith running Bet engines there are si/ilar dangers. These co/e not only fro/ the noise ris7@ 6hich can result in deafness@ 9ut also fro/ the ris7 of inta7e suction@ 6hich has resulted in ra/, ,ersonnel 9eing suc7ed into the engine and 9eing 7illed. 1t the rear of the aircraft@ there is the ris7 of Bet 9last@ 6hich@ at /axi/u/ thrust is ;uite ca,a9le of o2erturning a 2ehicle if it ,asses too close 9ehind the aircraft. =refer to Fig. 3>. &iston%,o6ered aircraft =de,ending on their si4e> 6ill ha2e si/ilar danger areas.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 13
!"
engineering
?istance =/etres> 3 13
23
33
#3
53
Ty,ical 1ircraft ?anger 1reas Fig. 3 2.#.1 To6ing and Taxying )f an aircraft re;uires /o2ing and no ,ilot is a2aila9le@ then a tug and to6ing ar/ /ust 9e used. This tas7 6ill re;uire a ;ualified tug dri2er@ a su,er2isor@ a 9ra7e /an and other ,ersonnel to 7ee, a loo7out. 1 ;ualified ,ilot al6ays does the taxiing of larger aircraft@ although engineers so/eti/es taxi light aircraft. Each aircraft and its o,erator 6ill ha2e laid do6n rules regarding the 6ay in 6hich each aircraft 6ill 9e to6ed. These rules 6ill include the nu/9er of ,eo,le needed@ the ty,e of tug@ the radio calls if the aircraft is on the /anoeu2ring area@ the /axi/u/ to6ing s,eed and /any other details. These /ust al6ays 9e follo6ed if accidents are to 9e a2oided. 1ircraft@ 6hen /o2ing@ either under ,o6er or 6hilst 9eing to6ed@ are sources of nu/erous ris7 areas. 1n airliner can 9e o2er 3 /etres long and ha2e a 6ing s,an greater than 3 /etres. This /eans that 6hen /anoeu2ring in restricted s,aces@ there is al6ays the ris7 of ,art of the aircraft stri7ing another o9Bect@ due to a ,heno/enon 7no6n as .6e,t 8ing 'ro6th =refer to Fig. #>. )t /ust 9e 9orne in /ind that@ 6hen turning@ the 6ing ti,s and tail of a large aircraft can /o2e considera9le distances in the o,,osite direction to that of the nose. This is 6hy@ 6hene2er an aircraft is a,,roaching its ,ar7ing s,ot@ there /ust 9e ,ersonnel a2aila9le to 6atch out for any ,otential conflicts. ?ri2ing in the 2icinity of a ,ar7ed aircraft /ust al6ays 9e done 6ith care@ es,ecially if the dri2er is alone or 2isi9ility fro/ the ca9 of the 2ehicle is li/ited.
&age 1#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
8ing Ti, .6ee, 1rea
Tail .6ee, 1rea
1ircraft Turning To 5eft
&ath of 8ing Ti,
&ath of Tail
.6e,t 8ing 'ro6th Fig. # 2.#.2 &ar7ing 8hen an aircraft has to 9e ,ar7ed for a ,eriod of ti/e@ es,ecially o2ernight and in incle/ent 6eather conditions@ there are a nu/9er of ,recautions that /ust 9e o9ser2edF 1 choc7 /ust 9e ,laced at the front and rear of a nu/9er of 6heels@ de,ending on the aircraft ty,e The engine inta7es and exhausts /ay need to 9e co2ered 6ith s,ecial 9lan7s The control surfaces /ay ha2e to 9e loc7ed in ,lace 6ith integral control or gust loc7s or@ if these are not installed@ external loc7s /ay 9e attached to all of the surfaces that could 9e da/aged in high 6inds -ther de2ices re;uired could include 9lan7s for the ,itot tu9es and static 2ents.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 15
!"
engineering
2.#.3 Marshalling
8hen /arshalling an aircraft@ it is essential that ,ersonnel are fully con2ersant 6ith all the /arshalling signals =refer to Fig. 5>. )t is also useful to 7no6 extra details such asF

The need for additional@ loo7out /en on the 6ing ti,s or tail The correct ,lace to stand to ena9le the aircrafts cre6 to ha2e sight of the /arshaller The ,oint at 6hich the aircraft is re;uired to sto,.
Co/e 1head
.to,
E/ergency .to,
+ight Turn
5eft Turn
1ll Clear =-:>
+e/o2e Choc7s
)nsert Choc7s
.lo6 ?o6n
.o/e (asic Marshalling .ignals for Fixed%8ing 1ircraft Fig. 5
&age 1
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
2.#.# Fuelling
8hile the to,ic of fuelling is co2ered /ore fully in Module 11 and in the rele2ant Cha,ter =2*> of the Maintenance Manual@ 9rief consideration of so/e of the general safety ,recautions is gi2en here. The first@ o92ious ,recaution@ is the identification of the ty,e of fuel in the fuel tan7er =or 9o6ser>@ ensuring it is of the ty,e and grade re;uired for the aircraft. There ha2e 9een /any ti/es 6hen ,etrol%,o6ered aircraft ha2e 9een filled 6ith tur9ine fuel and@ on occasions@ the re2erse has occurred. The ty,e and grade of fuel should al6ays 9e stencilled or ,ainted@ adBacent to the fuelling ,oint@ 9ut it is 6ise if a res,onsi9le ,erson is consulted 9efore starting fuelling. This is 9ecause there /ay 9e a re;uire/ent for so/e s,ecial fuel@ or si/,ly that the aircraft is only to 9e ,art%filled@ due to a 6eight li/itation. The fuel tan7er /ust 9e ,ar7ed as far as ,ossi9le fro/ the aircraft@ li/ited 9y the hose length@ and ,arallel or facing a6ay fro/ it. This reduces the ris7 of fire ,assing fro/ the aircraft to the tan7er or 2ice 2ersa@ and also allo6s a clear ,ath for the tan7er to 2acate the area ;uic7ly@ should the need arise. The fuel tan7er@ the fuelling hose@ the aircraft and the ground /ust all 9e electrically 9onded together@ to allo6 the static electricity =generated during the fuel flo6> to run to earth. 1 safety 4one of / =23 ft> should 9e esta9lished fro/ the filling and 2enting ,oints of the aircraft and attendant fuelling e;ui,/ent. This area should 9e free fro/ na7ed lights@ s/o7ing and the o,eration of electrical s6itches of any 7ind. There can also 9e a ris7 fro/ the o,eration of radio and radar e;ui,/ent@ so these should also 9e s6itched off 9efore fuelling co//ences. 1lso@ during the fuelling of aircraft@ 1uxiliary &o6er Units =1&U> and 'round &o6er Units@ ='&U>@ /ust 9e /ade safe@ 9y chec7ing that their exhausts and inta7es are clear of any fuel 2a,ours@ and that '&Us@ are located as far as ,ractical fro/ the fuelling ,oint=s>. !- s6itching of ,o6er fro/ 1&Us or '&Us 6ill 9e /ade during fuelling ,rocedures. There are /any ,recautions in2ol2ed 6hen defuelling@ due to the tan7s 9eing left e/,ty of fuel@ lea2ing ,otentially ex,losi2e 2a,ours in its ,lace. 155 necessary safety ,recautions /ust 9e follo6ed during aircraft fuelling ,rocedures.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1"
!"
engineering
2.#.5 8eather +adar
The heating and radiation effects of 6eather radar can 9e ha4ardous to life. &ersonnel should re/ain a safe distance fro/ the radar if it is in o,eration. There are ,u9lished figures and charts in the /aintenance /anual of each aircraft@ sho6ing the safe distances for ,ersonnel@ de,ending on the ,o6er of the radar in use. 1s an exa/,le@ the aerial in the nose of the aircraft should ha2e an uno9structed 2ie6 of so/ething li7e 33 /etres@ 6ith the aerial tilted u,6ards. There should also 9e a 9arrier erected a9out 3 /etres or so fro/ the nose of the aircraft@ to ,re2ent ,ersonnel getting too close. Finally@ there should 9e no fuelling o,erations in ,rogress during the testing of 6eather radar.
&age 1*
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
+
,OR5S/OP PRACTICES
?es,ite the enor/ous ad2ances in the /echanisation and co/,uterisation of the engineering industry in general@ there re/ains the re;uire/ent for a high degree of hand s7ills on the ,art of technicians 6ho are engaged in the day%to%day /aintenance of aircraft and their associated co/,onents. 8hile the /aBority of aeros,ace co/,onents are /anufactured under stringent standards@ in factory =and la9oratory> conditions@ it is necessary to re/o2e /any ite/s of e;ui,/ent for cleaning@ ins,ection@ o2erhaul and@ if needed@ re,air 9efore they are@ su9se;uently@ re%installed in their a,,ointed locations. These actions /ay entail the use of /any s,ecialist tools and /aterials@ 6hich are used 6hile follo6ing 6ritten ,rocedures@ 6hile it is ;uite ,ossi9le that so/e@ co/,arati2ely si/,le@ re,airs /ay call u,on such 9asic hand s7ills as the cutting@ filing@ drilling@ ri2eting and ,ainting of /etals or other /aterials. !o /atter 6hether there are s,ecialist or 9asic s7ills re;uired@ all 6ill de/and a certain ;uality of the 6or7 ,ractices =and of the 6or7%force> in2ol2ed. +#1 Ca&e -1 T--l' Engineers are res,onsi9le for the /aintenance of their ,ersonal tools@ 6hilst other ,ersonnel@ in designated Tool .tores@ /ust care for all the different@ s,ecialist tools for 6hich they ha2e the res,onsi9ility. )t is also the res,onsi9ility of engineers to ensure that any tools@ or other ite/s of e;ui,/ent they use@ are not left in an aircraft or associated co/,onents. The care re;uired for different tools can 2ary. -rdinary hand tools /ay /erely re;uire rac7ing or locating 6ithin sturdy tool 9oxes@ 6ith careful@ daily@ /aintenance restricted to little /ore than a 2isual chec7. &recision instru/ents ho6e2er@ re;uire great care 9oth in storage and in use. They /ay need to 9e 7e,t in s,ecial@ soft%lined@ 9oxes 6ithin other storage facilities. &rior to use they should ha2e a 4ero chec7 or cali9ration. .o/e tools re;uire that they ha2e a light coating of /achine oil@ to ,re2ent the onset of corrosion. Each tool =6hether it 9e a ha//er or a /icro/eter>@ 6ill re;uire so/e s,ecial care@ to ensure its o,ti/u/ ,erfor/ance for@ 6ithout this care@ e2en the /ost ex,ensi2e tools 2ery ;uic7ly 9eco/e second rate and useless.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
+#$ C-n(&-l -1 T--l'
Control of tools is i/,ortant to good engineering ,ractices and is also 2ital to flight safety. 1 2ariety of syste/s can 9e used to control tools 9ut@ 6hiche2er syste/ is used@ it /ust allo6 a 133J chec7 of the tools in use 9efore it can 9e considered as acce,ta9le. -ne for/ of control is the shado6 9oard and tool tag syste/@ =refer to Fig. >. Each tool is ,ositioned o2er its silhouette@ on the tool 9oard. Technicians are issued 6ith identification to7ens =nu/9ered tags> 6hich are exchanged for the tool and@ usually@ a tag is hung a9o2e the silhouette@ to 9e reclai/ed@ in exchange for the tool@ 6hen it is returned to the 9oard. The shado6 9oardAtool tag syste/ 6or7s e;ually 6ell 6hen the tools are held 6ithin a designated Tool .tore arrange/ent.
.hado6 (oard and Tool Tag Fig. 1 )n 6or7sho,s and 9ays it is nor/al for a tool7it to 9e held 9y the de,art/ent in addition to its engineers holding ,ersonal sets of tools. The tools held 9y the de,art/ent are often referred to as s,ecial tools@ /eaning that they are only for /aintenance 6or7 on the ite/s 9eing ser2iced in that 6or7sho,. 1 6heel 9ay@ for exa/,le@ /ay ha2e sets of s,ecial s,anners@ le2ers@ seal a,,licators and ,re%set tor;ue 6renches@ 6hich are used ,ri/arily for the ser2icing of ,articular ty,es of aircraft 6heels. This dedicated tool 7it /a7es tool control /uch si/,ler and safer@ 6ith the tools all 9eing clearly /ar7ed as 9elonging to that s,ecific 9ay.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
!o /atter 6here tools are 9eing used@ it is the res,onsi9ility of each technician to 7ee, trac7 of 155 of the tools used during a ,articular tas7. The /ost i/,ortant chec7 of all is the final@ End of 8or7 tool chec7@ 6hen all tools /ust 9e collected and chec7ed off against ,ersonal in2entories@ ensuring all 9orro6ed tools =fro/ the Tool .tore for exa/,le>@ are returned and any ,ersonal tool tags collected. +#+ Cali6&a(i-n -1 T--l' an) E7!i.men( +e;uire/ents 6ithin the rele2ant air6orthiness codes@ a,,lica9le to the United :ingdo/ Ci2il 12iation )ndustry@ such as the (ritish Ci2il 12iation +e;uire/ents =(C1+s>@ Coint 12iation +e;uire/ents =C1+s>@ and 1ir -,erators Certificates@ ,rescri9e that@ 6here necessary@ tools@ e;ui,/ent and@ in ,articular@ test e;ui,/ent are all cali9rated to acce,ta9le standards. This to,ic ,ro2ides an o2erall ,icture of the ty,es of re;uire/ents and tests re;uired in esta9lishing and /aintaining an effecti2e cali9ration syste/. )t ta7es into account factors such as the degree of accuracy re;uired@ fre;uency of use and the relia9ility of the e;ui,/ent. The 7ey factor is the need to esta9lish confidence in the accuracy of the e;ui,/ent 6hen it is re;uired for use. The re;uired cali9ration fre;uency for any ,articular ,iece of test e;ui,/ent is that 6hich 6ill ensure it is in co/,liance 6ith the standards a,,lica9le to its intended use. )n all cases@ standards used are attri9uted u,on the need for ulti/ate tracea9ility to one of the follo6ingF

The standard s,ecified 9y the e;ui,/ent /anufacturerAdesign organisation The a,,ro,riate !ationalA)nternational .tandards.
3.3.1 'eneral !otes on Cali9ration The a,,ro,riate standards are used to achie2e consistency 9et6een /easure/ents /ade in different locations@ ,ossi9ly using alternate /easuring techni;ues. The cali9ration of test e;ui,/ent is 9est achie2ed 9y the o,eration of a /ethodical syste/ of control. This syste/ should 9e tracea9le 9y an un9ro7en chain of co/,arisons@ through /easure/ent standards of successi2ely 9etter accuracy u, to the a,,ro,riate standard. 8here reco//endations for cali9ration standards are not ,u9lished@ or 6here they are not s,ecified@ cali9ration should 9e carried out@ in the U:@ in accordance 6ith (ritish .tandard E! 33312%1F Kuality 1ssurance +e;uire/ents for Measuring E;ui,/ent. 1s an alternati2e to o,erating an internal Measure/ent and Cali9ration .yste/@ an 1,,ro2ed -rganisation or an 1,,ro2edA5icensed Engineer /ay enter into a su9%contracting arrange/ent to use an 1,,liance Cali9ration .er2ice. This arrange/ent does not a9sol2e the contractors of the ser2ice fro/ /aintaining standards as if they 6ere carrying out the 6or7 the/sel2es.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332 &age 3
!"
engineering
)n all instances@ it is the res,onsi9ility of the user to 9e satisfied that the un9ro7en tracea9ility chain is in ,lace. External organisations@ 6hich su,,ly an external Cali9ration .er2ice@ should 9e those holding accreditation of the !ational 1ccreditation of Measure/ent and .a/,ling@ =!1M1.>. 3.3.2 &rocedures The definition of a,,liances re;uiring cali9ration are those ite/s 6hich are necessary to ,erfor/ /easure/ents or tests of an aircraft@ a syste/ or a co/,onent@ to defined li/its@ as s,ecified in the technical docu/entation of the Ty,e Certificate holder. &rocedures@ controlling regular ins,ection@ ser2icing and@ 6here a,,ro,riate@ cali9ration of such ite/s@ are to indicate to the users that the ite/ is 6ithin any ins,ection ti/e li/it. These !ext )ns,ection la9els /ust clearly state 6hen@ and@ if necessary@ 6here the next cali9ration is due. There should 9e a ,rogra//e that ,lans the ,eriodic ins,ection@ ser2ice or cali9ration 6ithin the defined ti/e li/it@ 6hich ensures that the ite/ re/ains in cali9ration. )t is co//on sense to stagger the cali9ration of ite/s@ so that the largest nu/9er are a2aila9le for use at all ti/es. )t is also i/,ortant@ that a register of all ite/s re;uiring cali9ration is held@ so that cross%chec7ing can 9e si/,ly carried out. 8here a s/all nu/9er of ,articular ite/s are held@ then contract loan of e;ui,/ent is ,er/itted. The inter2als at 6hich cali9ration is re;uired@ can 2ary 6ith the nature of the e;ui,/ent@ the conditions under 6hich it is used and the conse;uences of incorrect results. The fre;uency 6ill 9e in accordance 6ith the /anufacturer or su,,liers instructions@ unless the organisation can sho6 that a different inter2al is 6arranted in a ,articular case. This 6ould nor/ally re;uire a syste/ of continuous analysis of cali9ration results to 9e esta9lished@ to su,,ort the 2ariation to the reco//ended cali9ration inter2als. 1ny a,,liance@ the ser2icea9ility of 6hich is in dou9t@ should 9e re/o2ed fro/ ser2ice and clearly la9elled accordingly. The a,,liance /ust not 9e returned to ser2ice unless the reason for its unser2icea9ility has 9een eli/inated and its continued cali9ration re%2alidated. 1ction /ust 9e ta7en@ if an ite/ of e;ui,/ent is found@ during re%cali9ration@ to ha2e a significant error. This /ust include re% chec7ing of /easure/ents /ade ,rior to finding the fault. The sco,e of the records /aintained@ are de,endent u,on the standards re;uired and the nature of the e;ui,/ent. The record syste/ can also ,ro2ide a 2alua9le reference in case of dis,ute or 6arranty clai/s. These records can also indicate drift and can hel, in reassessing cali9ration inter2als.
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering

Cali9ration records or certificates should@ as a /ini/u/@ contain the follo6ing infor/ation for each a,,liance cali9ratedF )dentification of e;ui,/ent 5i/its of ,er/issi9le error .tandard used 1uthority under 6hich the docu/ent 6as issued +esults o9tained 1ny li/itation of use of e;ui,/ent Uncertainty of /easure/ent ?ate 6hen each cali9ration 6as conducted 1ssigned cali9ration inter2al.
8here cali9ration ser2ices are ,ro2ided 9y outside organisations@ it is acce,ta9le that the accuracy of the e;ui,/ent is attested 9y a release docu/ent in the na/e of the Cali9ration Co/,any. 1ny /easure/ent is affected@ to so/e degree@ 9y the en2iron/ent in 6hich it is /ade. The e;ui,/ent 6ill need to 9e cali9rated@ trans,orted and stored under conditions co/,ati9le 6ith the ty,e of e;ui,/ent@ to ensure its accuracy is not i/,aired. To ,ro2ide 2alid and re,eata9le test results@ the facilities used for cali9ration /ust ha2e a controlled en2iron/ent. )t is necessary to control the te/,erature@ hu/idity@ 2i9ration@ dust@ cleanliness@ electro/agnetic interference@ lighting and other factors that /ay affect the standard of the results. )f any of these re;uire/ents cannot 9e /et@ then co/,ensation corrections /ust 9e a,,lied to the cali9ration standard to ensure continued accuracy. 1 /easure/ent Chec7ing .tandard can 9e a,,lied@ at the 6or7 ,lace@ to chec7 the accuracy of an a,,liance and to ensure its continued correct functioning. The Chec7ing .tandard 6ill 9e ro9ust and its accuracy 6ill not /atch that of a full cali9ration chec7@ 9ut it 6ill gi2e confidence 9et6een chec7s that the e;ui,/ent is functioning correctly. The co/,any Kuality .yste/ has the res,onsi9ility of ensuring the continued accuracy@ not only of the ite/s of e;ui,/ent@ 9ut also of the actual testing facilities.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
+#3 U'e -1 ,-&"'h-. Ma(e&ial' Many of the 6ide 2ariety of /aterials@ used in 6or7sho,s@ re;uire so/e for/ of control in their handling. This control can in2ol2eF .afetyF relating to such to,ics as the toxicity@ corrosi2eness or other health ris7s associated 6ith the use of certain /aterials Manage/entF referring to the storage@ use and correct handling of all /aterials 6hether they are solid@ li;uid@ or@ in so/e instances@ gaseous Econo/yF in2ol2ing such /atters as to the using of the correct dosage or ,ro,ortions 6hen /ixing co/,ounds@ using only as /uch /aterial as re;uired for a s,ecific tas7 and to the 7ee,ing in stoc7 of only sufficient /aterials and thus a2oiding lifed ite/s reaching their ex,iry dates 9efore 9eing used.
19rasi2e ,a,ers@ solder and 9ra4ing /aterials@ 6ire 6ool@ tyre ,o6der@ oil s,ill ,o6der and so on@ all re;uire control of issue and use@ though they /ay not@ nor/ally@ re;uire stringent safety ,recautions. 1 huge range of li;uids can 9e used in the 6or7sho, situation@ so/e of 6hich are har/less and so/e of 6hich are extre/ely toxic. )t is 2ital that the 6or7%force /a7e the/sel2es a6are of the ris7s in2ol2ed 6hen dealing 6ith 1!E /aterials@ and es,ecially 6hen 6or7ing 6ithin enclosed areas. .o/e /aterials are fla//a9le and /ust@ therefore@ 9e stored outdoors. These include oils@ greases@ so/e adhesi2es@ sealing and gla4ing co/,ounds in addition to /any ,aints@ ena/els and e,oxy surface finishes@ 6hich are stored in /etal ca9inets and@ usually@ located =in the !orthern he/is,here> on the !orth side of a 6or7sho, or hangar. This ensures that the ca9inet re/ains in the shade of the 9uilding and does not get ex,osed to the suns hot rays during the day. )t is also i/,ortant that only the /ini/u/ a/ount of these /aterials is ta7en indoors for the 6or7 6hich is 9eing done. 8hen handling /aterials that gi2e off fu/es@ it /ay 9e necessary to ha2e the area 6ell 2entilated andAor ha2e the o,erator 6earing a /as7 or so/e for/ of re/ote 9reathing a,,aratus. The finished 6or7 /ay also gi2e off fu/es for so/e ti/e after6ards@ so care /ust 9e ta7en to 7ee, it 2entilated if necessary. -92iously all li;uids /ust only 9e used for the ,ur,ose for 6hich they are designed and ne2er /ixed together@ unless the t6o /aterials are designed to 9e /ixed@ such as 6ith t6o ,art e,oxy adhesi2es and sealants. Many li;uids used in 6or7sho,s and in the hangar ha2e =as /entioned earlier> a fixed life. This date is ,rinted on the container and /ust 9e chec7ed 9efore use@ 9ecause /any /aterials are unsafe if used 9eyond their ex,iry date.
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
The dis,osal of li;uids is a critical o,eration@ and /ust only 9e carried out in accordance 6ith co/,any =and@ often@ national or international> regulations. 5i;uids /ust ne2er 9e dis,osed of 9y ,ouring the/ into s,are or unidentified containers and they /ust not 9e allo6ed to enter the do/estic drains syste/s. The 6or7ing 6ith@ and the use of@ high ,ressure gas containers and oxygen syste/s@ 6as ade;uately discussed in the .afety &recautions to,ic. +#* S(an)a&)' -1 ,-&"man'hi. 8hilst the standards of 6or7/anshi,@ during the hand%6or7ing of /etals and other /aterials@ is controlled 9y the crafts,erson@ once /achinery is used in the /anufacturing ,rocess@ then the standards of finish and 6or7/anshi, de,end u,on the allo6ances set 9y the designer and on the ty,e of /achinery 9eing used. 8ith hand tools@ there are standards of finish@ 9ut these de,end u,on the s7ill of the crafts,erson and@ again@ on the tools 9eing used. For exa/,le@ 6hen filing /etal@ different grades of files are used@ to o9tain a co/,arati2ely s/ooth surface finish 6hile other /ethods@ such as a9rasi2e ,a,ers@ ,astes and ,olishes@ are then used@ to ,ro2ide the final finish. 8hen sa6ing@ the sa/e ,rocedures a,,ly in that 9lades 6ith finer teeth 6ill gi2e a 9etter finish to the sa6n edges@ 6hich /ay then 9e further s/oothed@ using an a,,ro,riate selection of files. 8hen drilling a hole@ the con2entional t6ist drill 6ill only ,roduce a finish of a certain standard. )f a finer finish@ to the inside of the hole@ is re;uired@ then a rea/er 6ould 9e used@ to s/ooth the /aterial inside the hole@ so that@ if a tight fitting ,in is to 9e fitted through the hole@ there 6ill 9e 9etter surface contact. There are a 2ariety of /achines that can generate a s/ooth surface on a ,iece of /etal@ the selection 9et6een the/ 9eing decided 9y the ;uality of finish. 1 lathe can ,roduce an exce,tionally s/ooth surface on a 9ar or so/e other rotated sha,e. )f a large area is re;uired to ha2e a s/ooth finish@ then ,erha,s@ after initial casting or forging@ the choice /ay 9e of e/,loying either a grinding /achine or a /illing /achine@ to .,ro2ide the desired result. )n su//ary@ the ;uality of the finished article is de,endent 9oth on the s7ill of the crafts,erson and the e;ui,/ent a2aila9le to co/,lete the tas7. )t does not /atter 6hether the tools in use are files and e/ery cloth or an ex,ensi2e /illing /achineL the standard of 6or7/anshi, of the crafts,erson can /a7e a great deal of difference to the finished article.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:

.
&age *
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
3 TOOLS
.er2icing of an aircraft@ re;uires the dis/antling@ cleaning@ exa/ination@ adBust/ent and re%asse/9ly of the ,arts in accordance 6ith the /aintenance schedule. Further as,ects of the 6or7 /ay re;uire the /anufacture of si/,le co/,onents fro/ /etal or other /aterials@ the drilling and ta,,ing of holes@ re/o2al of 9urrs and other o,erations. 1 reasona9le degree of s7ill@ in the use of hand tools is@ therefore@ to 9e ex,ected fro/ all trades%,ersons. This s7ill can only 9e o9tained 9y ,ractice@ 9ut it /ay 9e stated@ that the /ore efficient the tool@ then the 9etter 6ill 9e the finished 6or7. 3#1 C-mm-n /an) T--l' The 9est results are al6ays o9tained 9y using the correct tool for the tas7. Care and /aintenance of all tools is 2ery i/,ortant@ since da/aged or inefficient tools can lead to inBury of the user or da/age to the co/,onents. 1 range of co//on hand tools is considered in this ,art of the course. #.1.1 Engineers +ule 1n engineers rule =refer to Fig. 1> is /ade fro/ high%car9on steel and is graduated in )/,erial and Metric units. +ules are classified 9y the length and 6idth of their graduated ,ortion@ /ust 9e 7e,t free fro/ rust and should not 9e su9Bected to rough usage. The /ost co//on engineers rule has a length of 333// =1ft> 9ut rules can 9e o9tained in lengths of u, to 1@*33// = ft>. The incre/ent graduation /ar7s are etched into the rule surface ,ro2iding a groo2ed recess. These groo2es ena9le di2iders to 9e set to a greater accuracy@ as the di2ider ,oints can 9e felt to dro, in to the recess. Metric .cale 1 2 3 # 5 1 2 " * 0 13 11 3 # 2# 25 2 2" 2* 20 33 13 11 12 )/,erial .cale
Edge <ie6
'roo2es Engineers +ule Fig. 1

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engineering
#.1.2 .cri9er
1 scri9er =refer to Fig. 2> is used for /ar7ing lines on the surface of /etals. .cri9ers are /ade fro/ high%car9on steel and are classified 9y their length. -ne end of the scri9er is usually 9ent at right angles to ena9le lines to 9e scri9ed in difficult ,laces such as through a hole. 1ll scri9ed lines@ on soft /aterials@ /ust only 9e cutting =9oundary> lines@ and none /ust 9e left on the surface of the /etal on co/,letion@ as they can cause crac7s. -ther lines@ including 9end lines and lines for the ,osition of ri2ets /ust 9e /ar7ed 6ith a shar, ,encil. .cri9er ,oints /ust 9e 7e,t shar, and fine 9y careful stoning@ 6ith an oil stone@ rather than an a9rasi2e 6heel =grindstone>. Using a 6heel is li7ely to generate too /uch heat@ 6hich 6ill result in the te/,er 9eing dra6n fro/ the steel and the ,oint of the scri9er 9eco/ing soft and useless. 8hen not in use =and as 6ith other tools 6ith shar, ,oints>@ ,lacing ,ieces of cor7@ ,lastic or si/ilar /aterial o2er their ,oints 6ill ,rotect the/. #.1.3 :ey%.eat +ule :ey%seat rules are used for /ar7ing%off lines@ ,arallel to the axis@ on the surface of tu9es or round 9ars =refer to Fig. 2>. .o/eti/es referred to as (ox .;uares@ 7ey%seat rules are usually graduated and are classified 9y their length.
:ey .eat +ule
+ound (ar
.cri9er
.cri9er and :ey .eat +ule Fig. 2
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
#.1.# Fitters .;uare
The fitters s;uare is used for setting out lines at right angles to an edge or surface@ and for chec7ing right angular 6or7 for truth. .;uares are /ade@ to 2ery fine li/its@ of high%car9on steel and are classified 9y the length of the 9lade. The 9lade and the stoc7 ha2e their o,,osing edges ground truly ,arallel 6ith the t6o li/9s set at exactly 03 to each other. To ,reser2e its accuracy it is essential that it is handled carefully at all ti/es and@ 6hen not in use@ 7e,t in a ,rotecti2e case or 9ox. 8hen testing a s;uare for accuracy@ it /ay 9e chec7ed for truth against an accurately /achined right angular test ,iece such as a < 9loc7 or /aster s;uare. )f this is not ,ossi9le@ a test /ay 9e carried out =refer to Fig. 3> as follo6sF &lace the stoc7 against the true edge of a flat surface and scri9ing a line on the surface@ using the outside edge of the 9lade Turn the s;uare o2er and chec7 the outside edge of the 9lade against the ,re2iously scri9ed line.
)f the s;uare is accurate@ the 9lade edge and the scri9ed line 6ill 9e in line. )n a si/ilar /anner@ the inside edge of the 9lade can 9e tested.
True Edge
Error Testing a .;uare Fig. 3
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
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engineering
#.1.5 Co/9ination .et
The Co/9ination .et =refer to Fig. #>@ consists of a graduated steel rule@ 6hich has a /achined groo2e running along the centre of its entire length. The rule can 9e slid into three different heads and secured@ 9y a loc7ing scre6 de2ice@ so that the co/9ination of rule and head 6ill ena9le certain tas7s to 9e acco/,lished. The Centre $ead is used@ 6ith the rule@ to locate the centre line of 9ars or round tu9es. The .;uare $ead has one 6or7ing surface at 03M and another at #5M to the loc7ed rule. This allo6s the tool to 9e used@ either in a si/ilar /anner to the Fitters .;uare =to chec7 the s;uareness of 6or7>@ or it /ay 9e used for the /ar7ing out of /itre Boints and 9e2els. 1 s,irit le2el and scri9er are@ so/eti/es@ acco//odated in the 9ase of the .;uare $ead@ to ,er/it a chec7 to 9e done on the hori4ontal or 2ertical accuracy of 6or7,ieces. The &rotractor $ead also has a s,irit le2el@ 6hich rotates 6ith the head@ and allo6s the head to 9e used@ singly@ as a clino/eter or@ in conBunction 6ith the rule@ it /ay 9e used to /ar7 out and chec7 angles on 6or7,ieces.
.cri9er .,irit 5e2el Centre $ead .;uare $ead
'roo2e
&rotractor $ead
Co/9ination .et Fig. #

&age # "1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
#.1. .urface &lates and Ta9les .urface ,lates =and surface ta9les 6hich are larger>@ 6hile not actually 9eing classed as /ar7ing out or /easuring tools@ are si/,ly 9loc7s of grey cast iron 6ith finely /achined faces 6hich can 9e used as a standard of flatness. They /ay also 9e used to ,ro2ide a true surface@ fro/ 6hich /ar7ing out@ /easuring and testing can 9e done. .urface ,lates are usually /ounted on a 9ench and@ nor/ally@ only ha2e three su,,orts@ or feet@ to ensure steadiness@ if the surface of the 9ench 6ere to 9e slightly une2en. .urface ta9les are free standing@ on the 6or7sho, floor@ and their sheer 6eight ,ro2ides the re;uired steadiness. The standard of the surface finish 2aries. The 9etter grades are scra,ed and the chea,er ones are /erely ,laned. The accuracy of a ,laned ta9le de,ends u,on the accuracy of the /achine ,roducing it. .urfaces of grade 1 standard 6ould only 9e used in .tandards +oo/s@ grade ( surfaces are for ins,ection 6or7 6hile grade C surface ,lates and ta9les 6ould 9e found in ty,ical 6or7sho,s. .urface ,lates and ta9les can 9e used to test for flatness@ ,ro2iding the standards re;uired are not too high. The surface of the ,late is lightly s/eared 6ith a /ixture of engineers 9lue and a fe6 dro,s of oil. The ,iece to 9e tested has to 9e ru99ed lightly on to the surface ,late and any high s,ots 6ill sho6 u, as 9lue s,ots on the test ,iece. These s,ots 6ill 9e filed or scra,ed until the 6hole surface sho6s 9lue. 1fter use@ a light fil/ of oil should 9e a,,lied to the 6or7ing surface of the surface ,lates and ta9les. They should@ then@ 9e ,rotected 6ith a 6ooden co2er@ to ,re2ent the onset of corrosion. #.1." < (loc7s < (loc7s are accurately /achined@ six%sided@ rectangular 9loc7s =generally /ade of cast iron>@ 6hich /ay 9e used@ on surface ,lates and ta9les@ to hold a round 9ar@ 6hich can then 9e /ar7ed in a 2ariety of 6ays@ to gi2e centres and lines ,arallel to its side. < 9loc7s are classified 9y the /axi/u/ dia/eter of the 6or7@ 6hich they can hold. 1ll o,,osite sides of the 9loc7s are ,arallel and all adBacent faces are s;uare to each other. 1 03M groo2e =in the sha,e of a <> is /achined in t6o =longer> o,,osite faces@ 9ut the groo2es are cut at different de,ths@ to cater for 9ars of different dia/eters.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
The <%cut groo2es ha2e a s/all@ s;uare%cut@ clearance groo2e in the 9otto/ of the <. This ensures that any oil@ or dirt runs off the sides of the < and does not clog the 9otto/ of the <@ causing an i/,erfect seating of any 9ar 6hich 6ere to 9e ,laced in the 9loc7s. < 9loc7s are /ade in =identified> /atching ,airs@ 6hich /ust al6ays 9e used together@ so that a 9loc7 of one ,air should not 9e used 6ith one of another ,air. .o/e < 9loc7s also ha2e groo2es /achined along the other t6o longer@ ,arallel@ sides@ to locate s,ecially designed cla/,s@ 6hich /ay 9e used to securely hold 6or7 6hile it is 9eing accurately /ar7ed out or drilled. #.1.* .urface 'auge =.cri9ing (loc7> 1 .urface 'auge@ or .cri9ing (loc7 =refer to Fig. 5>@ is another /ar7ing out tool@ used@ on a surface ,late or ta9le@ in conBunction 6ith a scri9er =and@ occasionally@ 6ith < 9loc7s>@ for the /ar7ing of lines@ 6hich are ,arallel to a true surface. The scri9er is cla/,ed to a s,indle@ 6hich can 9e accurately ,i2oted@ 9y /eans of a fine adBust/ent scre6@ on the hea2y 9ase. The 9ase@ 6hich is generally /ade fro/ cast iron =or hardened steel> is /achined to 9e as flat as the surface ,late on 6hich it slides@ 9ut it is also groo2ed =in a si/ilar /anner to the < 9loc7> so that it can 9e used on round stoc7 6hen re;uired. T6o friction%fit ,ins@ in the 9ase@ /ay 9e ,ushed do6n@ to assist in dra6ing lines ,arallel to a true edge.
< (loc7s
.cri9ing (loc7
.urface &late
.cri9ing (loc7 6ith < (loc7s and .urface &late Fig. 5
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
#.1.0 ?i2iders
?i2iders are used to set out distances and to scri9e arcs and circles. The legs are /ade of high%car9on steel@ the s,ring /ade of s,ring steel and the adBusting /echanis/ of /ild steel. ?i2iders are classified 9y the length of their legs. The ,oints should 9e 7e,t shar, and of e;ual length 9y stoning only the outside of the legs. )f grinding is used to shar,en the ,oints@ it /ust 9e done 2ery carefully@ as the te/,er of the ,oints can 9e dra6n@ lea2ing the/ soft. The ,oints of di2iders should 9e ,rotected@ 6hen not in use@ in a si/ilar /anner to those of scri9ers and such tools. #.1.13 Calli,ers Calli,ers =refer to Fig. > are a ty,e of /easuring de2ice@ ty,ically used to /easure dia/eters and distances or for co/,aring si4es. The three 9asic ty,es of calli,er areF -utside Calli,ersF Used to /easure the outside dia/eter of an o9Bect and ha2e legs that ,oint in6ards )nside Calli,ersF Used to /easure the inside of a hole and ha2e legs that ,oint out6ards -dd%5eg Calli,ers =$er/a,hrodite or Cenny Calli,ers>F This tool is really half calli,ers and half di2iders. )t /ay 9e used for scri9ing arcs on /etal surfaces fro/ an edge@ for scri9ing lines ,arallel to an edge or surface@ =,ro2ided accuracy is not of great i/,ortance>@ and for finding the centre of a round 9ar.
-utside
)nside
-ddleg
Calli,ers Fig.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
#.1.11 $a//ers
$a//ers =refer to Fig. "> are classified 9y their 6eight and ty,e of head. .teel heads are forged and /anufactured fro/ high%car9on steel. Most shafts are /ade fro/ straight%grained 1sh or $ic7ory and are secured to the head 9y 6edging.
(all &ein
.traight &ein
Cross &ein $ideACo,,er Face
$ide Face &lastic Face
+u99er $ead
Ty,es of $a//ers Fig. "
1s can 9e seen fro/ Fig. "@ the /ain ty,es of engineering ha//ers are theF (all &einF The flat surface is used for /ost general%,ur,ose 6or7 6hilst the 9all ,ein is used ,ri/arily for ri2eting%ty,e o,erations .traight &einF Used for general 6or7@ the narro6@ straight ,ein 9eing ,articularly suita9le for use 6here access to the 6or7 is li/ited
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"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering

Cross &einF 1s for the straight ,ein@ 9ut the axis of the ,ein is at 03M to that of the shaft $ideACo,,er FaceF The ra6hide facing ena9les hea2y 9lo6s to 9e deli2ered 6ithout da/aging the surface of the 6or7@ 6hile the co,,er face /ay 9e used for hea2ier ty,es of 6or7 than hide faced ha//ers +u99er $ead and &lastic FaceF More /odern 2ersions of the $ide Face ha//er. Can often ha2e one of each ty,e of face on each end of the head Cla6 $a//er =not sho6n>F More co//only used for 6ood6or7ing. The face is used for ha//ering nails 6hilst the cla6 is used for re/o2ing nails (ody $a//er =not sho6n>F 5ittle used in aircraft 6or7@ as they are ,ri/arily used to re/o2e dents and 9le/ishes fro/ sheet /etal. They are also 7no6n as ,lanishing ha//ers.
The 6eight of ha//er re;uired can 9e found 6ith ex,erience. (efore use@ it /ust 9e ensured that the head is secure on the shaft. The shaft should 9e gri,,ed close to the end o,,osite the head@ as ,ro,er control is not ,ossi9le if it is held close to the head. #.1.12 &unches 1lthough ,unches are not ,ounding tools@ they do allo6 the force fro/ a ha//er 9lo6 to 9e concentrated in the i//ediate area of the ,unch ti,. This in turn /eans that the ,ressure at the end of the ,unch is increased co/,ared to a ha//er 9lo6 6ithout a ,unch. -2er a ,eriod of ti/e@ the ha//ered shan7 end of a ,unch@ tends to defor/ into the sha,e of a /ushroo/. To reduce the chance of a /etal chi, flying off and causing inBury@ during ,unching o,erations@ the defor/ation should 9e re/o2ed and the shan7 end returned to its original sha,e 9y the use of a 9ench grinder. Eye or face ,rotection should al6ays 9e used 6hen using ,unches of any ty,e. The ty,es of ,unches@ /ore co//only found in an engineers tool7it@ includeF Centre &unches &in &unches $ollo6 &unches ?rifts
The first three ,unches are@ usually@ constructed fro/ hexagonal =or 7nurled@ round> rods of te/,ered@ cast steel 6ith a length of a,,roxi/ately 12" // =5 in>@ a gri,,ing dia/eter of a,,roxi/ately 3.1"5 // =3.125 in> and a s/aller@ dri2ing end of the a,,ro,riate si4e.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 0
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engineering
Centre &unches are relati2ely shar,%,ointed tools@ used to /a7e an indentation in /etal. The indentation aids in locating the centre of a hole and for starting a drill 9it 6hen drilling the hole. The ,oints /ay 9e ground at angles 9et6een 3 to 03M@ de,ending on the hardness of the /etal on 6hich the ,unch is 9eing used. The softer the /etal@ then the larger 6ill 9e the angle of the ,unchs ,oint. 8hen using a centre ,unch@ it /ust 9e struc7 hard enough to gi2e an indentation large enough for a drill 9it to start@ 9ut not so hard as to distort the /etal. 1nother for/ of Centre &unch is the ?ot or &ric7 &unch =also &ric7er>@ 6hich has a finer ,oint and is used to /a7e indentations along a dra6n line 6hen the line is@ other6ise@ difficult to see. The indentations /ay also 9e used@ 6hen sa6ing do6n to a line@ as 6itness ,oints@ to sho6 that the cutting is accurate. Centre ,unches should not 9e used to dri2e out ,ins or ri2ets fro/ their holes. &in &unches@ as their na/e i/,lies@ are the tools to 9e used for the re/o2al of ,ins and ri2ets fro/ their res,ecti2e holes. The dri2ing end of a &in &unch is cut flat@ and its dia/eter ground to /atch that of the ,in or ri2et 6hich is 9eing dri2en fro/ its hole. &in &unches /ay 9e found 6ith ,arallel or ta,ered dri2ing ends. $ollo6 &unches are used to ,unch out 9olt =or stud> holes in soft@ thin sheets@ such as shi//ing or gas7et /aterials@ 6hich are difficult to cut 6ith drills. The /aterial 9eing cut@ should 9e su,,orted 9y a 6ooden 9loc7@ to a2oid da/aging the cutting end of the $ollo6 &unch. ?rifts /ay 9e fashioned fro/ alu/iniu/ alloy@ co,,er or steel 9ars =or tu9es>@ and are used for dri2ing out 9earings@ 9ushes or shafts fro/ their res,ecti2e cages or housings. -nly steel drifts should 9e used on 9earings@ due to the ,ossi9ility of s/all /etal chi,s@ fro/ the softer /etals@ 9rea7ing off and fouling the 9earing asse/9lies. #.1.13 Metal%Cutting Chisels Metal%cutting chisels =also called Cold Chisels> are used in conBunction 6ith steel ha//ers. Chisels are forged@ usually using short lengths of hexagonal%sectioned@ high%car9on steel 9ars@ 6ith the cutting edge hardened and te/,ered. To ,re2ent flying ,articles 6hen ha//ering@ the stri7ing end is not hardened and is@ therefore@ co/,arati2ely softer. &eriodically@ the 9urr@ that for/s at the stri7ing end of the chisel@ should =in a si/ilar /anner to ,unches>@ 9e re/o2ed 9y filing or grinding. 1lternati2ely@ the chisels /ay 9e /ade of nic7el%alloy steel@ s,ecially heat%treated@ to ,roduce a long%lasting cutting edge.
&age 13
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
Flat Cross%Cut ?ia/ond%&oint $alf%+ound.
Chisels are classified 9y their sha,e@ o2erall length@ cross%section of shan7 and 6idth of cut. There are four ,rinci,al sha,es of chisels =refer to Fig. *>@ in general use. They are theF
Flat chisels are used for general chi,,ing 6or7@ such as ,arting sheet /etal or cutting flat surfaces@ ,re,aratory to filing. The cutting edge is for/ed slightly con2ex. Cross%Cut =or Ca,e> chisels are used to cut narro6@ flat%9otto/ed@ groo2es@ such as 7ey6ays in shafts or 6here it is not ,ractical to use a flat chisel. These chisels are also used to re/o2e the heads of round%headed ri2ets during re,airs. ?ia/ond%&oint chisels are ,articularly useful for cutting in corners@ cutting s/all oil groo2es and for rectifying an incorrect start 6hen drilling. $alf%+ound =and /ay@ also@ 9e called +ound> chisels are general%,ur,ose@ groo2ing chisels@ 6hich are suita9le for cutting half%round@ 9otto/ed@ groo2es. They are also suita9le for rectifying an incorrect start 6hen drilling.
Flat
Cross%Cut
?ia/ond%&oint Chisel Ty,es Fig. *
$alf%+ound
8hen selecting a chisel for a s,ecific tas7@ consideration /ust 9e gi2en 9oth to the nature of the 6or7 and to the /aterial that is to 9e cut. The nature of the 6or7 go2erns the choice of sha,e@ 6hilst the angle for/ed 9y the cutting edge is influenced 9y the hardness of the /etal.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 11
!"
engineering
)n general@ it /ay 9e assu/ed that the softer the /etal the /ore acute should 9e the cutting angle. Ta9le 5 sho6s so/e suggested cutting angles for use on ty,ical /etals@ found in aircraft engineering 6or7sho,s. Ta9le 1 .U''E.TE? C$).E5 CUTT)!' 1!'5E. $ard .teels "3 Mild .teels 3 .oft Metals #3 $igh%car9on@ steel chisels@ should 9e shar,ened 9y grinding on an a9rasi2e 6heel@ 9ut nic7el%alloy@ steel chisels are shar,ened 9y filing. The cutting edge of the chisel /ust 9e 7e,t cool@ during grinding@ 9y fre;uent i//ersion in 6ater@ 6hich 6ill ,re2ent the te/,er 9eing dra6n fro/ the /etal. #.1.1# (ench <ice The 9ench 2ice =refer to Fig. 0> is used to fir/ly gri, the /aterial or ite/ u,on 6hich 6or7 is 9eing done in a 6or7sho,. The 9ody of the 2ice is ,ro2ided 6ith detacha9le steel Ba6s. The scre6 is /ade 6ith a s;uare or 6ith a 9uttress thread. Most ty,es of 9ench 2ice ha2e a ;uic7%release /echanis/@ o,erated 9y a s/all le2er. The Ba6s can then 9e slid either o,en or closed until the correct ,osition is reached. The le2er disengages the half nut fro/ the thread to ,er/it the sliding action and it is dri2en 9ac7 into engage/ent 9y a strong s,ring. (ench 2ices are classified 9y the length of their Ba6s. The height of the to, of the 2ice a9o2e the ground is i/,ortant@ and should ideally@ 9e le2el 6ith the technicians el9o6 6hen standing adBacent to the 2ice. 8ith the 2ice at the correct height@ 6or7 6ill 9e less tiring and correct control of the tools@ such as files and sa6s@ 6ill 9e achie2ed. The 2ice /ust 9e secured fir/ly to the 9ench =6ith occasional chec7s of the holding%do6n nuts>@ and the scre6 should 9e 7e,t clean and lu9ricated. The Ba6s /ust not 9e o2er%tightened as the /echanis/ /ay 9e da/aged or the 6or7,iece 9eco/e distorted. To ,rotect soft /aterials fro/ the hardened@ serrated@ 2ice Ba6s@ alu/iniu/ 2ice cla/,s =or cla/s> can 9e ,ositioned o2er the Ba6s. -ther@ s,ecial holding de2ices@ such as < 9loc7s =/ade out of 6ood to ,rotect tu9ular ite/s> can 9e /anufactured locally.
&age 12
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
(ench <ice Fig. 0 #.1.15 $and <ice 1 hand 2ice =refer to Fig. 13> is classified 9y its o2erall length and can 9e used 6hen s,licing ca9les or holding s/all o9Bects that are to 9e sha,ed or drilled. The 9ody and scre6 are /ade of /ild steel@ 6ith a 6ing nut ,ro2ided for the o,eration of the hand 2ice. ./all 2ice cla/,s can also 9e used 6ith these 2ices 6hen 6or7ing 6ith soft /aterial.
$and <ice Fig. 13
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 13
!"
engineering
#.1.1 $ac7sa6s
The hac7sa6@ is the /ost 6idely%used@ /etal%cutting@ hand sa6. $ac7sa6s are used for ,arting off@ or for cutting /aterials a,,roxi/ately to si4e. They are designed ,ri/arily for cutting /etal@ 9ut /ay 9e used on other /aterials. The sa6 consists of a /ild steel fra/e@ 6ith a suita9le handle and a re,lacea9le@ serrated 9lade@ 6hich is /ade fro/ high%car9on or alloy steel. Fine%toothed 9lades ha2e 2# or 32 teeth ,er inch and are used for cutting thin /aterial. Coarser 9lades@ 6ith 1# or 1* teeth ,er inch are for thic7er /aterial. 1 rule of thu/9 is that at least t6o teeth /ust 9e in contact@ 6ith the 6or7 9eing cut@ at all ti/es =refer to Fig. 11>.
Thic7er .ections % 5ess Teeth ,er )nch
Thinner .ections % More Teeth ,er )nch $ac7sa6 Teeth in Contact 6ith 8or7,iece Fig. 11 The 9lade /ountings /ust 9e set in the /ost con2enient ,osition 6ith the teeth facing a6ay fro/ the handle. This allo6s the 9lade to cut on the /ore efficient@ for6ard stro7e. $and ,ressure should 9e a,,lied on this for6ard stro7e and relie2ed on the return stro7e. The full length of the 9lade should 9e used for each stro7e@ if at all ,ossi9le. This action ,rolongs the life of the 9lade@ lessens the chance of teeth 9rea7ing a6ay fro/ the 9lade and reduces the chance of the sa6 Ba//ing during use.
&age 1#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
.a6 9lades are gi2en an alternate set@ during /anufacture@ 6hich results in the cutting slot =the 7erf> 9eing 6ider than the 9lade thic7ness =refer to Fig. 12>. This ,re2ents the 9lade fro/ Ba//ing@ 6hich /ay result in a 9ent or 9ro7en 9lade.
Teeth .et Fig. 12 #.1.1" .heet Metal .hears and .ni,s .hears are another ty,e of cutting tool used on aircraft sheet /etal. 5ong@ straight cuts@ across a ,iece of sheet /etal@ are /ade on a guillotine@ 6hich /ay also 9e referred to as s;uaring shears. The fa9rication of s/aller ,arts re;uires hand cutting@ follo6ed 6ith further tri//ing to the final di/ensions. This can 9e achie2ed 6ith different ty,es of shears@ 7no6n as Tin/ans .hears or 12iation .ni,s. They can 2ary in length fro/ 1"5 // =" in> u, to 333 // =12 in> and can 9e straight or cur2ed cutting. .traight shears =or sni,s> are ,ri/arily for cutting straight or 6ide radius cur2es 6hilst the cur2ed shears are dedicated solely to cutting cur2es. Cur2ed shears can 9e found in sy//etrical for/@ 6hich can 9e used to cut cur2es in either direction@ or they can 9e asy//etrical and dedicated to cutting cur2es in one direction only. The handles of asy//etrically cur2ed shears are usually colour%coded =red and green>@ to indicate the intended cutting direction. 5eft%cutting shears are coloured red 6hile right%cutting shears are coloured green>. Unli7e hac7sa6s =and files>@ shears si/,ly ,art the /etal 6ithout re/o2ing any /aterial. This can@ ho6e2er@ cause tiny fractures to occur along the se2ered lines and so@ for this reason@ cuts should 9e /ade a,,roxi/ately 3.* // =3.33 in> fro/ the /ar7ing out line and the /etal then filed do6n to the line.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 15
!"
engineering
#.1.1* Files
Files are cutting tools for re/o2ing /etal fro/ a surface and are /ade of high% car9on steel. The 9lade is hardened@ 6hilst the tang =to 6hich@ a handle /ust al6ays 9e attached@ for safety reasons@ 9efore the file is used>@ is left in a softer@ tougher condition and is@ therefore@ less 9rittle. $and files are classified 9y theirF 5ength .ha,e Cross%.ection Cut 'rade.
The length of a file is /easured fro/ the shoulder to the ti, of the 9lade. Files are a2aila9le@ for s,ecial 6or7@ in lengths fro/ "5 // =3 in> to 353 // =1# in>. The /ost co//on si4es are 153 // = in>@ 233 // =* in> and 253 // =13 in>. Files are a2aila9le in a 2ariety of sha,es =refer to Fig. 13>@ and the /ost co//on sha,es are those 6hich areF &arallel Ta,ered (ellied. .houlder
Ti, &arallel 5ength
Tang
Ta,ered
(ellied
Three Most Co//on .ha,es of Files Fig. 13
&age 1
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
$and +ound $alf%+ound .;uare Three%.;uare.
The 2arious sha,es and the cross%sections of files allo6 the/ to 9e used on a 6ide range of tas7s. The standard file cross%sections =refer to Fig. 1#> areF
$and
+ound
$alf%+ound File Cross%.ections Fig. 1#
.;uare
Three%.;uare
The $and is the /ost co//only used section for general filingL and the 9lade is usually ,arallel in sha,e. -ne edge /ay 9e 6ithout teeth@ to ,er/it safe 6or7ing against a finished surface. .uch a file is called a $and .afe Edge =$.E> file. The +ound section is used in association 6ith 9ellied@ ,arallel and ta,ered 9lade sha,es@ 6ith the 9ellied 9eing the one /ost co//only used. These files are suita9le for filing s/all radii. $alf%+ound files are /ostly associated 6ith a 9ellied%sha,ed 9lades. .uch files are suita9le for use on 6or7 of irregular sha,e or for filing large internal radii. .;uare files /ay 9e 9ellied@ ta,ered or ,arallel in sha,e. They are used for internal 6or7. Three%.;uare =or Triangular> files are@ usually@ of the 9ellied sha,e. They are ,articularly useful for filing internal corners.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1"
!"
engineering
.ingle Cut ?ou9le Cut ?readnought +as,.
The Cut of a file refers to the arrange/ent of the cutting teeth@ on the 9lade of the file. The ,attern@ in 6hich the teeth are cut@ 6ill de,end u,on the ty,e of /aterial to 9e filed. The co//on cuts of files =refer to Fig. 15> are theF
.ingle Cut
?ou9le Cut File Cuts Fig. 15
?readnought
+as,
The .ingle Cut file has its teeth cut ,arallel@ in a single direction and =for general engineering>@ usually@ at an angle of a,,roxi/ately 3M to the /ain axis of the 9lade. This ty,e of cut is relati2ely o,en and the teeth do not clog easily. .o/eti/es referred to as Floats@ single cut $and files are@ chiefly@ used for filing hard /etals. +ound files and the cur2ed surface of $alf%+ound files are usually single cut. The ?ou9le Cut file also has one set of teeth cut at an angle of 3M to the centre line of the file@ 6ith another@ crossing set@ cut at angle of a,,roxi/ately "5M. This is the /ost 6idely used ty,e of file for general ,ur,oses. The cut of the ?readnoughts teeth@ /a7e this file es,ecially suita9le for hea2y cutting on 9road@ soft /etal surfaces. )ts use is generally restricted to the larger si4es of flat files. The teeth of the +as, are cut 6ith a ,unch@ 6hile the /etal is hot@ at the ti/e of /anufacture. This ty,e of cut is used for filing 2ery soft /aterials such as 6ood and leather. Manufacturers 6ill cut files to cater for a 6ide range of s,ecialised /aterials@ such as encountered 6hen 6or7ing 6ith alu/iniu/ and other non%ferrous alloys.
&age 1*
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
The 'rade of a file refers to the de,th and s,acing =nu/9er of teeth ,er inch> of the cutting teeth in a si/ilar /anner to the si4e and s,acing of the ,articles e/,loyed on a9rasi2e ,a,ers and 6heels. The rate of cutting and the finish gi2en to the 6or7 is deter/ined@ to a large extent@ 9y the grade of the file. 8hile there are se2eral /ore grades of files@ a2aila9le fro/ /anufacturers@ the /ost co//on grades =or degrees of coarseness> of the single and dou9le cut files@ found in a ty,ical aeros,ace technicians tool7it@ are theF (astard .econd%Cut ./ooth. The (astard is a co/,arati2ely coarse grade of file and@ though the nu/9er of teeth ,er inch 2aries 6ith each /anufacturer@ the (astard file has a,,roxi/ately 33 teeth ,er inch. )t re/o2es /etal fairly ;uic7ly and is intended@ ,ri/arily@ for roughing out@ 9ut /ay 9e used for the entire 6or7@ if the finish is not i/,ortant. The .econd%Cut files are finer =#3 teeth ,er inch> and@ conse;uently@ gi2e a 9etter surface finish to the 6or7@ 9ut are slo6er cutting. ./ooth files =53 to 3 teeth ,er inch> ena9le a good finish to 9e o9tained@ 9ut such files cut co/,arati2ely slo6ly. They should@ therefore@ 9e used for finishing 6or7 only. #.1.10 Filing Techni;ues 'ood filing is not Bust a /atter of re/o2ing sur,lus /etal. The correct a/ount of /aterial@ at each ,oint on the surface of the 6or7,iece@ needs to 9e re/o2ed@ so that the di/ensions and tolerances@ set 9y the dra6ing@ 6ill 9e /et. &roficiency co/es 6ith ,ractice. !e6 files should@ if ,ossi9le@ 9e first used on soft /etal. This achie2es te/,ering of the cutting teeth and 6ill contri9ute to a longer life for the file. (efore starting 6or7@ it /ust 9e ensured that the 6or7,iece is secure and correctly ,laced@ as 9oth hands are re;uired for filing tas7s. 1 file /ust ne2er 9e used 6ithout a handle. The file 6ill not 9e under full control and the ris7 of ,uncturing the 6rist or ,al/ is 2ery great. Files /ust 9e handled carefully. File 9lades@ 9eing hard@ are also 9rittle and 6ill 9rea7 if dro,,ed. 1fter use@ all files should 9e returned to their res,ecti2e rac7s or 9andolier%ty,e holdalls@ to ,re2ent the/ 7noc7ing together and 9eing da/aged. The length and grade of file@ a,,ro,riate to the sha,e =and /aterial> of the 6or7,iece@ and to the ;uality of the desired surface finish@ /ust al6ays 9e used.
!"
engineering
1s /entioned ,re2iously@ the height of the 2ice is i/,ortant and ,latfor/s /ay 9e constructed@ to ensure that the el9o6s of shorter ,ersons are le2el 6ith the to, of the 2ice. 1ny ,latfor/s@ so constructed@ should ensure that a correct stance 9e attained@ 9y the 6or7%,erson@ in front of the 2ice. )t is reco//ended that the ,erson stand@ 6ith feet a,art and =de,ending on 6hether the ,erson is left% or right%handed>@ one foot ad2anced@ in a /anner si/ilar to a 9oxer =or a fencer> ta7ing guard. The 9ody 6eight should 9e ta7en on the 9alls of the feet 9ut@ ,ri/arily@ o2er the rear/ost foot. 1gain de,ending on the ,erson@ the handle of the file is gri,,ed in the a,,ro,riate hand@ 6hile the ,al/ of the other hand is ,laced@ flat on the 9ac7 of the file@ near the ti,@ 6hen the ti, of the file is resting on the 6or7,iece. Using a roc7ing action@ the 9ody 6eight is transferred o2er the for6ard foot 6hile ,ushing the file for6ard =and@ si/ultaneously@ to the left or right> 6ith the gri,,ing hand@ and exerting e;ual do6n6ard ,ressure@ on the file@ 6ith 9oth hands. The full length of the file should 9e used for each stro7e =6hich should not 9e rushed> and@ at the co/,letion of the stro7e@ the action is re2ersed@ exce,ting that the do6n6ard ,ressure is relie2ed on the 9ac7stro7e@ as the file does not cut in the rear6ard direction. -92iously@ if atte/,ting to file a flat surface@ then it /ust 9e ensured that the file is 7e,t le2el during the filing action and that regular chec7s are /ade to 2erify the accuracy of the di/ensions. ?uring 6or7 =and ,articularly so 6ith non%ferrous /etals>@ the teeth of the file gradually 9eco/e clogged =,inned> 6ith s/all ,articles. )f these ,innings are ignored they 6ill cause scratches to the surface of the 6or7,iece 6ith su9se;uent loss of surface finish. To this end@ ,innings should 9e regularly re/o2ed 9y the use of a file card =also called a scratch card> or 6ire 9rush. Chal7@ ru99ed along the face of the file@ 9efore starting the finishing 6or7@ 6ill assist in /ini/ising ,inning. ?ra6%filing@ 9y gras,ing the file 9et6een the fingers and thu/9s of 9oth hands@ on either side of a 6or7,iece@ and ru99ing 9ac7 and forth on the surface@ /ay 9e used to rectify any hollo6s@ 6hich /ay a,,ear on a filed surface@ due to incorrect filing action. )t /ay also 9e used@ in conBuction 6ith chal7@ a,,lied as ,re2iously descri9ed@ to assist in creating a finer surface finish.
&age 23
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
#.1.23 $and (race =$and ?rill> 8hene2er it is necessary to cut accurate@ circular holes in /aterials@ then@ 6here ,ossi9le@ the /aterial should 9e securely cla/,ed and the holes cut@ using fixed@ ,o6er%o,erated drilling /achines. These /achines are usually found in 6or7sho,s and 9ays@ 9olted do6n to the floor =or to 9enches> and 6ill 9e discussed in later to,ics. 8here it is i/,ractical to do the 6or7 6ith fixed /achines@ then the drilling is done@ using either ,orta9le ,o6er tools or hand% o,erated drills. &orta9le@ ,o6er%o,erated tools 6ill also 9e discussed later. The $and (race@ or@ as it is /ore usually called@ the $and ?rill =refer to Fig. 1 >@ is@ ty,ically@ only used to drill holes of u, to .5 //@ =N in> dia/eter in thin and co/,arati2ely soft /aterials. The de2ice sho6n is si/ilar to those /ost co//only found in the tool7its of aircraft technicians@ though the actual design 6ill de,end u,on each /anufacturer. 1nother hand%o,erated drill@ the (reast (race@ 9eing larger@ is designed to hold larger drills than the hand drill and is@ nor/ally@ used =in 6or7sho,s etc.> for drilling holes 9et6een .5 // and 12 // =N and O in>. The 9reast 9race has one other ad2antage o2er the hand drill@ in that t6o running s,eeds can 9e selected@ 6hich 6ill /ore closely /atch the correct s,eed@ re;uired 9y the 2arious si4ed t6ist drills 9eing e/,loyed.
$and (race =$and ?rill> Fig. 1
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 21
!"
engineering
#.1.21 T6ist ?rills
8hile the range of tools@ designed to create holes in /etals and other /aterials is 2ast@ the Morse%ty,e =na/ed after its in2entor@ an 1/erican engineer> of T6ist ?rill =refer to Fig. 1"> is the one /ost co//only used in aircraft =and in general> engineering. The shan7 is the ,art of the t6ist drill that is gri,,ed and dri2en 9y the chuc7 of the drilling /achine and it is on the shan7 that the details of the ty,e =grade> and dia/eter of the drill can usually 9e found ,rinted or engra2ed. -n drills u, to 12.5 // =OP> dia/eter@ the shan7 is ,arallel and ,laced into the Ba6s of a self%centring chuc7. -n drills a9o2e 12.5 // the shan7 is usually ta,ered =to a Morse Ta,er> of 1F23. The ta,ered shan7 fits directly into a /atching ta,ered housing in the drilling /achine s,indle. The ta,ered shan7 usually ends in a tang and this arrange/ent ,ro2ides a /ore ,ositi2e dri2e@ 6hich is necessary to o2erco/e the higher forces 6hen drilling 6ith the larger dia/eter drills.
5and Flute
&oint
(ody
.han7
T6ist ?rill Fig. 1" The helical flute =or fluting>@ for/ed in the drill 9ody@ ,ro2ides a ra7e angle for the cutting edges of the drill. The fluting also allo6s any lu9ricant to flo6 to6ards the cutting edges and ,ro2ides a ,ath for the 6aste /etal =s6arf>@ to /o2e clear. The land of the drill actually touches the 6all of the hole and steadies the drill during rotation. )//ediately 9ehind the land@ /etal is re/o2ed fro/ the 9ody of the drill@ to reduce the friction during rotation.
&age 22
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
)n order that the drill 6ill cut ,ro,erly@ the ,oint /ust 9e ground to the correct sha,e =refer to Fig. 1*>. The cutting@ angle of 50 =11*M inclusi2e>@ a clearance angle of 12 and a 6e9 angle of 133M@ are ty,ical for nor/al /etal cutting@ such as alu/iniu/ alloys@ steels@ cast iron and co,,er. These can 9e changed to suit the cutting of different /aterials such as harder /etals@ softer /etals or ,lastics.
8e9 or &oint 1ngle 115M%135M )nclusi2e
Cutting 1ngle 50M Cutting Edges
Clearance 1ngle 12M%15M
Ty,ical T6ist ?rill &oint 1ngles Fig. 1* )t is essential that the drill ,oint is central and that the cutting angles of 50 are e;ual. 1n offset ,oint or une;ual cutting angles 6ill cause an un9alanced rotation that 6ill@ in turn@ ,roduce an o2ersi4ed hole. To achie2e the desired cutting and clearance angles =and resulting 6e9 angles>@ a drill grinding attach/ent /ay 9e found attached to a grinding 6heel in a 6or7sho,. $and grindingAshar,ening of drills can 9e achie2ed =es,ecially after ,ractice>@ to an acce,ta9le standard for general 6or7. For the high standard of hole@ re;uired to recei2e ri2ets@ in the ,ressurised s7ins of aircraft@ it is co//on ,ractice to discard drills@ 6hich ha2e 9eco/e 9lunt and to re,lace the/ 6ith ne6 drills. There are /any different grades of /etal@ used in the /anufacture of t6ist drills@ the /ost co//on 9eingF Car9on .teel $igh .,eed .teel Co9alt .teel.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 23
!"
engineering
Car9on .teel drills@ in addition to iron and car9on@ contain 2arious a/ounts of /anganese@ silicon@ sul,hur and ,hos,horus. The letters C. /ay 9e found on the shan7s of these drills.
$igh .,eed .teel =$..> drills@ contain a co/,arati2ely high ,ercentage of tungsten =*J%12J> 6ith a lesser ,ercentage of chro/iu/ =5J> and s/aller a/ounts of 2anadiu/ and@ ,ossi9ly@ /oly9denu/ added to the car9on and iron in this steel. $.. drills retain their hardness at lo6 red heat and can@ thus@ 9e used at /uch higher s,eeds than car9on steel drills. This results in /uch less da/age to the cutting edges and@ although $.. drills are /ore ex,ensi2e than C. drills they can@ o2er a ,eriod of ti/e@ result in a greater econo/y in the ,urchase of drills. Co9alt .teel drills@ contain u, to 12J co9alt@ 6ith as /uch as 23J tungsten@ #J chro/iu/@ 1J%2J 2anadiu/ and traces of /oly9denu/ co/9ined 6ith 3.*J car9on. These drills are nor/ally used on /etals such as stainless steels@ titaniu/ and other 2ery hard /etals. (eing extre/ely hard@ Co9alt .teel drills are also ;uite 9rittle. (ecause of this@ the use of these drills can 9e 2ery dangerous@ and@ so@ strict o9ser2ance of the reco//ended cutting s,eeds is essential. ?rill dia/eter si4es are also usually /ar7ed u,on the shan7 of the drill and can 9e identified 9y the /ethod used in their si4ing. The /ost co//on /ethods of identifying the dia/eter of t6ist drills areF Metric Fractions of an inch The !u/9erA5etter range.
)n the Metric range@ the s/allest@ co//ercially a2aila9le@ drill has a dia/eter si4e of 3.35 //. The full range ,roceeds in incre/ents of 3.35 // u, to 5.3 //@ and@ for larger si4es@ in incre/ents of 3.1 //. The Fractional =)nch> range has a /ini/u/ si4e of 1A #P dia/eter@ ,roceeding in ste,s of 1A #P u, to 15A*P@ and then in ste,s of 1A32P u, to 3P dia/eter. Ta9le sho6s an extract fro/ the !u/9erA5etter +ange /ethod of si4ing drills. This /ethod utilises nu/9ers fro/ *3 to 1 and letters fro/ 1 to Q. The s/allest si4e 9eing the !u/9er *3 =3.35 // dia/eter> drill@ and the decreasing nu/9er of si4ing indicating an increase in the drill dia/eter.
&age 2#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
The letters su,ersede the nu/9ers after nu/9er 1 =5.*3 //> is reached@ 6ith the next largest drill dia/eter 9eing la9elled 1 =5.*5 //>. The letters then /o2e through the al,ha9et to the drill dia/eter si4e Q =13.53 //>@ 6hich is the end of the scale. Ta9le 2 EGT+1CT F+-M T$E !UM(E+A5ETTE+ +1!'E -F ?+)55 .)QE. !u/9er or .tandard !u/9er or .tandard !u/9er or 5etter Metric .i4e 5etter Metric .i4e 5etter *3 3.35 # 5.33 . "0 3.3* 3 5.#3 T "* 3.#3 2 5. 3 U "" 3.#5 1 5.*3 < " 3.53 1 5.*5 8 "5 3.52 ( .35 G "# 3.5* C .15 E "3 3. 3 ? .25 Q
.tandard Metric .i4e *.*5 0.13 0.35 0.55 0.*3 13.13 13.33 13.53
The Metric si4es ha2e 2irtually su,erseded the nu/9ered and lettered ranges and@ usually@ a /etric si4e can 9e found as a re,lace/ent for an o9solete si4e. )f the drill is too s/all to ha2e the si4e sta/,ed on the shan7@ then either a drill gauge or a /icro/eter should 9e used to esta9lish its si4e correctly. The use of a suita9le lu9ricant 6hen drilling is 2ery i/,ortant@ not only does the use of lu9ricant i/,ro2e the ;uality of the hole@ 9ut it also assists in dissi,ating the heat ,roduced 9y drilling. This i/,ro2es the cutting efficiency and ,rolongs the life of the drill. Ta9le 3 sho6s so/e of the reco//ended lu9ricants@ 6hich /ay 9e e/,loyed 6hen drilling /etals. Ta9le 3 +EC-MME!?E? 5U(+)C1!T. F-+ MET15. Material 5u9ricant Mild .teel .olu9le -il $igh%Car9on and 1lloy .teels :erosene or Tur,entine 1lu/iniu/ 1lloys :erosene Cast )ron and (rass Usually no 5u9ricant +e;uired For a t6ist drill to cut efficiently it /ust rotate at the correct s,eed@ in a ,articular /etal@ for a gi2en dia/eter drill. Most hand drills =exce,ting (reast (races> are li/ited to one s,eed@ 6hich is a co/,ro/ise on the ideal s,eed for the /aterial and for the drill si4e. The s,eed of /ost static drilling /achines can 9e 2aried 9y /eans of a gear9ox or 2aria9le dri2e 9eltA,ulley arrange/ent.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 25
!"
engineering
8hen drilling s/all holes@ u, to .3 // =NP> dia/eter@ the de,th of the centre ,unch /ar7 6ill@ usually@ acco//odate the non%cutting@ chisel%li7e ,oint of the drill@ 7ee,ing it on centre and guiding the drill until it is esta9lished in the /etal. 8hen a hole larger than .3 // dia/eter is to 9e drilled@ the centre ,unch /ar7 is not large enough to acce,t the non%cutting ,oint of the drill. )n this instance it 6ill 9e necessary to e/,loy the use of a ,ilot drill =refer to Fig. 10> to ,ro2ide a guide for the larger drill. Firstly the centre of the hole is /ar7ed out on the /etal and care /ust 9e ta7en to accurately centre ,unch the /etal. 1 s/all drill =the ,ilot drill>@ 6hose dia/eter is slightly larger than the non%cutting ,oint of the finished si4e drill@ is selected and a ,ilot hole is drilled in the /etal =ensuring that the correct lu9ricant@ for the ,articular /etal@ is used>. The ,ilot drill is re,laced 9y the finished si4e drill@ 6hich can@ then =and again using lu9ricant>@ 9e guided through the ,ilot hole to co/,lete the hole to the a,,ro,riate si4e.
Using a &ilot ?rill Fig. 10
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
#.1.22 .to,@ and &ress =?i/,ling>@ Countersin7ing Tools T6o s,ecial tools@ used during the ri2eting ,rocess@ are the .to, countersin7ing 9it and the &ress countersin7ing@ or =as it is /ore co//only 7no6n>@ the ?i/,ling tool. (oth of these tools ha2e e2ol2ed as a result of the need for flush s7ins on high%,erfor/ance aircraft. )n order to ha2e the ri2et heads flush 6ith the surface@ the s7in /ust 9e ,re,ared 9y either cutting a6ay a ,ortion of the /etal to /atch the ta,er of the ri2et head@ or 9y indenting =9y ,ressing> the edges of the hole to acce,t the ri2et head. )f the to, sheet of the /etal@ 9eing Boined@ is thic7er than the ta,ered ,ortion of the ri2et head@ then the /aterial should 9e cut countersun7. 8hilst the standard countersin7 9it =or a t6ist drill@ t6ice the dia/eter of the ri2et hole> can 9e used@ in a hand or ,o6er drill@ to for/ a countersun7 hole@ the lac7 of accuracy and consistency /eans they are only useful for s/all Bo9s and certainly they should not 9e used 6here ,ressurised s7ins are concerned. 8here a large nu/9er of holes need to 9e countersun7 to a consistent de,th@ then the .to, Countersin7 tool should 9e used =refer to Fig. 23>. This tool can 9e adBusted to cut an exact countersin7 re,eatedly@ regardless of the force a,,lied to the drillAtool co/9ination. The ,ilots can 9e changed@ de,ending on the si4e of holes in the /aterial@ lea2ing the re/ainder of the tool to 9e used for all Bo9s unchanged. The sto, /ay 9e held rigidly@ during cutting@ to ,re2ent /ar7ing the surface.
5oc7nut
.to, Fi9re Collar Face
&ilot ?rill Chuc7 Fitting Chi, -,ening .to, Countersin7 Tool Fig. 23
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 2"
!"
engineering
&ress countersin7ing or di/,ling is done 6here the aircraft s7in is too thin to countersin7@ and 6ithout the attendant ris7 of enlarging the drilled hole. The edges of the hole are for/ed@ to acco//odate the head of the ri2et@ 9y using a set of di/,ling dies@ using either coin di/,ling or radius di/,ling /ethods. Coin di/,ling forces the sheets into the lo6er die@ lea2ing a shar,ly defined and ,arallel%sided hole. This ,rocess also allo6s a nu/9er of sheets to 9e stac7ed together at the ex,ense of a co/,lex ,air of tools and lea2es a neat@ clean di/,led hole 6ith s/ooth sides =refer to Fig. 21>. +adius di/,ling uses a /ale die to dri2e the sheets into a fe/ale die. The sides of the for/ed holes are not as s/ooth as the coin di/,ling /ethod@ 9ut this less% ,recise o,eration is ;uic7er and chea,er to achie2e. 8ith harder /aterials@ such as /agnesiu/ and certain alu/iniu/ alloys@ a ,rocess called hot di/,ling is used. This /ethod in2ol2es ,re%heating the /etal@ so that it for/s /ore easily and is less li7ely to crac7 6hen sha,ing ta7es ,lace.
&unch .7in
?i/,led .7in
1fter +i2et has 9een For/ed ?ie ?i/,ling Tool Fig. 21
&age 2*
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
#.1.23 +ea/ers
+ea/ers are ,recision%ground tools@ 6hich are used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate di/ensions and ,ro2ide a s/ooth internal finish to acco//odate ,recision%ground 9olts and so/e s,ecial ty,es of ri2ets. +ea/ers are /anufactured fro/ high%car9on steel or alloy steel and are fluted to ,ro2ide a series of cutting edges. They are a2aila9le@ either for use 9y hand@ or for using 6ith a suita9le drilling /achine. Machine rea/ers can usually 9e identified 9y the Morse ta,ered shan7@ 6hich is inserted directly into the s,indle of a drilling /achine. The use of /achine rea/ers is@ usually@ the ,rerogati2e of s,ecialist /achinists and not of line% or hangar%9ased aircraft engineers so that only the hand%o,erated rea/ers 6ill 9e discussed here. $and rea/ers are rotated@ 9y /eans of the hand 6rench@ 6hich locates on the s;uared ,ortion of the shan7. They /ust al6ays 9e rotated only in the cutting direction@ e2en 6hen 6ithdra6ing fro/ a hole. The cutting lu9ricants@ used on s,ecific /aterials@ are those 6hich are used for drilling ,rocedures. +ea/ers are used for re/o2ing only s/all a/ounts of /aterial@ 6hich@ ty,ically@ for hand rea/ers@ is a,,roxi/ately 3.2 //%3.3 // =3.33* in%3.312 in>@ so holes should 9e drilled 6ith this fact in /ind. +ea/ers are su,,lied in ,rotecti2e slee2es@ to ,rotect the fine@ 2ulnera9le cutting edges@ 6hich run along the 9ody of the tool and@ to ,reser2e the shar, edges@ they should 9e 7e,t in their slee2es 6hen not in use. The three /ost co//on ty,es of hand%o,erated rea/ers are theF $and &arallel +ea/er $and Ex,anding +ea/er $and Ta,er +ea/er.
$and &arallel +ea/ers =refer to Fig. 22> are fixed%si4e@ ,arallel%9odied rea/ers@ ,ossessing either straight or s,iral flutes. The straight fluted rea/er can 9e considered to 9e the general%,ur,ose rea/er@ 6hilst the s,iral fluted rea/er is used for rea/ing holes 6hich ha2e 7ey6ays or groo2es as the s,iral flutes s/oothly 9ridge the edges of the ga, in the /etal 6hile the rea/er rotates.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 20
!"
engineering
.traight Fluted +ea/er
.,iral Fluted +ea/er
$and &arallel +ea/ers Fig. 22 $and Ex,anding +ea/ers =refer to Fig. 23> are used 6here standard ,arallel rea/ers of the re;uired di/ension are not a2aila9le. This ty,e of rea/er has se,arate@ re,lacea9le 9lades that slide@ in ta,ering slots@ and 6hich are held in ,osition 9y a ,air of circular nuts. The rea/er 9lades can 9e adBusted to the re;uired cutting si4e 9y slac7ening one nut and tightening the other. The sha,e of each 9lade is such that@ at any ,oint along the slot@ its cutting edge is al6ays ,arallel to the axis of the rea/er. The si4e range of each ex,anding rea/er is sta/,ed on its shan7. The actual si4e set during adBust/ent can 9e chec7ed using either a ring gauge or /icro/eterAcalli,er.
$and Ex,anding +ea/er Fig. 23
&age 33
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering

$and Ta,er +ea/ers =refer to Fig. 2#>@ are used to ,roduce a ta,ered hole for the insertion of a standard ta,er ,in. The t6o ty,es of ta,ered rea/ers are theF MetricF This ty,e@ and its corres,onding ta,er ,ins@ ha2e a ta,er of 1F53. )ts si4e is etched@ or sta/,ed@ on the shan7@ and refers to its s/aller dia/eter )/,erialF The rea/ers and the ta,er ,ins@ for 6hich they are used@ ha2e a ta,er of 1F#*. The si4e of a rea/er is indicated 9y nu/9ers =6hich range fro/ 3 to 13>@ or 9y a fractional designation. The si4e is etched or sta/,ed on the shan7 and refers to its larger dia/eter.
$and Ta,er +ea/er Fig. 2# The difference 9et6een the Metric and )/,erial ta,ers is 2ery slight@ 9ut it is sufficient to /a7e the ta,er ,ins inco/,ati9le. 8hen re,lace/ent ta,er ,ins are re;uired@ ,articularly 6hen 9oth ty,es are a2aila9le@ then great care /ust 9e ta7en to ensure that ,ins of the correct ta,er@ si4e and ty,e are installed.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 31
!"
engineering
#.1.2# )nternal .cre6 Thread@ Cutting Ta,s Ta,s are used for the hand cutting of internal =fe/ale> scre6 threads of the co//on ty,es@ u, to a /axi/u/ dia/eter of a,,roxi/ately 25.# // =1.3 in>. They are short@ threaded 9ars of hardened and te/,ered steel@ 6hich are fluted to gi2e cutting edges and the end of the shan7 is s;uared@ to facilitate turning 6ith a 6rench =refer to Fig. 25>. Ta,s are nor/ally /ade in sets of three@ 6ith the exce,tion of the (1 thread ta, sets@ 6hich ha2e only t6o ta,s to a set. 1 ta, set@ 6hich all ha2e the sa/e /axi/u/ dia/eter@ nor/ally consists of aF Ta,er Ta, .econd Ta, &lug Ta,
The Ta,er Ta, is used to start the thread cutting ,rocess. )t is ta,ered gradually fro/ the ,oint for a9out t6o thirds of the threaded length@ so that it can enter the ,re%drilled hole easily and assist in the correct align/ent of the ta, =6hich is 2ery i/,ortant> 9efore cutting co//ences. The last third of its length has fully for/ed threads. The .econd =or )nter/ediate> Ta, is used@ follo6ing the ta,er ta,@ to dee,en the thread. This ta, is ta,ered for the first t6o or three threads only and@ 6here it is ,ossi9le for the ta, to ,ass the 6hole length through a hole@ it is ca,a9le of cutting a fully for/ed thread. The )nter/ediate is the ta, that is not a2aila9le in (1 thread ta,,ing sets. The &lug =or (otto/ing> Ta, has no ta,er and its ,ur,ose is to finish the threads in dee,@ through holes or to cut threads to the 9otto/ of 9lind holes. (efore the thread can 9e cut@ a hole /ust 9e drilled in the 6or7,iece. This hole /ust 9e of the correct si4e and the drill that is selected =the ta,,ing drill>@ /ust ha2e the sa/e dia/eter as the /inor dia/eter of the thread needed to 9e cut. The correct ta,,ing drill si4e can 9e o9tained fro/ 6or7sho, charts and reference 9oo7s. Unfortunately@ 9ecause ta,s are glass hard they are also 9rittle and can@ thus@ 9e easily 9ro7en if due care is not gi2en to their use. )t is i/,erati2e that the ta,s location in the drilled hole 9e constantly confir/ed and that its /ain axis is /aintained in ,ro,er align/ent 6ith the corres,onding axis of the hole. 1de;uate cutting fluid =as used in the drilling ,rocedure> /ust 9e a,,lied@ and the ar/s of the 6rench should 9e of an a,,ro,riate length =not too long> so that the ,ossi9ility of the ta, 6o99ling in the hole@ or excessi2e turning force 9eing a,,lied to the ta, =and es,ecially to the s/aller dia/eter ta,s>@ is /ini/ised. )f a ta, Ba/s@ and sna,s off in a hole@ its re/o2al can cause serious difficulties.
&age 32 "1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
Full 5ength Threads
&lug Ta,
.econd Ta,
2%3 Thread Ta,er Full Threads
Ta,er Ta,
'radual Ta,er Full Threads
Con2entional Ta, .et Fig. 25
Follo6ing the drilling of the correct si4ed hole@ the ta,,ing ,rocedure in2ol2es ensuring that the 6or7,iece is securely held =fir/ly attached to another co/,onent or cla/,ed in a 2ice> and that the ta,er ta, is attached to the correct si4ed 6rench. Ta,s@ incidentally@ /ay ha2e right or left hand threads. 1,,lying lu9ricant as re;uired@ the ta,er ta, is inserted into the hole and its correct align/ent 2erified =9y use@ for exa/,le@ of an Engineers s;uare>@ 9efore it is rotated cloc76ise =for a right hand thread>@ slo6ly and gently@ until the initial threads are esta9lished. -nce the initial threads are esta9lished@ the ta, /ust not 9e rotated continuously@ other6ise the cuttings 6ill not 9rea7 off and the ta, 6ill@ conse;uently@ Ba/ in the hole and@ if forced@ it 6ill shatter. To this end@ the ta,@ after each full turn@ is rotated 9ac76ards@ a,,roxi/ately O to R of a turn@ to 9rea7 the cuttings off. The for6ard rotation is then continued@ 6ith su9se;uent cutting 9rea7s@ until the full thread ,ortion of the ta, has cut sufficient full threads in the hole. 1fter the ,reli/inary cut@ the ,rocess is re,eated@ using the second ta, =if not a (1 thread>@ and@ if re;uired@ re,eated again using the ,lug ta,. The thread@ and each end of the hole =6here accessi9le>@ should 9e cleaned out if 9urrs or s6arf are ,resent and@ 6ith 9lind holes@ the s6arf /ust 9e cleared out of the hole regularly to ,re2ent the ta, 9inding at the 9otto/ of the hole. )n the e2ent of a ta, 9rea7ing in a hole@ it /ay 9e necessary to resort to s,ecialist ,rocedures =s,ar7 erosion for exa/,le> for its re/o2al 6ithout causing further@ and@ ,ossi9ly@ ex,ensi2e da/age@ to the co/,onent or 6or7,iece.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 33
!"
engineering
#.1.25 External .cre6 Thread@ Cutting ?ies ?ies are used for the hand cutting of external =/ale> threads on round rods or 9ars of co/,arati2ely s/all dia/eters. 8hile there are se2eral designs of dies =de,ending on the dia/eter of the thread 9eing cut>@ consideration is gi2en here only to the s,lit circular or 9utton dies =refer to Fig. 2 >@ 6hich are@ ty,ically@ found in aircraft /aintenance 6or7sho,s and /ay 9e used@ 9y aircraft technicians@ for the /anufacture of studs and si/ilar ite/s. Circular dies consist of an internally threaded =right or left handed> disc of hardened and te/,ered steel@ 6hich is fluted to for/ se2eral cutting edges. ?ies also need to 9e rotated =in a si/ilar /anner to the ,re2iously /entioned ta,s>@ in order to cut threads 9ut@ unli7e a ta, and 6rench@ a die is rotated 9y the use of a stoc7. ?ie discs@ 6ithin the s/aller dia/eter ranges ha2e a standard outside dia/eter@ 6hich allo6s a range of dies@ 6ith different internal si4es@ to 9e used 6ith the sa/e@ standard@ stoc7. The discs are s,lit@ to allo6 for a degree of adBust/ent to the de,th of the thread 9eing cut. The /anufacturers na/e@ thread ty,e@ dia/eter and nu/9er of threads ,er /illi/etre =or inch> are /ar7ed on the face of the die =Ta,s@ incidentally@ are si/ilarly /ar7ed on their shan7s>.
.,lit ?ie
.houlder
.toc7
-uter .ecuring and 1dBusting .cre6s Centre 1dBusting .cre6
Circular ?ie and .toc7 Fig. 2
&age 3#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
(efore external thread cutting is co//enced@ it is necessary to o9tain a suita9le length of rod@ the dia/eter of 6hich is e;ual to the /aBor dia/eter of the thread to 9e cut. Care needs to 9e ta7en in this /atter =and es,ecially 6here closely si4ed )/,erial and Metric rods are a2aila9le> 9ecause it is ,ossi9le to create a thread on slightly undersi4ed or o2ersi4ed rods. The undersi4ed rod 6ould@ of course@ 9e a looser fit 6ith the corres,onding fe/ale threaded ite/@ 6hich 6ould not 9e acce,ta9le@ 6hile the o2ersi4e rod /ay cause da/age to the other threaded de2ice 9y 9eing too tight a fit. The die should 9e ,laced in the stoc7 6ith the ta,ered threads =if any> a6ay fro/ the shoulder and the s,lit aligned 6ith the centre adBusting scre6. )t is next necessary to set the die to the /axi/u/ dia/eter@ 9y slightly slac7ening the outer adBusting scre6s and gently tightening the centre adBusting scre6. This 6ill ensure that the first cut 6ill 9e shallo6. Failure to do this 6ill in2aria9ly result in a ,oor ;uality thread. 1 shallo6 ta,er@ or cha/fer@ /ust 9e ground or filed onto the end of the rodL to assist in the location of the die 9efore cutting co//ences and the rod should 9e cla/,ed fir/ly@ and@ ,refera9ly@ 2ertically in the 9ench 2ice 6ith the ta,ered end u,,er/ost. -nce /ore@ ade;uate lu9rication /ust 9e used throughout the ,rocedure@ again@ using the sa/e lu9ricants as used for the drilling and ta,,ing tas7s. Ensuring that the die is set to cut the /axi/u/ dia/eter@ as descri9ed ,re2iously@ the die should 9e ,laced s;uarely onto the ta,er of the rod and@ 6ith steady do6n6ard hand ,ressure@ the die is carefully rotated =cloc76ise> to start the cut. )t /ust 9e ensured that the die re/ains s;uare to the rod at all ti/es during the cutting@ 6hich is continued in a series of s/all arcs@ re2ersing each ti/e to se2er the cuttings@ in a si/ilar /anner as is done 6hen using the ta,s. 8hen enough thread has 9een cut@ the die is re/o2ed and the thread chec7ed@ using a finished nut. )f the thread ,ro2es to 9e too tight@ then@ after 9ac7ing off the centre adBusting scre6 and =carefully> turning the outer adBusting scre6s in6ards another cut is /ade 6ith the die. The ,rocedure is re,eated as often as necessary until a satisfactory fit is achie2ed 9et6een the t6o@ /ating@ threaded ite/s. 1s the internal ta,,ed thread is !-T adBusta9le@ the internal thread should 9e cut first. The external thread@ 6hich C1! 9e slightly adBusted@ should al6ays 9e cut last to ensure the desired degree of fit 9et6een the res,ecti2e threads.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 35
!"
engineering
#.1.2 .cre6dri2ers
?es,ite the /any sha,es and si4es 6hich /ay 9e /et@ it can 9e stated that scre6dri2ers /ay 9e di2ided into t6o /ain grou,s@ 6hich@ 9asically@ areF (lade .cre6dri2ers Cross%&oint .cre6dri2ers.
(lade =or Co//on> scre6dri2ers consist of a high car9on or an alloy steel 9lade@ /ounted into a 6ooden or co/,osite handle. The end of the 9lade is ground to engage the diagonal slot in the head of the scre6. )f the 9lade is of high car9on steel@ it 6ill 9e hardened and te/,ered. .cre6dri2ers in this category are classified 9y ty,e and 9y the length of 9lade@ 6hich can 9e fro/ a,,roxi/ately 35 // =1.5 in> to 333 // =12 in> long@ although s,ecial scre6dri2ers can 9e o9tained 6ith 9lade lengths of 533 // =23 in>. .o/e 2ariations /ay incor,orate a re2ersi9le ratchet de2ice in the handle 6hile others /ay also ha2e an 1rchi/edes dri2e =as in a &u/, scre6dri2er>>. 1ll of these features 6ould for/ ,art of the classification of the scre6dri2er. The correct engage/ent of the scre6dri2er 9lade in the slotted head of the scre6 or 9olt is /ost i/,ortant =refer to Fig. 2">. The /ost co//on faults can 9e seen in the illustration. The end of the 9lade should ne2er 9e ground to a shar, chisel edge and a 9lade of the correct thic7ness and 6idth should al6ays 9e chosen. .cre6dri2ers of the 6rong si4e can cause serious da/age to fasteners@ surrounding aircraft structure and to the ,ersons using the/.
(lade too ./all
(lade Correct Correct .cre6dri2er Engage/ent Fig. 2"
(lade too 5arge
&age 3
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
Cross%&oint .cre6dri2ers ha2e 9een designed@ 9y the se2eral /anufacturers of the different ty,es of scre6 heads =refer to Fig. 2*>. These scre6 heads allo6 greater tor;ue to 9e a,,lied to the fasteners 9ut@ due to the 2ariations in design@ it is 2ital that the correct scre6dri2er 9e used 6ith each ty,e of scre6 head as they are not co/,ati9le. The accurate fit of cross%,oint scre6dri2ers into the recess in the res,ecti2e scre6 head is essential if da/age is to 9e ,re2ented.
+eed and &rice
&hilli,s
&osidri2e
Tri6ing
<arious Ty,es of Cross%&oint .cre6dri2ers Fig. 2* There is also a 6ide selection of other s,ecialist scre6dri2ers@ 6hich ha2e 9een /ade to allo6 certain tas7s to 9e acco/,lished. These can includeF -ffset =or Cran7ed> .cre6dri2ersF 6hich can reach scre6s 6ith little clearance a9o2e their heads =and 6hich /ay@ also@ ha2e a 9lade at one end and a cross%,oint at the other> +e2ersi9le Ti, .cre6dri2ersF 6ith hexagonal shan7s@ that allo6 the shan7 of the scre6dri2er to 9e re2ersed in the handle to ,ro2ide a different ti,@ 6ith a 9lade at one end and a cross%,oint at the other end of the hexagonal shan7 )nterchangea9le Ti, .cre6dri2ersF 6hich ha2e a selection of soc7et%li7e ti,s@ that can 9e interchanged to suit any ,articular ty,e of scre6 head.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3"
!"
engineering
#.1.2" &liers
&liers are classified 9y ty,e and o2erall length and usually /ade fro/ alloy steel@ 6ith an insulated handle. They are designed for gri,,ing@ 9ending or /o2ing s/all ite/s that cannot 9e easily handled 6ith the fingers. .o/e of the /any ty,es@ that are a2aila9le for a 2ariety of ,ur,oses@ includeF .ide%Cutting &liersF 6hich are the general%,ur,ose ty,e@ and are useful for the installation and re/o2al of s,lit ,ins. They also ha2e a facility for cutting 6ire +ound%!osed &liersF 6hich are useful for ,utting s/all radius 9ends into 6ire in addition to a 2ariety of other tas7s Flat%!osed &liersF 6hich@ 9ecause the Ba6s are /uch thinner@ /ay 9e used for /any s/all holding and 9ending tas7s@ that are not ,ossi9le 6ith the side% cutting ,liers !eedle%!osed &liersF 6hich ha2e finely ,ointed Ba6s and can 9e used in electrical and electronic 6or7@ that in2ol2es holding s/all co/,onents and thin 6ires. !eedle%nosed ,liers /ay@ so/eti/es@ ha2e the Ba6s turned at right angles to the handles@ to allo6 the o,erator to see the 6or7 9eing held 8ire%5oc7ing &liersF 6hich are used for the s,ecific tas7 of gri,,ing 6ire@ during the 6ire%loc7ing of co/,onents. ?ue to their integral 1rchi/edes scre6@ they are also a9le to s,in and so t6ist t6o 6ires@ so that a neat and tight 6ire%loc7ing is o9tained Circli, &liersF 6hich /ay 9e found in t6o@ 9asic for/s =)nternal and External>. (oth ty,es ha2e ,ins on the ends of the Ba6s@ 6hich are used to install and re/o2e circli,s fro/ around =and fro/ 6ithin> co/,onents. The /echanis/s are designed so that@ s;uee4ing the handles together@ either results in the Ba6 ,ins co/ing together@ =)nternal>@ or s,reading a,art =External>.
There are other grou,s of gri,,ing tools that could@ loosely 9e called ,liers@ 9ut they usually go under the na/es of gri,s or cla/,s. These include Mole%ty,e 'ri,sF 6hich can 9e loc7ed@ holding a co/,onent@ freeing u, the o,erators hand for other 6or7@ &i,e Cla/,s@ 6hich can 9e used for gri,,ing ,i,e unions@ and .li,%Coint =or 8ater &u/,> &liers that can ha2e se2eral@ different gri,,ing ranges@ due to their /ulti%,i2ot /echanis/s.
&age 3*
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
#.1.2* 8ire .ni,s =!i,,ers>
8ire .ni,s =6hich are also@ often@ called !i,,ers> can 9e found 6ith straight or diagonal Ba6s and are 9oth 2ery useful for cutting and stri,,ing 6ire. They are also useful for re/o2ing s,lit ,ins. Care /ust 9e used@ 6hen cutting 6ith 6ire sni,s@ as the cut%off ,ieces =loc7ing 6ire and s,lit ,in legs in ,articular> can fly off@ causing inBury or getting lost 6ithin the aircraft structure or engine 9ays@ 6hich could lead to corrosion or to the Ba//ing of 2ital control syste/s. #.1.20 .,anners@ .oc7ets and 8renches The co//onest s,anners are those 6hich are used on the standard hexagonal heads of 9olts@ nuts@ scre6s and si/ilarly sha,ed fastening de2ices. -ther s,anners are often referred to as s,ecial or non%standard s,anners@ and are used on different ty,es of scre6 thread fastenings. .o/e of these s,ecial s,anners ha2e a li/ited a,,lication@ 6hilst others are s,ecifically ,roduced for a ,articular co/,onent@ and 6ill only 9e found in s,ecial tool7its a,,lica9le to that co/,onent. Most s,anners are /anufactured fro/ case%hardened /ild steel@ hardened and te/,ered high%car9on steel or alloy%steel@ though there are so/e 6hich are /ade fro/ co,,er alloys@ 6here s,ar7%resistant tools are re;uired. The si4e of a s,anner@ is either /ar7ed on the Ba6 face@ or on the shan7@ in the units of the ty,e of thread syste/ 9eing used on the fastening de2ice. The units@ sho6n on a ,articular s,anner@ ho6e2er@ relate to different ,arts of the fastening de2ices =refer to Fig. 20>@ so a 7no6ledge of the s,anner si4ing syste/s is necessary. The t6o /ain si4ing syste/s are those of theF (ritish .tandard )nstitution =(.> and (ritish 1ssociation =(1> )/,erial syste/ 1/ericanAUnified =)/,erial> and the Metric syste/.
The (ritish .tandard syste/ uses )/,erial units =fractions of an inch etc.> and e/9races t6o of the three /ain thread syste/s@ used in (ritish engineering@ one of 6hich is no longer used in aircraft engineering. The si4ing@ on (. s,anners@ relates to the no/inal dia/eter of the nut@ 9olt or stud@ u,on 6hich the s,anner is to 9e used. For exa/,le@ a s,anner /ar7ed as O (. indicates that the s,anner is used on a OS dia/eter 9olt =nut@ stud etc.>@ although the actual distance across the Ba6s of this s,anner 6ould 9e 3.*23S.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 30
!"
engineering
Earlier (. s,anners can 9e found 6ith t6o figures sta/,ed adBacent to each other =e.g. "A1 (.8 1A2 (.F>. The (.8 figure relates to the 8hit6orth thread syste/@ 6hich is not used on aircraft@ due to its tendency to loosen 6hen su9Bected to 2i9ration. The (.F refers to the (ritish .tandard Fine thread 9ut@ to a2oid confusion@ the older syste/ has no6 9een 9rought into line 6ith the (. syste/@ so that a OS (. =(.F> s,anner can =for general engineering ,ur,oses> also 9e used on a OS 8hit6orth 9oltAnut co/9ination. (ritish 1ssociation =the third (ritish thread syste/> si4es@ also use )/,erial /easure/ents@ and@ although they are in deci/al fractions of an inch@ they are re,resented 9y a 6hole nu/9er =2(1@ #(1@ (1 and so on> 6hich again relates to the no/inal dia/eter of the fastening de2ice. The 1/erican Fine and Unified thread syste/s@ also use )/,erial /easure/ents. The si4es@ sta/,ed on s,anners@ refer to the di/ensions across the s,anner Ba6s =or across the flats of the hexagon of the fastening de2ice>. 1 s,anner /ar7ed OS 1AF@ 6ould 9e used on a 9olt 6ith an actual dia/eter of 5A1 S. Metric s,anners are /ar7ed 6ith a nu/9er also denoting the 6idth =/illi/etres> across the flats@ of the hexagon sha,ed fastener on 6hich it is used.
(. and (1 =)/,erial> ?i/ensions
1/ericanAUnified =)/,erial> and Metric ?i/ensions
.,anner .i4ing .yste/s Fig. 20 )t is i/,ortant that the correct ,rocedure is follo6ed to a2oid incorrect tools 9eing used to install or re/o2e a nut@ 9olt@ stud or any other fastening de2ice. )n so/e instances the correct tool si4e /ay 9e ;uoted in the /aintenance /anual. This /ust 9e strictly follo6ed.
&age #3
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
There are so /any tool catalogues@ cra//ed 6ith a 9e6ildering range of tools that it is i/,ossi9le to include so /any in these course notes. .o/e of the /ore co//on s,anners and 6renches =in addition to the ,re2iously%/entioned tools>@ 6hich are lia9le to 9e found in the a2erage tool7it@ of an aircraft /aintenance technician@ include such general tools asF .et =-,en%Ca6> .,anners +ing .,anners Flare !ut .,anners. .oc7ets 1llen :eys Tor;ue 8renches.
The .et or -,en%Ca6 s,anners are usually /ade in dou9le%ended for/@ to ,ro2ide t6o a2aila9le si4es in one tool. The o,en Ba6s are set at an angle =usually 15M> to the axis of the shan7@ 6hich is a useful feature@ 9ecause =6hen re,lacing nuts and 9olts in restricted s,aces>@ 9y turning the s,anner o2er@ the nut or 9olt can 9e a,,roached fro/ a different angle. They are not@ ho6e2er@ totally satisfactory de2ices@ as the Ba6s only 9ear against t6o of the a2aila9le six flats of the hexagon. There is al6ays the tendency for the Ba6s to s,ring o,en 6hen force is a,,lied to the s,anner. +ing s,anners are ,referred to set s,anners as they gi2e full enclosure of the hexagonal head of the nut or 9olt@ each corner of 6hich engages snugly 6ithin an angle in the a,erture of the s,anner. This a,erture is usually 9i%hexagonal@ to facilitate the use of the s,anner 6hen angular /o2e/ent is restricted. +ing s,anners are usually su,,lied in dou9le%ended for/@ to fit nuts and 9olts of consecuti2e si4es. The ends are nor/ally offset 9ut straight =and also cran7ed> ty,es of ring s,anners can 9e o9tained. Flare !ut s,anners are designed 6ith a ga, in the ring@ 6hich allo6s the s,anner to 9e ,laced o2er a ,i,eline or electrical loo/@ and then to 9e /o2ed onto the hexagon of the union nut or ,lug. .oc7ets s,anners =9ut@ /ore co//only@ si/,ly referred to as soc7ets> ty,ically@ ha2e a six% or t6el2e%,ointed o,ening@ designed to enclose different si4ed nuts and 9olt heads in one end@ 6ith a s;uare hole@ for the standard T 9ar dri2er =or an alternati2e turning de2ice>@ in the other end. .oc7et sets are a2aila9le in a 2ariety of dri2e si4es. $o6e2er@ in aircraft /aintenance@ the NS s;uare dri2e and the 3A*S s;uare dri2e are the /ost ,o,ular. -ther si4es a2aila9le are the OS@ RS and 1S s;uare dri2es.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age #1
!"
engineering
.oc7ets are a2aila9le in 9oth )/,erial and Metric si4es =though the dri2e si4es tend to 9e ;uoted in )/,erial units> and can 9e used 6ith se2eral accessories@ 6hich greatly facilitate the use of the soc7ets and extend the range of their a,,lication. The soc7et s,anners are usually su,,lied in co/,lete sets@ of incre/ental si4es to suit 2arious tas7s. ?ee, soc7ets are used 6here a 9olt extends further through a nut than nor/al@ ,re2enting the use of a standard soc7et. They are also used to re/o2e s,ar7 ,lugs fro/ ,iston%ty,e aero engines. The /ain accessories@ su,,lied 6ith soc7et sets@ can =in addition to the standard T 9ar dri2er> includeF +atchet $andles ?ri2e (ars .,eed (races Extension (ars Uni2ersal Coints Con2erterA1da,ters.
+atchet handles allo6 the turning to continue@ e2en if the s,ace does not allo6 full rotation of the nor/al T 9ar dri2er. Most ratchets are re2ersi9le@ either 9y the use of a selector le2er or 9y the s;uare dri2e 9eing a9le to 9e floated through the /echanis/@ to 9e a2aila9le on 9oth sides of the ratchet handle. ?ri2e 9ars are usually ,roduced 6ith long handles and so@ should nor/ally 9e used only to 9rea7 the stic7 of a tight nut and not for tightening u,. These are also 7no6n as 9rea7er 9ars or 7nuc7le 9ars. .,eed 9races can ha2e a soc7et or scre6dri2er 9lade sna,,ed onto their ends. They are nor/ally used to turn do6n nuts or scre6s@ 6hich ha2e /any threads 9efore they tighten%u,. Final tightening is co/,leted using either a T 9ar@ a ratchet handle or =/ore usually> a tor;ue 6rench. Extension 9ars are used 6here access for a standard dri2e handle is restricted. Extension 9ars are /ade fro/ forged alloy steel and co/e in a range of no/inal lengths fro/ 53 // =2 in> to 1 / =30 in>. Uni2ersal Boints allo6 tightening of nuts@ 9olts and scre6s 6here it is not ,ossi9le to o9tain access in a straight line. They function 9etter if the angle they are 6or7ing through is not too great. Con2erterA1da,ters allo6 soc7ets fro/ one ty,e of dri2e to 9e used 6ith another ty,e. For exa/,le@ a 3A*S dri2e soc7et 6ith a 1A#S dri2e ratchet 6ould use a ste,% u, or ste,%do6n ada,ter. Care /ust 9e ta7en@ 6hen using larger dri2e e;ui,/ent on s/aller soc7ets@ that the nuts or scre6s are not o2er tightened.
&age #2 "1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
Certain 9olts and scre6s@ are sun7 =or set> 9elo6 the surface of a co/,onent and are used for loc7ing ,ur,oses. These set%9olts and set%scre6s@ ha2e a hexagonal recess in their heads and the tool used for tightening and loosening these 9olts and scre6s is the 1llen :ey =also called 1llen 8renches>. 1llen :eys are /ade fro/ hexagonal%section@ steel 9ar@ suita9ly hardened and te/,ered and are cran7ed at 03 to gi2e the desired le2erage. 1llen 7eys are su,,lied in a 2ariety of si4es to locate 6ith the recesses in the 2arious scre6s and 9olts. They are classified =in Metric or )/,erial units>@ 9y the di/ension across the flats of the hexagon 9ar fro/ 6hich they are /ade. The holding ,o6er@ of a threaded fastener is greatly increased@ 6hen it is ,laced under an initial tensile load that is greater than the loads to 6hich the fastener is@ nor/ally@ su9Bected. This tas7 is acco/,lished@ 9y tightening a 9olt or nut@ to a ,re%deter/ined tor;ue or ,re%load. )f a fastener is under%tor;ued@ there is danger of the Boint 9eing su9Bected to unnecessary loads@ leading to ,re/ature failure. 8hen a fastener is o2er%tor;ued then the threads are o2er stressed and can fail. 1 Tor;ue 8rench is a ,recision tool that go2erns the a/ount of force a,,lied to a fastener and allo6s accurate tor;ue 2alues to 9e a,,lied consistently. Under controlled conditions@ the a/ount of force re;uired to turn a fastener is directly related to the tensile stress 6ithin the fastener. The a/ount of tor;ue is the ,roduct of the turning force /ulti,lied 9y the distance 9et6een the centre of the fastener and the ,oint at 6hich the force is a,,lied =usually the length of the 6rench handle>. Ta9le # sho6s 2arious units of tor;ue@ including )/,erial@ Metric and .) 2alues. Ta9le # <1+)-U. U!)T. -F T-+KUE Metric 7ilogra/ force /etre =7gf./> 7ilogra/ force centi/etre =7gf.c/>
)/,erial ,ound force foot =l9f.ft> ,ound force inch =l9f.in>
.) !e6ton /etre =!/> centi%!e6ton /etre =c!/>
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age #3
!"
engineering
?eflecting (ea/ Torsion (ar Toggle Ty,e.
There are@ again@ /any different designs of tor;ue 6renches@ so consideration is gi2en here only to three 9asic ty,es of tor;ue 6rench. They are theF
The ?eflecting (ea/ tor;ue 6rench@ has a s;uare dri2e@ on one end of an accurately%ground 9ea/@ 6ith a handle@ /ounted on a ,i2ot@ at the other end. 1 ,ointer is attached to the s;uare dri2e end of the 9ea/@ 6hilst a scale is attached to the 9ea/ near the handle. 8hen a force is a,,lied to the handle@ the 9ea/ 9ends and the ,ointer deflects o2er the scale. The deflection is directly ,ro,ortional to the tor;ue a,,lied. The Torsion (ar tor;ue 6rench@ uses the ,rinci,le that a 9ar accurately deflects in torsion@ as 6ell as 9ending@ 6hen a force is a,,lied. The s;uare dri2e is accurately ground and has a rac7 gear on one end. 8hen the 9ar is t6isted@ the rac7 /o2es across a ,inion gear in a dial indicator@ 6hich sho6s the a/ount of 9ar deflection. The dial is cali9rated in units of tor;ue. The Toggle ty,e of tor;ue 6rench@ is ,re%set to the desired tor;ue 9efore it is ,ut on a fastener. 8hen this ,re%set tor;ue is reached@ a sound =a clic7>@ is heard and the handle releases a fe6 degrees@ indicating that the set tor;ue 2alue has 9een exerted. -nce this release occurs@ then all force is re/o2ed. !oteL 8hen a castellated nut is 9eing tor;ue loaded@ it /ust@ first@ 9e tor;ued to the lo6est 2alue of the gi2en tor;ue range. The tor;ue /ay then 9e increased until the holes are in line@ 9ut 9efore the /axi/u/ tor;ue 2alue is reached.
&age ##
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
3#$ C-mm-n P-8e& T--l'
&o6ered tools ha2e to 9e treated 6ith res,ect 9ecause they can inBure@ and in exce,tional cases@ can cause death if they are incorrectly o,erated. (efore using any ,o6ered /achineAtool@ ,ersonnel /ust /a7e sure thatF They ha2e 9een ,ro,erly trained and are currently authorised to use it 1ll ,rotecti2e guards and fences are securely in ,lace !o ,art of the 9ody or clothing can co/e into contact 6ith /o2ing ,arts &rotecti2e clothing is fastened and nec7 ties =if 6orn> tuc7ed in or re/o2ed 1ll rings and other Be6ellery are re/o2ed .afety glassesAgoggles are 6orn 6here2er there is a de9ris ris7 8here necessary@ the a,,ro,riate fire extinguisher is readily to hand 1 safety /at is a2aila9le to stand on 6here electrical /achinery is used Machinery is chec7ed for any T8arningP notices indicating it is unsafe for use.
&ossi9ly the /ost co//on /ethod of ,o6ering tools is through the use of electricity@ 6hich is readily a2aila9le fro/ the ac /ains su,,ly and can also 9e ,ro2ided fro/ ,orta9le@ dc 9atteries. $o6e2er@ 9ecause of the fire ha4ard@ associated 6ith the o,eration of electrically ,o6ered tools@ and 6here there is a ,ossi9ility of fla//a9le 2a,ours 9eing ,resent@ ,neu/atically ,o6ered hand tools are ,ro2ided for aircraft /aintenance tas7s@ such as drilling@ cutting@ sha,ing@ scre6 dri2ing@ ri2eting@ nut running and setting. 1s ,re2iously /entioned@ these ,neu/atic tools /ay 9e o,erated fro/ a fixed air su,,ly gallery@ in a 6or7sho, or hangar@ or fro/ a /o9ile air co/,ressor. #.2.1 Electrically &o6ered &illar ?rills Electrically ,o6ered@ &illar ?rills@ are used for hea2y%duty drilling tas7s@ 6here larger drill si4es and rigid holding%do6n of the 6or7,iece are re;uired. &illar drills also ha2e an ad2antage in that they are e;ui,,ed 6ith a /ethod of altering the s,eed of rotation =r,/> of the chuc7 to suit the /aterial 9eing drilled and the si4e =and ty,e> of the drill 9eing used. This flexi9ility is needed to ena9le drills of all si4es to cut efficiently and safely for different ty,es of /aterials. )f the r,/ of the /achine 6ere constant@ then the cutting s,eed of any drill 9eing used 6ould 9e de,endent u,on the dia/eter of the drill. ./all drills 6ould cut slo6ly and larger drills /ore ra,idly.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age #5
!"
engineering
For exa/,le@ at a constant r,/@ a ,oint@ on the circu/ference of a drill 6ith a dia/eter of 13 //@ 6ill tra2el t6ice as far@ and cut at a /uch faster rate@ than a si/ilar ,oint on a drill@ 6hich has a dia/eter of 5 //. 1t this excessi2e r,/@ the larger drill 6ould 9eco/e 2ery difficult to control and 6ould@ al/ost certainly@ 9e da/aged 9y o2er%heating. The s,eed of rotation of /ost fixed drilling /achines /ay 9e changed@ either 9y /eans of a gear9ox or 9y a syste/ of coned ,ulleys. The 6or7@ 9eing drilled@ /ust 9e cla/,ed in a /anner that 6ill ,re2ent any /o2e/ent during the drilling o,eration. Failure to o9ser2e this ,recaution /ay result in s,oilt 6or7@ a 9ro7en drill and it /ay also cause serious inBuries. 5arger ,ieces of 6or7 are cla/,ed directly to the drilling ta9le of the /achine@ 6hereas s/all ite/s are usually held in a /achine 2ice@ 6hich has s/ooth Ba6s. )t is essential to ensure that the ,oint of the drill aligns 6ith the centre ,unch /ar7 and ade;uate cutting fluid =6here re;uired> is a,,lied 9efore drilling starts. #.2.2 Electrically &o6ered $and ?rills These drills are useful in certain locations 6hen 6or7 cannot 9e ta7en to a fixed@ ,illar drill and 6here there is no ris7 of fire fro/ infla//a9le /aterials or 2a,our. They are ;uic7er than the hand 9race and@ 6hen used correctly@ can 9e ,erfectly safe. The s/aller electric drills ha2e a .5 // =NS> chuc7@ 6hilst other larger drills can 9e found 6ith chuc7 si4es u, to 13 // =OS> and larger. This si4e classification si/,ly indicates the largest si4e of t6ist drill that the chuc7 6ill hold. (attery ,o6ered =cordless>@ drills offer /ore freedo/ than ac ,o6ered or ,neu/atically ,o6ered drills@ 9ut they should not 9e used in the 2icinity of fla//a9le 2a,ours as they are not considered to 9e s,ar7 ,roof. #.2.3 &neu/atically &o6ered $and ?rills The ty,e of ,neu/atic drill@ used for a s,ecific tas7@ de,ends 2ery /uch on the access a2aila9le. Three ty,ical ty,es of ,neu/atic hand drills@ in co//on use@ are theF .traight ?rills 1ngled ?rills &istol 'ri, ?rills.
.traight ?rills ha2e con2entional chuc7s and 7eys to acce,t t6ist drills 6ith dia/eters u, to 5 // =13A #P> and ha2e ,ush%9utton o,eration. These drills can 9e used for all con2entional drilling o,erations 6here direct access is ,ossi9le.
&age # "1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1ngled ?rills are a2aila9le for drilling holes in ,ositions 6here access is not ,ossi9le 6ith straight ty,es. The /ost co//on ty,es of angled drills are the 1ngled and -ffset $ead drills =refer to Fig. 33>@ 9oth of 6hich 6ill acce,t t6ist drills 6ith dia/eters in si4es u, to #.* // =3A1 P>. Each drill si4e re;uires its o6n chuc7 collet@ 6hich is tightened into ,lace 6ith collet s,anners. &istol 'ri, ?rills =refer to Fig. 33>@ ha2e standard chuc7 and 7ey arrange/ents@ acce,t t6ist drills of dia/eters u, to * // =5A1 P> and ha2e a trigger o,eration. 1ll drills /ay 9e found 6ith 9uilt%in filters@ ,re%set co/,ressed air ,ressure% reducing de2ices and a re;uire/ent for lu9rication. The air su,,ly is nor/ally 2ia a ;uic7 release@ /ale and fe/ale cou,ling =9ayonet ty,e>@ allo6ing the tool to 9e /o2ed fro/ ,lace to ,lace@ as the 6or7 re;uires.
Ty,ical 1ngled and &istol 'ri, &neu/atic $and ?rill Fig. 33
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age #"
!"
engineering

#.2.# &neu/atically &o6ered +i2eting $a//ers The t6o 9asic ty,es@ into 6hich these ha//ers /ay 9e di2ided@ areF .hort%.tro7eF fast%hitting ha//ers@ 6hich ,roduce light 9lo6s 5ong%.tro7eF slo6er%hitting ha//ers@ 6hich ,roduce hea2y 9lo6s.
The short%stro7e ha//ers are usually used for 3A32S or 1A*S ri2ets and their 9odies are /ade fro/ light%6eight@ alu/iniu/ alloy castings. The long%stro7e ha//ers /ay 9e of either the slo6%hitting@ reci,rocating ty,e@ or /ay 9e a one%shot ty,e@ that dri2es the ri2et set only one 9lo6 at a ti/e@ 6hen the trigger is ,ulled. These ha//ers are used to dri2e the larger ri2ets and are /uch hea2ier than the fast%hitting ha//ers. ?ifferent handle styles are ,ro2ided for 9oth ty,es of ha//ers =refer to Fig. 31>. The &istol 'ri, and .6an !ec7 are the /ost ,o,ular styles@ 6ith the &ush (utton =.traight> ty,e 9eing a2aila9le for s,ecial a,,lications 6here access is not ,ossi9le for either of the /ore ,o,ular styles of ha//er.
&istol 'ri,
.6an !ec7
&ush (utton or .traight
&neu/atic +i2eting $a//ers Fig. 31
&age #*
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
#.2.5 &neu/atic Miller =Microsha2er> Certain hollo6 ri2ets lea2e a /andrel ,roBecting fro/ the 6or7 after the closing action. These are re/o2ed@ lea2ing a flush surface@ 9y careful use of a Miller or Microsha2er =refer Fig. 32>. The /iller has an adBusta9le sto,@ to ,re2ent the cutting tool =6hich rotates at high s,eed>@ fro/ da/aging the aircraft s7in. T6o ru99er feet gi2e the tool sta9ility during the cutting o,eration. 8hen the shan7 of the ri2et is closed into a countersun7 hole =6here the ri2et is installed fro/ inside the aircraft s7in>@ there can 9e a s/all a/ount of /etal ,roBecting a9o2e the s7in line. This excess /etal is also re/o2ed using a /iller.
Unfor/ed +i2et
For/ed +i2et
Milled +i2et
&neu/atic Miller Fig. 32 #.2. !i99lers !i99ler are tools used for rough cutting s/all%to%/ediu/ si4ed holes in s7ins@ radio chassis@ instru/ent ,anels and other light alloy sheets. 8hilst a hand% o,erated ni99ler can@ occasionally@ 9e found in use@ the ,o6ered ni99ler =,o6ered 9y either electricity or co/,ressed air>@ is the /ost co//on ty,e of tool. The /achine o,erates 9y using a reci,rocating ,unch to cut a groo2e out of the /etal@ in s/all 9ites or ni99les. The holes@ that ha2e 9een ni99led@ ha2e to 9e filed and cleaned after6ards@ to the li/it /ar7s of the true hole. -ne li/itation@ of the ,o6ered ni99ler@ is that it can 9eco/e uncontrolla9le@ if it is not held securely 9y the o,erator. Care and s7ill 6ill@ thus@ 9e re;uired to ta7e ad2antage of the 9enefits of the tool@ na/ely its fast re/o2al of /etal 6hen hole cutting is in2ol2ed.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age #0
!"
engineering
#.2." &neu/atic Tool Maintenance 8hen used@ /aintained and stored correctly@ air o,erated tools ha2e a long and trou9le%free life. They 6ill not@ ho6e2er@ tolerate lac7 of lu9rication@ nor the entry of /oisture and foreign ,articles introduced 2ia the air su,,ly. These effects can 9e reduced 9yF

?raining the oil and 6ater tra,s in the air su,,ly syste/ at least daily and /ore often if the tools are in ,rolonged use. Ensuring that 9oth the /ale and fe/ale ,arts of the air su,,ly cou,lings are clean 9efore the connection is /ade. (efore using a tool@ introducing the s,ecified lu9ricating oil into the air su,,ly o,ening@ in the correct ;uantity. (efore the tool is stored@ after use@ re,eating the lu9ricating ,rocedure and o,erating the tool as slo6ly as ,ossi9le@ to distri9ute the lu9ricant throughout the tool.
#.2.* 19rasi2e 8heels The /ost co//on ty,es of 19rasi2e =or 'rinding> 8heels@ found in 6or7sho,s are the dou9le%6heeled@ 9ench%/ounted /achines@ 6ith a coarse a9rasi2e 6heel@ used for ra,id /etal re/o2al@ and a finer grade 6heel@ used for s/oother 6or7. &rotecti2e guards are secured around the /o2ing ,arts@ for the ,rotection of the o,erator@ and adBusta9le rests are ,ro2ided for the su,,ort of tools@ during grinding o,erations. 1 6ord of caution is necessary here@ 9ecause of the ter/s that are =carelessly> a,,lied to the 2arious a9rasi2es@ 6hich /ay 9e used in engineering ,rocedures. The t6o /ain ty,es of a9rasi2es@ used for grinding 6heels@ areF 1lu/iniu/ -xide or Corundu/F next in hardness to dia/ond@ the 9lue 2ariety of 6hich is the sa,,hire@ 6hile the red 2ariety is the ru9y .ilicon Car9ideF for/ed 9y the fusing together of silica =or sand> 6ith car9on@ in an electric furnace.
1lu/iniu/ -xide =Corundu/>@ a9rasi2e 6heels are used for steel and other ferrous /etals of high tensile strength. .ilicon Car9ide =9etter 7no6n under the trade na/e of Car9orundu/>@ 6heels are used@ ,ri/arily@ for hard@ 9rittle /etals such as cast iron@ 9ut /ay also 9e used for grinding alu/iniu/@ 9rass@ 9ron4e or co,,er. 8heels@ 6hich are designated for use 6ith steels@ /ust !E<E+@ under any circu/stances@ 9e used for the grinding of any other /aterials@ and in ,articular@ !-T soft /aterials =light and co,,er alloys@ 6ood@ ,lastics etc.>.
!"
engineering
These /aterials are lia9le to clog the 6heel and@ if ignited 9y a s,ar7@ 6ill cause the 6heel to ex,lode@ 6ith de2astating conse;uences. -nly authorised ,ersonnel are allo6ed to use a9rasi2e 6heels and@ 9efore use@ it is /andatory to ensure thatF The /achine is securely attached to the 9ench or 6all The 6heels are secure@ not chi,,ed and ha2e no excessi2e 9earing ,lay The o,erators clothes are not loose or in danger of fouling the 6heel .uita9le fire extinguishers are a2aila9le 1ll guards are correctly attached and secure The tool rests are set at /ini/u/ distance@ clear of the 6heels &rotecti2e goggles@ in addition to any safety screens@ are 6orn The o,erator stands on an insulated /at@ 6here ,ro2ided.
?uring grinding o,erations@ the ite/@ 9eing ground@ should 9e /o2ed in alternate directions@ across the 6idth of the 6heel@ so that the grinding area of the 6heel 6ill re/ain flat and true and 6ill not 9eco/e dangerously groo2ed. 1n une2en or groo2ed 6heel 6ill re;uire dressing =and@ ,ossi9ly@ need 9eing trued> 9y a ;ualified dresser@ using s,ecial fixtures and extra%hard tools. Care /ust 9e ta7en@ during grinding@ to ensure that tools do not 9eco/e o2erheated. Cutting tools =chisels@ ,unches etc.> 6ill ha2e their te/,er dra6n fro/ the/ if they get too hot@ so that it is necessary to ensure that the ite/ is 7e,t as cool as ,ossi9le@ 9y the fre;uent use of 6ater or@ ,ossi9ly@ a directed Bet of cooling air. 1fter co/,letion of the grinding tas7@ the /achine should 9e s6itched off@ 9ut it should not 9e left until the 6heels 9eco/e stationary@ as this ta7es a little ti/e and =,articularly in a noisy 6or7sho,>@ unattended@ rotating 6heels ,ose a danger to unsus,ecting ,ersonnel.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 51
!"
engineering
3#+ P&eci'i-n Mea'!&in0 In'(&!men(' &recision Measuring )nstru/ents are ,ro2ided to /easure di/ensions to a greater accuracy than can 9e o9tained 9y the use of a si/,le engineers rule. 8here the s/allest graduation on a rule is usually either 1 // or@ ,erha,s@ 1A #S@ ,recision instru/ents are a2aila9le 6hich /easure to 3.31 // or to 3.3331P. The ,recision instru/ents /entioned here 6ould nor/ally 9e found either in a 6or7sho, en2iron/ent or in a clean roo/@ 6hich /ay 9e ,art of a co/,anys Kuality ?e,art/ent. )t should also 9e noted that@ 6hilst 2ery 9asic for/s of the different instru/ents are descri9ed@ in order that the ,rinci,les of o,eration 9e understood@ the actual ,recision instru/ents@ found in 6or7sho,s and clean roo/s /ay a,,ear ;uite different and@ in all ,ro9a9ility@ 6ill ,ossess digital readout facilities. #.3.1 External Micro/eters 1n External Micro/eter =refer to Fig. 33>@ as the na/e i/,lies@ is used for /easuring =or testing the le2el of accuracy of> the external si4es of o9Bects. 'raduated (arrel 6ith Fiducial 5ine .,indle 1n2il 'raduated Thi/9le 5oc7ing +ing +atchet .to,
Fra/e
External Micro/eter Fig. 33 The standard =or co//on> external /icro/eter consists of an a,,ro,riately sha,ed fra/e@ to one end of 6hich is attached an internally threaded 9arrel =or slee2e>.
&age 52
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1 ,artially@ externally threaded s,indle@ located in a hollo6@ tu9ular thi/9le@ is a9le to 9e scre6ed into =or out of> the slee2e 9y /eans of rotating the thi/9le. The 6or7ing ti, of the s,indle has an accurately /achined face@ to /atch the e;ually accurately /achined face of the an2il. The an2il is located at the o,,osite end of the fra/e and@ 6ith the s,indle /o2ed sufficiently@ the o9Bect to 9e /easured is ,laced 9et6een the faces of the an2il and the s,indle. The ratchet sto, is used to rotate the thi/9le so that the s,indle /o2es until the o9Bect is held 9et6een the faces of the s,indle and the an2il. To ,re2ent distortion of the fra/e and to ensure that the reading is constant 6hen ta7en 9y different users of the instru/ent@ the ratchet sto, sli,s =3 clic7sU> 6hen sufficient ,ressure is a,,lied to the o9Bect 9eing /easured. The ,rinci,le of the /icro/eter is 9ased on the lead of the scre6 thread. This is the distance the thread /o2es@ either for6ards or 9ac76ards@ during one co/,lete re2olution of the thi/9le. )f the lead is 7no6n@ together 6ith the nu/9er of re2olutions@ then the total distance the scre6 /o2es can 9e calculated. The circu/ference of the thi/9le and the length of the 9arrel are graduated to indicate the /easure/ent of the o9Bect that is in contact 6ith the faces of the an2il and the s,indle. The 9arrel also has a datu/ =fiducial> line@ against 6hich the /easure/ents are /ade@ fro/ the 9e2elled end of the thi/9le as it unco2ers the /ar7ings on the fiducial line. The thi/9le is 9e2elled so that its graduations are 9rought close to those on the fiducial line. The 9e2elling eli/inates shado6s and also lessens ,arallax error 6hen reading the /easure/ent. The 9ody of the /icro/eter usually has a /att finish@ 6hich ser2es to reduce glare and@ thus@ aids accurate readings. The loc7ing ring =so/e /icro/eters ha2e a loc7ing le2er> is used to loc7 the s,indle@ 6hen the instru/ent is e/,loyed as a fixed =or sna,> gauge. The /echanis/ of the external /icro/eter is arranged so that the s,indle face can only /o2e 9et6een 3 % 25 // =or 3 D 1in> fro/ the an2il face and@ thus@ the standard /icro/eter has the ca,a9ility to /easure ite/s 6hich are in this range. For larger ite/s@ the si4e of the fra/e is si/,ly increased in successi2e incre/ents of 25 // =or 1in>. For exa/,le@ the next si4e of /icro/eter 6ould 9e a9le to /easure 9et6een 25 // D 53 // =1 in D 2 in>@ the next 53 // D "5 // =2 in D 3 in> and so on. 8hile the fra/es increase in si4e to acco//odate the larger ite/s@ the s,indle /o2e/ent =of external /icro/eters> re/ains in the range of 3 D 25 // =3 D 1 in>.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 53
!"
engineering
(oth Metric and )/,erial /icro/eters =6hile their units of /easure/ent are different>@ are o,erated in a si/ilar /anner. The Metric /icro/eter uses a thread ,itch and@ thus@ a lead@ of 3.5 // =t6o threads ,er /illi/etre>@ so that the thi/9le /o2es o2er the 9arrel a distance of 3.5 // ,er re2olution. The fiducial line@ on the 9arrel@ is /ar7ed in incre/ents of 3.5 // and 1 //@ 6ith nu/erals at inter2als of 5 // =5@ 13@ 15@ etc.> to 25 //. The thi/9le has a total of 53 /ar7ings@ so that one thi/9le di2ision re,resents 1A53 of 3.5 //@ or 3.31 //. 8hen reading a Metric /icro/eter =refer to Fig. 3#> it is@ first of all@ necessary to decide on the nu/9er of di2isions@ on the fiducial line@ 6hich are ex,osed 9y the thi/9le and to note the di2ision on the thi/9le 6hich also coincides 6ith the fiducial line. The su9se;uent actions@ to arri2e at the di/ension 9eing /easured@ are toF !ote the nu/9er of /ain di2isions ex,osed =as sho6n at 1 V *.33 //> !ote the additional nu/9er of su9%di2isions =as sho6n at ( V 3.53 //> !ote the nu/9er of di2isions on the thi/9le =as sho6n at C V 3.2* //> 1dd all the nu/9ers together to ,ro2ide the total di/ension =*."* //>.
Fiducial 5ine =3.5 // di2isions> (arrel
Thi/9le =3.31 // di2isions>
33 3 5 25
( 1
1 V ( V C V Total V
*.33 // 3.53 // 3.2* // *."* //
Metric Micro/eter +eading Fig. 3#
&age 5#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
)/,erial Micro/eters /easure in deci/als of an inch. Their scre6 threads ha2e forty threads ,er inch@ gi2ing a lead of 1A#3S =3.325S>@ 6hich is the length of each su9%di2ision on the fiducial line and re,resents one re2olution of the thi/9le. The thi/9le circu/ference is@ no6@ di2ided into only 25 e;ual di2isions@ /a7ing one di2ision read 1A25 of 1A#3P@ 6hich e;uals 1A1333P =or 3.331S> /o2e/ent of the s,indle. (arrel /ar7ings are /ade at each tenth of an inch =1@ 2@ 3@ #@ etc> 6ith four su9% di2isions 9et6een each /ain /ar7. 1gain@ in a si/ilar /anner to the Metric /icro/eter@ 6hen ta7ing a di/ension@ it is necessary to deduce the nu/9er of di2ision@ on the fiducial line@ ex,osed 9y the thi/9le. !ext note the /ar7 on the thi/9le 6hich aligns 6ith the fiducial line and follo6 si/ilar actions to those e/,loyed 6ith the Metric /icro/eter. )f@ for exa/,le@ nineteen di2isions@ on the 9arrel of an )/,erial /icro/eter@ 6ere ex,osed@ 6hile the eighth /ar7 on the thi/9le aligned 6ith the fiducial line@ then the total di/ension 6ould consist ofF Four 1A13P di2isions =sixteen 1A#3P di2isions> on the 9arrel Three further 1A#3P di2isions on the 9arrel =/a7ing nineteen in all> Eight 1A1333P di2isions on the thi/9le
)n this exa/,le the total di/ension 6ould 9e 3.#33P W 3.3"5P W 3.33*P V 3.#*3P. To ensure the integrity of any di/ensions it is i/,erati2e that the faces of the s,indles and an2ils of /icro/eters are 7e,t scru,ulously clean. Micro/eters should 9e stored in a ,rotecti2e case@ ,refera9ly 6ith a sachet of desiccant =or <&) ,a,er> and not used in extre/es of te/,erature =the te/,erature of a standards roo/ is usually /aintained at 23MC>. !e2er store a /icro/eter 6ith its s,indle and an2il in contact. Changes in te/,erature 6ill cause distortion of the fra/e@ 6ith the o92ious conse;uences. &rior to use@ the accuracy of a /icro/eter should 9e confir/ed 9y doing a chec7 on the 4ero setting =6ith the s,indle and an2il faces in contact> and a sa/,le chec7 =using sli, gauges or si/ilar@ accurate standard test ,ieces>@ of /easure/ents 6ithin the range of the /icro/eter. )t is ,ossi9le to do adBust/ents 6ith s,ecial tools@ 6hich are ,ro2ided 6ith /icro/eters@ 9ut any adBust/ents should nor/ally@ only 9e done 9y ;ualified ,ersonnel@ 6ho 6ill then certify that the /icro/eter is accurate enough@ to 9e used for aeros,ace 6or7.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 55
!"
engineering
#.3.2 )nternal Micro/eters
)nternal /icro/eters are used for the ,recision /easuring of internal di/ensions@ using /uch the sa/e ,rinci,les as those used 6ith the external ty,es. 8hile there are /any designs for internal /icro/eters@ to suit ,articular tas7s@ s,ace =and ti/e> dictates that consideration 9e gi2en here only to the ty,e /ore co//only referred to as the .tic7 /icro/eter =refer to Fig. 35>@ 6hich is found in 9oth )/,erial and Metric 2ersions.
$andle =re,laced 9y a 'ru9 .cre6 6hen the $andle is not re;uired>
Collar
Extension +od
)nternal .tic7 Micro/eter Fig. 35 1n )/,erial@ .tic7 /icro/eter@ consists of a /icro/eter head@ 6ith an o2erall closed length of only 1OP@ a s,acing collar 6hich has a length of OS and ten extension rods. The lengths of the rods increase in incre/ents of one inch@ 6ith the shortest length 9eing OP and the longest 0OP =e.g. OP@ 1OP@ 2OP etc.>. The internal /icro/eter differs fro/ the external ty,e in that the thi/9le tra2el is only half an inch and so@ fro/ closed@ the /icro/eter is ca,a9le of /easuring internal di/ensions fro/ 1OP u, to 2P. For di/ensions greater than 2P it is then necessary to close the /icro/eter and attach the s/allest extension rod =OP>@ ena9ling di/ensions u, to 2OP to 9e /easured. (y adding the s,acing collar =OP> 6ith the s/allest extension rod@ /easure/ents u, to 3P can 9e /ade@ then@ 9y re/o2ing 9oth collar and rod and using the next rod =length 1OP>@ it is ,ossi9le to /easure di/ensions u, to 3OP. 8ith alternate use of extension rod and rodAcollar co/9inations@ the )/,erial internal /icro/eter has a /easuring range fro/ 1OP to 12P.
2 1 0
Micro/eter $ead
!"
engineering
8ith Metric internal /icro/eters@ si/ilar ,rinci,les are used@ 9ut the di/ensions are@ o92iously@ changed and are not directly related to the /easure/ents used 6ith the )/,erial ty,e. The closed 9ody length is 53 //@ thi/9le range is 13 //@ the collar length is also 13 // and the se2en extension rods are ,ro2ided in a selection of lengths@ 6hich allo6 /easure/ents =in incre/ents of 23 //>@ fro/ 53 // to 213 // to 9e /ade. #.3.3 Micro/eter ?e,th 'auge 8hilst only used in s,ecialist a,,lications@ a /icro/eter de,th gauge is useful 6hen the de,th of a groo2e or recess needs to 9e /easured 6ith ,recision. The de2ice =refer to Fig. 3 > has a standard /icro/eter head =9ut the scale@ on the 9arrel@ is re2ersed> /ounted onto a ,recisely ground 9ase. 8hen the s,indle of the /icro/eter is flush 6ith the face of the 9ase@ then the de,th gauge reads 4ero and the thi/9le is at its /axi/u/ distance fro/ the 9ase. To /easure the de,th of a recess@ the 9ase is ,laced o2er the groo2e and the s,indle scre6ed do6n until it contacts the 9otto/ of the groo2e. The reading on the /icro/eter head indicates the groo2e de,th.
Micro/eter ?e,th 'auge Fig. 3
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5"
0 9 8
!"
engineering
#.3.# <ernier Micro/eters
.o/e /icro/eters =and other ,recision /easuring instru/ents>@ ha2e a <ernier scale@ 6hich ena9les the instru/ent to /easure to a greater accuracy. The <ernier ,rinci,le =in2entor &ierre <ernier 15*3 D 1 3">> utilises t6o accurately graduated scales. The /ain scale /ay 9e fixed@ 6hilst the other =the <ernier scale>@ /o2es ,arallel to the /ain scale =refer to Fig. 3">@ or@ de,ending on the instru/ent =such as 6ith /icro/eters>@ it could 9e the other 6ay round@ 6here the /ain scale /o2es 6hile the <ernier scale is stationary.
3 //
13
Main .cale
3 #
"
* 0
13
<ernier .cale
<ernier &rinci,le Fig. 3" )n the 2ery 9asic exa/,le =refer to Fig. 3"> ten di2isions on the <ernier scale are /ade to e;ual nine di2isions on the /ain scale@ so that one <ernier scale di2ision e;uals one tenth of nine /illi/etres =3.0 //>. The difference 9et6een one /ain% scale and one <ernier di2ision is@ therefore@ 3.1 //. 8hen the <ernier scale is /o2ed =to the right in this instance>@ so that the first of the s/aller <ernier di2isions is aligned 6ith the first /ain%scale di2ision@ the 4eros 6ill 9e dis,laced 9y exactly one tenth of one /illi/etre. )f this ,rinci,le is continued until the second di2ision of each scale is coincident@ then the 4eros 6ill ha2e /o2ed exactly t6o tenths of a /illi/etre a,art. Fro/ this it can 9e seen that@ 6hiche2er lines on the /ain and <ernier scales align@ then the 4ero =or datu/> /ar7s 6ill 9e dis,laced 9y the s/all a/ount sho6n on the <ernier scale.
&age 5*
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
8hen the <ernier ,rinci,le is a,,lied to a /icro/eter =refer to Fig. 3*>@ the <ernier scale is engra2ed on the 9arrel and is@ therefore@ stationary. The <ernier graduations are scaled@ usually@ to re,resent one tenth of those on the thi/9le@ 6hich ena9les a <ernier /icro/eter to read di/ensions to an accuracy of one tenth of that of a standard /icro/eter. Conse;uently the graduations on the <ernier of a Metric /icro/eter re,resent 3.331 //@ 6hile those on an )/,erial /icro/eter re,resent 3.3331P. The exa/,le sho6s a Metric /icro/eter reading@ 6here the graduation on the thi/9le scale does not exactly coincide 6ith the datu/ line on the 9arrel. The ,rocedure for reading the di/ension is toF !ote the /ain and su9 di2isions 2isi9le on the 9arrel =*.5> !ote the nearest thi/9le reading 9elo6 the datu/ line =2"> !ote the <ernier line 6hich aligns 6ith a thi/9le line = > 1dd the readings to ,ro2ide the total di/ension V *.533 // V 3.2"3 // V 3.33 // V *."" //.
1 si/ilar ,rocedure 6ould 9e follo6ed 6ith an )/,erial /icro/eter.
Ten <ernier .cale Mar7s on (arrel. 3 * # 2 3 (arrel Mar7ings 6ith Fiducial 5ine. 5
35
33
25
Thi/9le Mar7ings
<ernier Micro/eter Fig. 3* Care /ust 9e ta7en that it is the <ernier nu/9er@ 6hich is added@ and not the 2alue of the /ain scale =thi/9le> reading 6hich aligns 6ith the <ernier line. This is a co//on fault 6hen reading <erniers. )t /ay also 9e found ad2antageous@ to use a /agnifying glass@ to assist in the reading of the s/aller <ernier scale and in deciding 6hich lines are actually in align/ent.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 50
!"
engineering
#.3.5 <ernier Calli,ers
1 <ernier Calli,er =refer to Fig. 30>@ is a 2ersatile ,recision instru/ent@ used to /easure 9oth inside and outside di/ensions. )n /any situations@ a <ernier calli,er is faster to use than a /icro/eter 9ut@ ,ossi9ly@ needs greater s7ill in /ani,ulation in order to o9tain the correct feel and to@ thus@ ensure accurate readings. Calli,ers@ further/ore@ ha2e a 6or7ing range of u, to 153 // = in> as o,,osed to the /icro/eters /ore li/ited /o2e/ent. Ca6s for )nternal Measure/ent. Main .cale
<ernier .cale Ca6s for External Measure/ent <ernier Calli,er Fig. 30
&osition 5oc7
The <ernier scales on )/,erial instru/ents are accurate to 3.331 inch@ 6hile Metric <erniers ha2e an accuracy of 3.32 //. 8ith so/e ty,es of calli,er@ ni9s are located at the end of 9oth Ba6s. The ni9 si4e@ 6hich is etched on the Ba6@ /ust 9e added to any internal di/ensions that ha2e 9een /easured. T6o target ,oints /ay also 9e found on so/e calli,ers@ one on the 9ea/ and one on the sliding Ba6. These are used to set s,ring di2iders accurately@ 6hen they are 9eing used in a co/,arator /ode. The target ,oints are exactly the sa/e distance a,art as the reading on the <ernier and /ain scale.
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
#.3. <ernier $eight 'auge
The <ernier $eight 'auge =refer to Fig. #3> is si/ilar in construction to the <ernier calli,er@ exce,t that an accurately /achined@ solid 9ase re,laces the fixed Ba6 and the 9ea/ is /ounted ,er,endicular to the 9ase@ 6hich ena9les the instru/ent to 9e used on a surface ,late or ta9le. The /easure/ents@ on the 9ea/@ are read in the sa/e /anner as those on the <ernier Calli,er and they@ usually@ ha2e 9oth /etric and )/,erial /ar7ings on the sa/e face of the 9ea/. This instru/ent can 9e used for 2arious ,ur,oses@ 6hen used in conBunction 6ith other suita9le attach/ents. These can include /easuring height@ co/,aring and transferring height di/ensions =for /ar7ing%off>@ and also as a de,th gauge.
Fine 1dBust/ent Control
)nitial 5oc7ing .cre6
<ernier .cale
Final 5oc7ing .cre6
.cri9er
&recision%'round (ea/ and (ase
<ernier $eight 'auge Fig. #3
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
#.3." <ernier &rotractor
The <ernier &rotractor =refer to Fig. #1> ,ro2ides greater ,recision than is ,ossi9le 6hen using a standard 9e2el ,rotractor =or the ,rotractor head of a co/9ination set>@ and ena9les angles to 9e /easured to an accuracy of fi2e /inutes of arc. )t consists of a groo2ed 9lade@ a graduated ,rotractor head and a stoc7 6ith true edges. The ,rotractor head can 9e slid along the length of the 9lade to any re;uired ,osition and loc7ed. The stoc7 rotates a9out the centre of the ,rotractor and can also 9e loc7ed in any ,osition. The angles for/ed 9y the edges of the stoc7@ relati2e to the 9lade@ are indicated on the ,rotractor 9y an index /ar7 3 on the <ernier scale that is attached to the ri/ of the stoc7 disc. The ,rotractor scale is graduated in 1*3 fro/ each end@ /eeting at 03 at the /iddle. This ena9les 9oth acute and o9tuse angles to 9e /easured.
'roo2ed (lade
<ernier .cale under Magnifier (lade 5oc7ing ?e2ice
.toc7
Main .cale on $ead
Fine 1dBust/ent .cale 5oc7ing ?e2ice
<ernier &rotractor Fig. #1
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
The <ernier scale is for/ed into t6el2e e;ual ,arts@ 6hich are co/,ared to t6enty%three ,rotractor /ain scale di2isions =23M>@ so that one <ernier scale di2ision re,resents 23A12 V 1M 55. The difference 9et6een t6o ,rotractor scale di2isions =2M>@ and one <ernier scale di2ision@ =1M 55> is@ therefore@ 5 of arc. The <ernier scale has each third di2ision nu/9ered 15@ 33@ #5 and 3@ indicating the nu/9er of /inutes =6hich /a7e u, one degree>. There are t6o se,arate scales@ reading fro/ the centre 3 to left and right@ to /atch the t6o ,rotractor scales. The ,rotractor is read fro/ the 4ero on the ,rotractor scale to the 4ero on the <ernier scale. This ,ro2ides the nu/9er of 6hole degrees. The <ernier scale is read in the sa/e direction until the coinciding line is /et. The nu/9er of the coinciding line@ =indicating /inutes> /ust 9e added to the degrees@ read fro/ the ,rotractor scale@ to o9tain the total 2alue of the angle. 3#3 Mi'cellane-!' Mea'!&in0 T--l' There are a nu/9er of s,ecialist /easuring tools@ 6hich are@ usually@ only found in selected 6or7sho,s or in Kuality ?e,art/ents. These tools are nor/ally used in conBunction 6ith surface ,lates or ta9les@ 6hich are used to gi2e the /easuring o,eration a standard flat surface to 9ase the /easuring u,on. #.#.1 'auge (loc7s 'auge (loc7s =also 7no6n as .li, 'auges>@ are@ si/,ly@ ,recision%ground 9loc7s of /etal that are used either alone@ or in co/9ination 6ith other 9loc7s@ to gi2e extre/ely accurate /easure/ents. The 9loc7s are /ade fro/ high%car9on steel or ce/ented car9ide and are hardened@ ground and la,,ed so thatF

-,,osite faces are flat -,,osite faces are ,arallel -,,osite faces are @ accurately@ the stated distance a,art.
The o,,osite faces are of such a high degree of surface finish@ that@ 6hen t6o 9loc7s are 6rung =,ressed@ 6ith a si/ultaneous slight t6ist@ 9y hand> together@ they 6ill re/ain fir/ly attached to each other. This characteristic@ of gauge 9loc7s@ ena9le the/ to 9e 9uilt u,@ into co/9inations@ 6hich gi2e si4es 2arying in incre/ents of 3.31 // =3.333# in>@ and 6hose o2erall accuracy is of the order of 3.33325 // =3.33331 in> e2en 6ith 6or7sho, grade 9loc7s. 'auge 9loc7s are su,,lied in sets of 53@ "* or 135 ,ieces and ,rotecti2e 9loc7s are ,ro2ided for use 6ith ins,ection and 6or7sho, grades. The ,rotecti2e 9loc7s should@ 6here ,ossi9le@ 9e used as the end 9loc7s of all co/9inations@ and the s/allest nu/9er of gauge 9loc7s should al6ays 9e used 6hen /a7ing u, a co/9ination.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
#.#.2 ?ial Test )ndicator =?T)>
The ?ial Test )ndicator@ or ?T)@ consists of a s/all dial@ to the circu/ference of 6hich@ is connected a s,ring%loaded ,lunger. 8hen the ,lunger is ,laced on a surface and /o2ed o2er that surface =or the surface /o2ed 9eneath the ,lunger>@ any 2ariations in the surface condition 6ill 9e indicated on the dial of the gauge. 1 ?T) =also called a Cloc7 'auge> is used@ not for /easuring the actual si4e of a co/,onent@ 9ut to indicate s/all differences in si4e or for indicating the a/ount of eccentricity =,arallelis/@ run out> of re2ol2ing ,arts. )ts dial is graduated to indicate thousandths of an inch or@ in /etric 2alues@ in incre/ents of 3.31 // or 3.331 //@ de,ending on the sensiti2ity re;uired. The dial has the 4ero datu/ at the to, =12 ocloc7 ,osition>@ 6ith scales of e;ual 2alue to either side@ 6hich ena9les ,lus and /inus 2alues to 9e /easured. 1n i/,ortant feature of the gauge dial is that the dial can 9e rotated 9y a ring 9e4el@ ena9ling it to 9e readily set to 4ero. The gauge can thus 9e used as a co/,arator@ or as an instru/ent for co/,arati2e /easure/ents@ as 6ell as for direct /easure/ents. )nternally@ the ,lunger has a rac7 =or straight> gear@ 6hich dri2es a s/all ,inion. The ,inion is fixed to a larger gear@ 6hich dri2es a second ,inion. This ,inion is also fixed to a second@ larger gear@ 6hich dri2es a further@ third@ s/all ,inion to 6hich the ,ointer of the gauge is attached. The co/,ound gear train /agnifies the ,lunger /o2e/ent and out,uts its dis,lays@ 2ia the ,ointer@ onto the dial. 1 s,ring 7ee,s the ,lunger in contact 6ith the surface 9eing tested. The flatness of a surface of a 6or7,iece@ can 9e chec7ed@ 9y attaching a ?T) to a scri9ing 9loc7 that is standing on a surface ,late. The surface 9eing chec7ed is set 9eneath the ?T) ,lunger and the 9e4el is 4eroed. The 6or7,iece is /o2ed 9eneath the ?T) and 2ariations in flatness are dis,layed and ;uantified 9y the dial reading. 1 9ar /ay also 9e chec7ed for 9o6ing 9y using a ?T)@ attached to a scri9ing 9loc7@ 6hilst the 9ar is su,,orted 9y < 9loc7s. #.#.3 Feeler 'auges Feeler 'auges ha2e a 6ide a,,lication and consist of a series of thin@ flexi9le@ steel 9lades in 2arying thic7nesses =nor/ally fro/ 3.3# // to 1.33 // or fro/ 3.3315 in to 3.315 in>. The 9lades are secured in a ,rotecti2e@ /etal sca99ard@ 9y a ,in. )t is i/,ortant that those 9lades not in use should 9e 6ithdra6n into the sca99ard@ to ,re2ent accidental distortion@ es,ecially of the thinnest 9lades.
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engineering
Feeler gauges are used to /easure 2ery s/all@ fixed ga,s 9et6een faces. The 9lades are chosen to co/,ly 6ith the /easure/ent gi2en in the /aintenance instructions. .o/eti/es there 6ill only 9e a need to use a single 9lade 6hilst@ at other ti/es@ a co/9ination of 9lades /ay 9e re;uired to achie2e the gi2en di/ension. Feeler gauges are classified 9y the length of the 9lade. #.#.# .cre6 &itch and +adius 'auges These gauges are used to chec7 the ,rofiles of threads and radii@ 9y co/,arison 6ith sets of 9lades held in a case /uch li7e feeler gauges. The thread gauges are a2aila9le in all thread ty,es and the radius gauges ha2e 9oth an internal and external radius. #.#.5 'oA!o%'o 'auges 8here a single di/ension has to 9e re,eatedly /easured@ a co/,arator%ty,e of gauge is used 6hich chec7s@ si/,ly@ 6hether a co/,onent is 6ithin a ,air of di/ensions@ usually referred to as /axi/u/ and /ini/u/ di/ensions. These gauges are referred to as '-A!-%'- gauges =Fig #2> and@ ,ro2iding the ite/ 9eing chec7ed ,asses through one Ba6 of the gauge@ =the '- di/ension>@ and fails to ,ass through the other Ba6@ =the !-%'- di/ension>@ it is considered to 9e satisfactory.
Calli,er or .na, 'auge
#.#. .traight Edges .traight Edges can 9e found in a 2ariety of ty,es@ fro/ a ,recision%ground rule@ to hea2y%duty@ cast iron straight edges@ =e.g. the ca/el 9ac7 straight edge>. The lighter straight edges are used to either 2isually chec7 the flatness of a surface =9y holding it u, to a light>@ or to use feeler gauges. $ea2y%duty straight edges 6ill@ ,ro9a9ly@ 9e used@ to chec7 other ite/s for straightness@ 9y a si/ilar 9luing /ethod to that used on surface ta9les.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
! ' -
'' -
!-'-
&lug Ty,e 'auge
5i/it ='-A!-%'-> 'auges Fig. #2
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engineering
3#* L!6&ica(i-n Me(h-)' an) E7!i.men( .olid surfaces are ne2er ,erfectly s/ooth@ as the actual ru99ing contact =the friction>@ 9et6een t6o /o2ing surfaces@ is concentrated on a nu/9er of high s,ots on the res,ecti2e surfaces. 1ny load 9et6een the t6o surfaces tends to 6ear a6ay these high s,ots until the area of contact is large enough to su,,ort the load 6ithout further defor/ation. ?uring the 6earing action frag/ents of the surface are 9ro7en a6ay and high local te/,eratures are generated. The effects are ,otentially dangerous@ in that the frag/ents can cause serious da/age to the surfaces 6hile excess heat leads to ex,ansion of the /aterials. The ex,ansion is li7ely to cause higher frictional forces@ leading to further da/age =due to /ore ,articles 9rea7ing fro/ the surface> and can ,ossi9ly result in e2entual sei4ure and sto,,age of /o2e/ent. .ei4ure could ha2e disastrous results in any /o2ing /echanis/. 5u9rication is a ,rocess for reducing friction and 6ear@ through the introduction of an unguent 9et6een t6o /o2ing surfaces. The /aterials@ co//only used for these ,ur,oses@ are greases and oils and this to,ic discusses the 2arious /ethods and e;ui,/ent used in the lu9rication of aeros,ace /echanis/s. 1 large nu/9er of different greases and oils are in use in aircraft /aintenance. 1ll lu9ricants should 9e 7e,t clean and co2ered to 7ee, out foreign o9Bects. The correct ;uantity of the res,ecti2e lu9ricant /ust@ al6ays@ 9e used@ as o2er% lu9rication /ay cause all /anner of ,ro9le/s@ fro/ conta/ination of electrical and /echanical e;ui,/ent@ to dirt and dust collecting on the lu9ricant residue. Care /ust also 9e ta7en that lu9ricants do not re/ain in ,rolonged contact 6ith un,rotected s7in =and ,articularly eyes> as /any of the/ are se2ere irritants and ,resent serious ha4ards to health. $ot oil also constitutes a danger to ,ersonnel. #.5.1 5u9rication Methods 'rease is the ,referred lu9ricant@ in certain circu/stances@ for the follo6ing reasonsF
8here conditions are dirty@ dusty or 6et@ grease 6ill ,ro2ide a sealing /ediu/@ 6hich 6ill tend to ,re2ent the entry of foreign /atter into /o2ing ,arts 'rease 6ill stay in 2ertical 9earings@ 6hereas oil 6ill drain a6ay 'rease@ ,ac7ed into a 9earing or housing@ 6ill ,ro2ide sufficient lu9rication for ,rolonged ,eriods of ti/e 'rease lu9rication syste/s use /uch chea,er fittings@ and less co/,licated designs than those re;uired for oil syste/s.
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engineering

'rease@ ho6e2er@ has li/itations in certain situations@ in that greaseF Cannot re,lace oil 6hen heat needs to 9e carried a6ay Cannot 9e used 6here conta/ination is li7ely to occur Cannot 9e used 6here de9ris and conta/inants ha2e to 9e 6ashed a6ay.
'reases =as 6ith oils>@ are ,roduced to a range of s,ecifications that de,end u,on the a,,lications for 6hich they are used. .o/e greases ha2e to 9e 6ater% resistant@ 6hile all ha2e to ,osses good storage characteristics and 9e of a s,ecific 2iscosity. 1 grease@ generally@ is re;uired toF

+e/ain che/ically sta9le 6hen it is heated@ and es,ecially if that grease is to 9e used in 9earings that are running at high te/,erature (e thin enough to flo6 into a,,licators and s,aces@ 6hilst ha2ing the a9ility to re/ain in the desired location +esist the tendency to harden at the lo6 te/,eratures /et at high altitudes +etain the li/its@ set on its al7alinity or acidity@ to ,re2ent the onset of corrosion.
-ils are also re;uired to re/ain che/ically sta9le and to ,ossess =and retain> a suita9le 2iscosity during their useful life. )n general@ e2ery oil /ustF

1de;uately 6et the surface needing lu9rication !ot e2a,orate too /uch in ser2ice !ot ,roduce gu/@ sludge or car9on !ot da/age the /aterial 6ith 6hich it nor/ally co/es into contact.
)n addition to ,rotecting surfaces fro/ corrosion@ other ,ro,erties of oils include the ,re2iously /entioned a9ility to 6ash a6ay s/all ,articles of de9ris and to re/o2e heat fro/ syste/ co/,onents. The heat can 9e as a result of the friction of /otion@ or fro/ other sources such as the heat of co/9ustion 6ithin a gas tur9ine or ,iston%ty,e aero engine. -il ,ro2ides lu9rication in t6o distinct ,hases@ 6hich are referred to asF (oundary lu9rication Fluid lu9rication.
(oundary lu9rication occurs in a stationary engine@ 6hen the oil tends to drain a6ay fro/ surfaces@ lea2ing only an extre/ely thin fil/ of oil@ clinging to the /icrosco,ically rough surfaces of the /etals. (oundary lu9rication 6ill assist in the initial /o2e/ent of one surface against another 9ut@ if it is not rene6ed@ the surfaces 6ill slide until the fil/ disa,,ears and sei4ure follo6s.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
Fluid lu9rication is a thin@ 9ut continuous@ fil/ of oil@ se,arating the /o2ing surfaces@ and so ,re2enting /etal to /etal contact. The oil also acts as a cushion 9et6een the surfaces. )f@ ho6e2er@ the oil is dri2en fro/ the s,ace 9et6een the surfaces@ ,ossi9ly due to excess loading@ the fluid fil/ is reduced to al/ost nothing and again@ the surfaces 6ill slide until e2entual sei4ure occurs. 1 ty,ical exa/,le of oil fluid lu9rication 6ould 9e as found in a ty,ical gear9ox in 6hich the gears are i//ersed in oil or are flooded 6ith oil fro/ ,ressure Bets. -ils in a si/ilar /anner to greases@ ha2e s,ecialised ,ur,oses 6hich includeF

!or/al 5u9rication $igh &ressure ='ear9oxes> Extre/e $igh &ressure =$ydraulics> &reser2ation and )nhi9iting of co/,onents or syste/s.
1s a general rule@ the s,ecification 6ill identify the lu9ricant that is re;uired for each a,,lication. )t is not necessary for engineers to 7no6 the ,ro,erties of e2ery lu9ricant@ as co/,onent /anufacturers s,ecify the lu9ricants a,,ro2ed for use on their e;ui,/ent. 'enerally@ lu9ricating oils do not deteriorate during storage@ 9ut lo6%te/,erature greases can suffer and /ust 9e stored in a cool ,lace. )f 6ater gets into either ty,e of lu9ricant@ the result can 9e 2ery serious. 8ater conta/ination can causeF

(rea7do6n of nor/al ,ro,erties under 9earing loads -il additi2es rendered ineffecti2e@ gi2ing a tendency to sludge Failure of nor/al ,ro,erties due to oil e/ulsification Frothing of engine oil@ 6hich can cause excessi2e loss of oil through the syste/ 2ents.
Many conta/inants@ such as rust and dust in sus,ension@ /ay lead to 9loc7ing of oil ,assages or da/age to /o2ing ,arts. )n grease@ these solids ,roduce a sort of grinding ,aste@ 6hich 6ears /o2ing ,arts 2ery ;uic7ly. 8hen oils and greases are in storage@ a nu/9er of ,recautions 6ill ,re2ent su9se;uent ,ro9le/s. 'ood lu9ricant storage and usage de/ands thatF

1ll containers ha2e their lids fir/ly secured at all ti/es 6hen not in use The /aBority of lu9ricants need to 9e stored in a cool ,lace ?ifferent ty,es or grou,s of lu9ricants /ust 9e 7e,t a,art@ to ,re2ent a ris7 of cross%conta/ination 1ll e;ui,/ent /ust 9e 7e,t totally clean.
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engineering
#.5.2 5u9rication E;ui,/ent
(ecause of the nu/erous ty,es of lu9ricants that are a2aila9le@ the e;ui,/ent used for a,,lying those lu9ricants is 2ast and so /ention is /ade here of only so/e of the /ore ty,ical e;ui,/ent@ 6hich includesL 'rease 'uns -il Cans +is9ridger +e,lenishing +igs.
'rease 'uns co2er a 6ide range of tools@ 6hich are all designed to inBect grease@ under ,ressure@ into 9earings and other co/,onents re;uiring greasing. -ne co//on Uni2ersal /odel =refer to Fig. #3>@ % 6hich can also 9e used to inBect oil % is usually su,,lied 6ith four no44les for use 6ith different ni,,les. The four no44les are theF .tandardF Tecala/it standard si4ed hexagonal ni,,les MiniatureF Tecala/it /iniature si4ed ni,,les &ush%onF Teca4er7 and si/ilar ,ush%on ni,,les $ydraulicF Used on hydraulic ni,,les for ,ri/ing
!oteF )f it 9eco/es necessary to change no44les@ it is ad2isa9le to ,ri/e the ne6 no44le 9efore its first use. &u/,ing $andle Filling &oint 1da,ter
'rease (leed &oint <arious $ose 5engths =Flexi9le and +igid> Uni2ersal 'rease 'un Fig. #3 The gun consists of a 9arrel that is closed@ at one end 6ith a s,ring ty,e ca,@ and@ at the other end@ 9y a ,u/, head. <arious !o44les
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
The 9arrel houses a ,iston follo6er asse/9ly. The ,u/, head@ 6hich scre6s on to the 9arrel@ houses a le2er%o,erated ,iston and a s,ring%loaded non%return 2al2e. )n addition@ installed in the front face of the head@ is an ada,ter for attaching the 2arious no44les. 1 ,ressure% relief 2al2e is also incor,orated into the ada,ter. For oil filling@ the ca, is re/o2ed@ to re2eal a light chain. The chain is attached to the ,iston follo6er asse/9ly@ 6hich is ,ulled out 9y using the chain. -nce the ,u/, is aligned head do6n@ the 9arrel is filled to a,,roxi/ately #3 // =1O in> fro/ the to,@ then the ,iston is re,laced and the ca, secured. For grease filling@ the ,u/, head is@ firstly@ re/o2ed. !ext the ca, is re/o2ed and the ,iston is ,ulled do6n to the ca, end. 'rease is loaded fro/ the head end until the 9arrel is full. The ,u/, head is re,laced 9efore the ca, is finally secured to the o,,osite end of the 9arrel. !oteF 1ll guns /ust 9e clearly /ar7ed 6ith their contents and@ /ost i/,ortantly@ a chec7 /ust 9e /ade to ensure that the gun is refilled 6ith the sa/e grease or oil as stated on its la9el. -il Cans are often used to a,,ly oils@ in s/aller ;uantities@ to ,arts and areas 6hich re;uire /ore exact lu9rication than is ,ossi9le 6ith a general s,ray. Cans are a9le to a,,ly oil in dro,lets@ 6ithout s,illage@ Bust 6here the oil is 6anted. -il cans /ust also 9e clearly la9elled to sho6 the ty,e of oil that they contain. +is9ridger +e,lenishing +igs are a nu/9er of differently designed@ re,lenishing rigs@ 6hich are nor/ally used to re,lenish engine and hydraulic syste/s. The 9asic ,rinci,le of the rigs is that@ 9y attaching a ,u/, asse/9ly to nor/al cans of the correct oil@ the ,u/,ing action 6ill dra6 the oil fro/ the can and deli2er the oil to the tan7Areser2oir of the rele2ant syste/. -ne of the co//onest rigs is attached to a can of oil 9y /eans of integral cla/,s@ 6hich seal the ,u/, and hose asse/9ly to the to, of the can. 1 shar, 9lo6 6ill ,uncture the to, of the can@ de,ositing the collector ,i,e into the oil and the ,u/, is then ready for action. The hose end 6ill ha2e one of a 2ariety of connectors =such as 9ayonet and ,ush%on>. These 6ill 9e of the correct ty,e to ena9le connection to the rele2ant syste/ re;uiring re,lenish/ent@ and so a2oid refilling 6ith the incorrect oil. !oteF 1ll engineers /ust 9e careful not to attach the incorrect can to the re,lenisher@ although /ost tool stores 6ill e/,loy a syste/ of la9els and colour% coding@ to /ini/ise the ris7 of this ha,,ening. -n co/,letion@ it is nor/al ,ractice to lea2e the can attached to the ,u/, =e2en if it is e/,ty>@ as an additional ,recaution against attaching the incorrect can at the next re,lenish/ent.
&age "3
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engineering
*
ENGINEERING DRA,ING9 DIAGRAMS AND STANDARDS
The ,ur,ose of an engineering dra6ing is to record and con2ey the designers re;uire/ents to other@ interested@ ,eo,le. The dra6ing /ust@ therefore@ include sufficient infor/ation to ena9le ,roduction ,lanning@ /anufacture@ asse/9ly@ testing@ ins,ection and su9se;uent /aintenance of the ,articular co/,onent or asse/9ly to 9e achie2ed in the /ost cost%effecti2e /anner. .o that there can 9e no /isre,resentation of dra6ings@ it is essential that the ,erson ,re,aring the dra6ing and those using the dra6ing should ha2e a 7no6ledge of the /ethods of ,resentation sy/9ols@ ter/s@ and a99re2iations@ used in the ,re,aration of an engineering dra6ing. This section is not intended as a standard for the ,roduction of dra6ings@ 9ut should 9e regarded as a general guide to dra6ing ,rocedures and inter,retation. The reference for dra6ing ,ractices@ in the United :ingdo/@ is that ,roduced 9y the (ritish .tandards )nstitution@ =(.)>@ in their ,u9lication (. 33*. There are other standards a2aila9le@ 6hich su,,le/ent (. 33*@ such as the .ociety of (ritish 1eros,ace Co/,anies =.(1C> Technical .,ecification =T.> **. Co/,anies@ that ha2e design a,,ro2al fro/ the C11 or the C11@ can /odify these standards to suit their o6n ,articular dra6ing re;uire/ents. They /ust@ ho6e2er@ ,u9lish their ,referred standards of dra6ing@ to o9tain the a,,ro2al of their !ational 12iation 1uthority =!11>. *#1 T2.e' -1 D&a8in0 There are four /ain ty,es of dra6ings reco//ended 9y the (.)@ although there are /any other ty,es and su9%ty,es of dra6ing used at different ti/es. The /ain dra6ing ty,es are theF .ingle%,artF uni;ue ,arts or asse/9lies Collecti2eF ,arts or asse/9lies of si/ilar sha,e@ 9ut of different di/ensions Co/9inedF co/,lete asse/9lies@ including all indi2idual ,arts on a single dra6ing ConstructionalF asse/9ly dra6ing 6ith sufficient di/ensional and other infor/ation to descri9e the co/,onent ,arts of a construction.
1 co/,lete set of dra6ings for an aircraft@ and any docu/ents or s,ecifications referenced on the dra6ings@ re,resents a co/,lete record of the infor/ation re;uired to /anufacture and asse/9le that aircraft. The /anner@ in 6hich a set of aircraft dra6ings is arranged@ ena9les any ,articular co/,onent@ /aterial@ di/ension@ ,rocedure or o,eration to 9e traced.
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&age 1
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engineering
?ra6ings of indi2idual ,arts contain all the infor/ation necessary to ena9le the ,arts to 9e /anufactured to design re;uire/ents. The /aterial s,ecification@ di/ensions and tolerances@ /achining details and surface finish@ and any other treat/ent re;uired@ 6ould all 9e s,ecified on the dra6ings. .u9%1sse/9ly dra6ings are issued to con2ey s,ecific infor/ation on the asse/9ly of co/,onent ,arts. 8hen the /ethod of asse/9ly in2ol2es 6elding or a si/ilar ,rocess@ the dra6ing 6ill include details of any heat treat/ent or anti% corrosi2e treat/ent that /ay 9e necessary. .u9%asse/9ly dra6ings are so/eti/es issued in connection 6ith s,ares ,ro2isioning and also in instances 6here asse/9ly 6ould 9e difficult 6ithout s,ecial tools@ Bigs or techni;ues. )nstallation dra6ings are issued to clarify the details of external di/ensions and attitudes of co/,onents@ locations@ adBust/ents@ clearances@ settings@ connections@ ada,ters and loc7ing /ethods 9et6een co/,onents and asse/9lies. 1 /ain 'eneral 1rrange/ent ='1> dra6ing of the aircraft and '1 dra6ings of /ain asse/9lies and syste/s are also ,ro2ided. These dra6ings usually contain o2erall ,rofile ,articulars only@ 6ith locations and references of the associated /ain asse/9ly and installation dra6ings. They also ,ro2ide a guide to the identification of dra6ing grou,s used 9y the ,articular design organisation. Main 1sse/9ly dra6ings /ay also contain ,rofile ,articulars only@ 9ut 6ill include the infor/ation re;uired for the asse/9ly of indi2idual ,arts of su9%asse/9lies. The se;uence of asse/9ly is gi2en 6here a,,ro,riate 9ut the infor/ation contained in single%,art or su9%asse/9ly dra6ings is not re,eated. &arts@ as such@ are referenced 9ut@ in the case of su9%asse/9lies@ only the su9%asse/9ly 6ill 9e referenced and not its indi2idual ,arts. There are a nu/9er of other dra6ings@ 6hich are used to dis,lay alternati2e 2ie6s of a co/,onent@ or to sho6 6here that co/,onent a,,ears in a syste/@ 6hile ,ictorial diagra/s or charts@ are used@ to sho6 co/,lete or ,art re,resentations of functional syste/s such as hydraulic and electrical syste/s. *#$ Me(h-)' -1 D&a8in0 S-li) O6:ec(' .e2eral /ethods are e/,loyed in re,resenting three%di/ensional@ solid o9Bects on the flat surface of a sheet of ,a,er =or of other /aterials@ used in ,roducing engineering dra6ings>. The t6o co//on /ethods@ used to de,ict co/,onents@ in dra6ings@ are 9yF &ictorial &roBections -rthogra,hic &roBections.
&age 2
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engineering
5.2.1 &ictorial &roBections
&ictorial &roBections ,ro2ide a three%di/ensional@ single i/age of the o9Bect@ as if it 6ere 9eing 2ie6ed@ in ,ers,ecti2e@ 9y eye =in a si/ilar /anner to a ,ainting or a ,hotogra,h>. The /ain ty,es of ,ictorial ,roBections =refer to Fig. 1> /ay 9e considered as the &ers,ecti2e &roBection@ -9li;ue &roBection and )so/etric &roBection. 1 &arallel &ers,ecti2e &roBection is 6hen one of the ,rinci,al faces is ,arallel to the ,icture ,lane.
&lan Front .ide
<anishing &oint
&arallel &ers,ecti2e &roBection

&lan Front .ide Front #5M or 33M 33M -9li;ue )so/etric &lan .ide
33M
&ictorial &roBections Fig. 1 8hilst ,ers,ecti2e and o9li;ue ,roBections are not nor/ally@ used in aircraft engineering dra6ings@ they /ay so/eti/es@ 9e used in Maintenance or -2erhaul /anuals@ to ,ro2ide initial i/ages of unco/,licated co/,onents or to ,ortray a general 2ie6 of a constructional asse/9ly. )so/etric ,roBections are the ty,es /ostly used for s7etches and for the /aBority of i/ages in Maintenance and /any other /anuals@ used in aircraft ser2icing.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
5.2.2 -rthogra,hic &roBections
-rthogra,hic &roBections are the ty,es /ainly used in the ,roduction of aircraft =and /ost other> engineering dra6ings of co/,onents and structures. They are dra6n as if the 2ie6er is infinitely re/ote fro/ the o9Bect and rays =or ,roBectors> lead out fro/ the o9Bect so that the ,roBection lines of o,,osite sides a,,ear to 9e ,arallel. This /ethod of ,roBection ,ro2ides a t6o%di/ensional 2ie6 of only one surface of the o9Bect. This /eans it /ust ha2e /ulti,le 2ie6s =usually three@ 9ut there can 9e as /any as six> of the rele2ant surfaces =dra6n on three /utually ,er,endicular ,lanes> to ,ro2ide an accurate de,iction of the 6hole o9Bect. There are t6o con2entions@ used for orthogra,hic ,roBections =refer to Fig. 2>@ and they areF The older First 1ngle &roBection The /ore recent Third 1ngle &roBection.
.ide <ie6
Front <ie6
&lan <ie6
&lan <ie6 F)+.T 1!'5E &+-CECT)-!
Front <ie6
.ide <ie6
T$)+? 1!'5E &+-CECT)-!
-rthogra,hic &roBections Fig. 2 The internationally recognised sy/9ol@ of the truncated cone =frustu/>@ is the 7ey as to 6hether the First or Third 1ngle ,roBection is 9eing ,ortrayed on a dra6ing.
&age #
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!"
engineering
The First 1ngle ,roBection is 9eing used 6hen the truncated end of the cone is 2ie6ed and the t6o concentric circles are dra6n at the re/ote end of the cone. )n the sa/e 6ay@ the surface of interest =of the o9Bect> is dra6n re/ote fro/ that surface in First 1ngle ,roBections. Third 1ngle ,roBections sho6 the surface of interest dra6n adBacent to that surface@ in the sa/e /anner that the t6o concentric circles are dra6n adBacent to the truncated end of the cone. !oteL )t is ,ossi9le@ on so/e dra6ings@ to find the cone re2ersed =end for end>@ 9ut the location of the t6o concentric circles@ relati2e to the truncated end@ 6ill al6ays ,ro2ide the infor/ation as to ho6 the dra6ing is to 9e read. 5.2.3 .ectional <ie6s 8hen it is necessary to sho6 the internal construction or sha,e of a ,art@ a sectional 2ie6 is used. The four /ain ty,es of sectional 2ie6s are theF +e2ol2ed .ection +e/o2ed .ection Co/,lete .ection $alf .ection.
)f only the sha,e of a ,art needs to 9e sho6n@ it is dra6n 6ith either a re2ol2ed or 6ith a re/o2ed section =refer to Fig. 3>. The sy/9ols@ used for sectioning@ indicate 6here the o9Bect has 9een cut or sectioned and also indicate fro/ 6hiche2er direction the section is to 9e 2ie6ed. 1 1%1
1 +e2ol2ed .ection +e2ol2ed and +e/o2ed .ections Fig. 3 +e/o2ed .ection
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
The +e2ol2ed .ection 2ie6 is often used to illustrate si/,le ite/s 6ith no interior ,arts. (asically@ a re2ol2ed section sho6s ho6 a ,art is sectioned and re2ol2ed to illustrate it fro/ a different 2ie6. The +e/o2ed .ection 2ie6 is also used to illustrate si/,le o9Bects. $o6e2er@ to do this@ the o9Bect is cut@ 9y a cutting ,lane line@ and a section is re/o2ed to illustrate another angle. .ection =or $atching> lines hel, to enhance the clarity of the sectioned 2ie6 and are@ con2entionally@ dra6n at #5M to the axis of the section. ?issi/ilar /etals@ other /aterials@ or adBacent ,arts of si/ilar /aterials@ 6ithin the section@ are indicated 9y the hatching lines 9eing dra6n in different directions or 6ith different s,acing 9et6een the lines. The usual s,acing 9et6een hatching lines is@ ,refera9ly@ not less than # //@ 6ith the exce,tion of s/all areas 6here they are usually not less than 1 // a,art. 1sse/9lies of /ulti,le ,arts are often sho6n in Co/,lete or in $alf .ection 2ie6s =refer to Fig. #>. The co/,lete section 2ie6 /a7es it easier to identify indi2idual ,arts 6ithin an asse/9ly =,articularly 6here the asse/9ly is /ore co/,lex>. .o/eti/es it hel,s to 9e a9le to see the outside of the ite/ 9eing sectioned@ and@ if the inside of the co/,onent is sy//etrical@ unnecessary detail can 9e o/itted fro/ the 2ie6. (oth of these situations are o2erco/e 9y half%sectioning the co/,onent.
Co/,lete .ection Co/,lete and $alf .ections Fig. # 5.2.# Ex,loded <ie6s
$alf .ection
)llustrated &arts Catalogues often /a7e use of ex,loded 2ie6s@ to sho6 e2ery ,art of an asse/9ly. )n this ty,e of dra6ing@ all ,arts are@ ty,ically@ in their relati2e ,ositions and ex,anded out6ard. Each ,art is identified@ 9oth 9y its ,hysical a,,earance and 9y its reference nu/9er@ 6hich is used on the &arts 5ist. 1n ex,loded 2ie6 dra6ing can 9e of great assistance@ 6hen dis/antling and re% asse/9ling a co/,lex co/,onent.
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
5.2.5 ?ra6ing 5ines@ .y/9ols and 199re2iations Ta9le 1 sho6s so/e of the ty,es of line used in /ost dra6ings =as laid do6n in (. 33*>. The lines are designed to ensure that inter,retation is clear at all ti/es. Ta9le 1 5)!E TE&E. =EGT+1CT F+-M (. 33*> ?escri,tion 8idth 1,,lication =//> Continuous =Thic7> 3." <isi9le outlines and edges. Continuous =Thin> 3.3 Fictitious outlines and edges@ di/ensions and leader lines@ hatching@ outlines of adBacent ,arts and re2ol2ed sections. 5i/its of ,artial 2ie6s or sections 6hen the line is not on axis. $idden outlines and edges. Centre lines and extre/e ,ositions of /o2ea9le ,arts. Cutting &lanes.
Ty,e
Continuous irregular =Thin> .hort dashes =thin> Chain =Thin> Chain =thic7 at ends and changes of direction@ thin else6here> Chain =Thic7>
3.3 3.3 3.3 3." 3.3 3."
)ndicates surfaces 6hich ha2e to /eet s,ecial re;uire/ents
The 6idth of the lines@ sho6n in Ta9le 1@ relates to the 6idth of the ni9s of the ,ens 6hich are used to co/,lete dra6ings that are ,roduced in design de,art/ents or in dra6ing offices. These 6idths are only a,,roxi/ate and 6ill change as soon as the dra6ing is ,hotoco,ied. .o/e dra6ings /ay 9e co/,leted 9y ,encil and then the lines are differentiated 9y the use of ,encils@ the leads of 6hich ,ossess 2arying degrees of hardness@ so that the softer leads create a 9lac7er line 6hile the feinter lines are dra6n@ using a harder ,encil.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age "
!"
engineering
The lines@ used for 9asic di/ensioning =refer to Fig. 5>@ are de,icted@ using a standard for/at@ 6hich ,er/its co//onality 9et6een draughts/an and engineer. ?i/ensions are usually sho6n so they can 9e read 6hen the dra6ing is held on the 9otto/ or right hand edge. This is done to reduce the nu/9er of ti/es a dra6ing is handled and@ thus@ ,otentially increases its 6or7ing life. 03 12
33
25 ?i/ensioning Exa/,les Fig. 5 )n order to sa2e ti/e and s,ace@ 6hen co/,iling a dra6ing@ a99re2iations and sy/9ols@ as found in (. 33*@ can 9e used. Ca,ital letters are nor/ally used to ensure clarity@ 9ut lo6er case letters /ay 9e found 6hen it is dee/ed a,,ro,riate. Machining sy/9ols@ for exa/,le =refer to Fig. >@ indicate the ty,e of surface finish that a co/,onent re;uires. Ty,e of surface finish <alue of surface finish =//> 5a, 3.3* .urface to 9e /achined Ty,ical Machining .y/9ols Fig. 5a, 3.3*
&age *
35
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
"3
*3
03
53
!"
engineering
5.2. Con2entional +e,resentations Co//on features@ 6hich /ay a,,ear se2eral ti/es on a dra6ing@ are seldo/ dra6n in full@ since this 6ould ta7e u, s,ace and ti/e unnecessarily. Ta9le 2 sho6s ho6 so/e of these features are illustrated 9y con2entional re,resentations@ 6hich are listed in (. 33*. Ta9le 2 T8- EG1M&5E. -F C-!<E!T)-!15 +E&+E.E!T1T)-!. Title Con2ention External scre6 threads =detail>
$oles in a linear ,atch
5.2." 'eneral and 'eo/etric Tolerances 1 general tolerance is usually gi2en for all di/ensions on a dra6ing. 8here general tolerances are inade;uate or restricti2e@ an indi2idual tolerance /ay 9e gi2en to a di/ension. Tolerances =as discussed in 8or7sho, &ractices> /ay 9e ex,ressed 9y ;uoting the u,,er and lo6er li/its@ the no/inal di/ension or the li/its of tolerance a9o2e and 9elo6 that di/ension. 'eo/etric Tolerances are used 6here it is so/eti/es necessary to ,lace tolerances 9oth on geo/etric features and di/ensions@ in order to control the sha,e of a ,art ade;uately. 1 reco//ended syste/ can 9e found in the (. 33*. This is infor/ation usually re;uired during /anufacture.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 0
!"
engineering
*#+ D&a8in0 I)en(i1ica(i-n S2'(em 1n aircraft engineering dra6ing =refer to Fig. ">@ /ust certain data@ 6hich is used to ,ro2e its 2alidity =and legality>. 1ll alterations to dra6ings /ust 9e /ade in accordance 6ith a dra6ing a/end/ent syste/@ 6hich 6ill ensure a/end/ent to design records. )f an alteration is /ade@ a ne6 issue nu/9er and date /ust 9e allocated to the dra6ing. To co/,ly 6ith legislation@ ,rocedures /ust 9e introduced to ,rogressi2ely a/end the total definition of the ,roduct in ter/s of its associated list of dra6ings at s,ecific issues. Each ,articular 2ariant of a ,roduct and its state of /odification /ust 9e identifia9le in relation to the a,,ro,riate list of dra6ings.
DRA,ING N-# A NBA DRA,ING ISSUE N-# APPRO?AL DATE O% ISSUE Ne8 D&a8in0 ALTERATION
TC;;$ ,OR5BENC/ EEERCISE N- 1
15.3
5.3
R*
R*
#5M
25.3
13.3 3.3 115.3
N-(eD S(am. ini(ial' -n 8-&".iece 6e1-&e ca'e ha&)enin0
1 ITEM
TC;;$41 PART N-#
Mil) S(eel MATERIAL B SPECI%ICATION AIRCRA%T SCALE NBA 1D1 mm
Ca'e /a&)en TREATMENT TOLERANCE F ;#;* mm
Ri@e(in0 Bl-c" DESCRIPTION
1 CTY
DRA,N BY# C/EC5ED BY# STRESS NBA NBA
DIMENSIONS IN
!"
USED OND NBA
APPRO?ED BY#
en0inee&in0
/URRICANE ,AY NOR,IC/ AIRPORT NOR,IC/ NOR%OL5 ENGLAND NR6 6/B
CAD GENERATED DRA,ING 4 NO MANUAL ALTERATIONS ANY ERRORS S/OULD BE REPORTED TO T/E INSTRUCTORS
DO NOT SCALE I% IN DOUBT AS5
DATE TITLE
1=4;=4;1
T/IRD ANGLE PROJECTION
TEC/NICAL COLLEGE
DRA,ING N-#
T/IS DOCUMENT IS T/E PROPERTY O% 5LM !" ENGINEERING LIMITED AND MAY NOT BE COPIED OR COMMUNICATED TO A T/IRD PARTY OR USED %OR ANY PURPOSE OT/ER T/AN T/AT %OR ,/IC/ IT IS SUPPLIED ,IT/OUT T/E EEPRESS ,RITTEN AUT/ORITY O% 5LM !" ENGINEERING LIMITED#
RI?ETING BLOC5
TC;;$
S/EET 1 O% 1
Ty,ical ?ra6ing ?ata Fig. " The follo6ing details indicate so/e of the ite/s of infor/ation that /ight 9e found on a con2entional dra6ing.
!"
engineering
5.3.1 Title (loc7
The title 9loc7 is generally ,re%,rinted and contains the essential infor/ation re;uired for the identification@ ad/inistration and inter,retation of the dra6ing. )t is reco//ended that the title 9loc7 should 9e at the 9otto/ of the sheet 6ith the dra6ing nu/9er in the lo6er right hand corner. 1dBacent to this dra6ing nu/9er should 9e the title and issue =alteration> infor/ation. For con2enience@ the dra6ing nu/9er /ay a,,ear else6here on the dra6ing@ usually in2erted so it can 9e read 6hiche2er 6ay it is filed. 5.3.2 ?ra6ing !u/9er !o t6o dra6ings should 9ear identical dra6ing nu/9ers and a design office should /aintain a register of all dra6ings issued. The ?ra6ing !u/9er /ay refer to ele/ents such as the ,roBect identity@ the grou, 9rea7do6n@ and the indi2idual register nu/9er. Exce,t for re,air dra6ings@ the ?ra6ing !u/9er is also generally the &art !u/9er. 5.3.3 $anded &arts ?ra6ings of handed ,arts usually ha2e the left%hand@ u,,er@ inner or for6ard ,art dra6n. This ite/ is allocated the odd nu/9er@ 6ith the o,,osite hand the consecuti2e e2en nu/9er. The dra6ing sheet 9ears the legend 1. ?+18! and -&& $1!? in the ite/ ;uantity colu/n. 8here necessary the handed condition is indicated 9y a local 2ie6 or annotation. 5.3.# .heet !u/9ers 8here a co/,lete dra6ing cannot 9e contained on a single sheet@ successi2e sheets are used. The first sheet is identified as .$EET 1 of G .$EET.@ as a,,lica9le and su9se;uent sheets 9y the a,,ro,riate sheet nu/9er. 8here a .chedule of &arts =&arts 5ist>@ a,,lica9le to all sheets@ is re;uired@ it a,,ears on .heet 1. 5.3.5 ?ra6ing Changes Change to a design dra6ing@ 6ith the exce,tion of /inor clerical corrections@ is usually acco/,anied 9y a ne6 issue nu/9er and date. !e6 ,arts added to the dra6ing@ or dra6n on ,arts affected 9y the change@ ta7e a ne6 issue nu/9er@ and ,arts@ 6hich are not affected@ retain the original issue nu/9er. )n all cases 6here interchangea9ility is affected@ a ne6 ?ra6ing !u/9er and &art !u/9er are allocated.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 11
!"
engineering
?etails of the dra6ing changes are recorded in the a,,ro,riate colu/n on the dra6ing@ or recorded se,arately on an 1lteration .heet@ 6hich is referenced on the dra6ing. The issue nu/9er /ay@ so/eti/es@ 9e re,resented 9y a letter. .o/e organisations use al,ha9etical issues for ,rototy,e aircraft dra6ings and nu/erical issues for ,roduction aircraft dra6ingsL thus all dra6ings of a ,rototy,e aircraft 9eco/e )ssue 1 6hen ,roduction co//ences. 1n alteration to a single ,art dra6ing /ay also result in changes to associated dra6ings@ and it /ay 9e necessary to halt /anufacture or asse/9ly of the ,roduct. The ?ra6ing -ffice syste/ usually /a7es ,ro2ision for the ,ro,er recording of dra6ing changes@ 9y ,u9lishing concurrently 6ith the re%issued dra6ing@ an instruction detailing the effects these 6ill ha2e on other dra6ings@ on 6or7%in%,rogress and on existing stoc7. 1s a further safeguard@ so/e organisations ,u9lish ?ra6ing Master +eference 5ists@ 6hich gi2e details of the current issues of all dra6ings 6hich are associated 6ith a ,articular co/,onent or asse/9ly. 5.3. &art +eferencing E2ery ite/ called u, on a dra6ing is gi2en an ite/ nu/9er@ 6hich is sho6n in a 9alloon on the face of a dra6ing. !o other infor/ation is gi2en in@ or adBacent to@ the 9alloon@ 6ith the exce,tion of infor/ation necessary for /anufacture or asse/9ly@ such as e;ually s,aced or sna, head inside. 1 .chedule of &arts is@ nor/ally@ also included. Materials such as loc7ing 6ire and shi//ing@ 6hich are a2aila9le in rolls and sheets@ 6ill 9e detailed 9y s,ecification nu/9er in the &art !o colu/n and the ;uantity 6ill 9e entered as 1s +e;uired or 1A+. 5.3." <alidation of ModificationA+e,air ?ra6ings 8hen a /odification or a re,air is re;uired to 9e e/9odied into an aircraft structure or co/,onent ,art@ it usually necessitates the use of a 6or7ing dra6ing to assist 6ith the 6or7. To ensure the authenticity =and legality> of the dra6ing@ it should 9ear a <alidity sta/, =using red in7> 6hich is a,,lied 9y the issuing de,art/ent. The sta/, consists of the authorisation sta/, and signature of the issuing ,erson and the date on 6hich the dra6ing is o9tained fro/ the issuing de,art/ent. )n addition the sta/, should 9ear the 6ords <15)? T)5F follo6ed 9y a second date.
&age 12
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
The additional date 6ill 9e that of the date of the next scheduled re2ision =usually Kuarterly D Canuary@ 1,ril@ Culy@ -cto9er or si/ilar> to the rele2ant /anual or docu/ent fro/ 6hich the 6or7ing dra6ing has 9een co,ied. 8or7ing dra6ings /ust not 9e used 9eyond their 2alidation date@ 9ut /ust 9e returned to the issuing de,art/ent for chec7ing and re%2alidation 9efore use. 5.3.* .u//ary of +eco//ended ?ra6ing )nfor/ation Ta9le 3 ,ro2ides a fairly co/,rehensi2e su//ary of the reco//ended 9asic and additional infor/ation@ 6hich is li7ely to 9e found on ty,ical aircraft engineering dra6ings. Ta9le 3 +EC-MME!?E? (1.)C 1!? 1??)T)-!15 ?+18)!' )!F-+M1T)-! +eco//ended (asic ?ra6ing )nfor/ation Co/,any )dentifier =!a/e@ 5ogo etc.> ?ra6ing nu/9er Co,yright clause ?escri,ti2e title of ,artAasse/9ly ?ate of dra6ing Units of /easure/ent )ssue infor/ation 'eneral tolerances &roBection sy/9ol -riginal scale .heet nu/9er 8arningF ?- !-T .C15E !u/9er of sheets 'rid or 4oning syste/ <alidation sta/, for 6or7ing dra6ings .ignature=s> +eco//ended 1dditional ?ra6ing )nfor/ation Material and s,ecification Treat/entAhardness .urface texture Finish .cre6 thread for/s Tool references .heet si4e 'auge references &rint%folding /ar7s +eference to dra6ing standards .u,ersedes E;ui2alent ,art
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 13
!"
engineering
*#3 A!<ilia&2 Dia0&am' an) Cha&(' )n addition to the con2entional Engineering ?ra6ings@ uses are /ade of other diagra//atic /eans of ,resenting infor/ation@ for s,ecific ,ur,oses@ during /aintenance o,erations. These auxiliary diagra/s can includeF Electrical 8iring ?iagra/s Co/,onent 5ocation ?iagra/s .che/atic ?iagra/s (loc7 ?iagra/s 5ogic Flo6charts.
5.#.1 Electical 8iring ?iagra/s Electrical 6iring diagra/s are included in /ost aircraft /aintenance /anuals and they 6ill s,ecify details such as the si4e =gauge> of the 6ires and the ty,es of ter/inals used for each a,,lication. 8iring diagra/s@ ty,ically@ identify each co/,onent 6ithin a syste/ 9y its ,art nu/9er@ =and so/eti/es 9y its serial nu/9er>@ and 6ill include any changes that 6ere /ade during a ,roduction run of an aircraft. There are se2eral ty,es of electrical 6iring diagra/s. .o/e diagra/s sho6 only one circuit 6hile others sho6 se2eral circuits 6ithin a syste/. More detailed diagra/s sho6 the connection of 6ires at s,lices and Bunction 9oxes in addition to the arrange/ent of co/,onents throughout the aircraft. -n /odern aircraft@ 6iring diagra/s can 2ary fro/ a single ,age diagra/ =a,,lica9le to a light aircraft@ for exa/,le>@ to those of a /odern Bet airliner@ 6hich /ight need to ha2e /any do4ens of 6iring diagra/s to gi2e each syste/ and su9%syste/ enough clarity to /a7e the/ useful. (ecause so/e aircraft ha2e 2ery co/,lex electrical and electronic syste/s@ a se,arate 8iring Manual is often ,roduced. The 8iring Manual can include full 6iring diagra/s@ co/,onent location diagra/s@ and sche/atic diagra/s to ,ro2ide a syste/ o2er2ie6 =6hich sho6 all connections to the co/,onents etc.> to assist in trou9le shooting.
&age 1#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
5.#.2 Co/,onent 5ocation ?iagra/s )n a Co/,onent 5ocation ?iagra/ =refer to Fig. *>@ co/,onents@ 6ithin a s,ecific syste/@ are sho6n as they actually a,,ear@ and not as sy/9ols or as cut%a6ays. This si/,lifies understanding of the o2erall syste/ o,eration.
Electrical &o6er +ece,tacle
Co/,onent 5ocation ?iagra/ Fig. *
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 15
!"
engineering
5.#.3 .che/atic ?iagra/s
.che/atic diagra/s can 9e found in /aintenance /anuals to re,resent and gi2e infor/ation on aircraft syste/s such as electrical@ hydraulic@ ,neu/atic@ lu9rication@ air%conditioning@ and ,ressurisation@ and also to ,ro2ide details for engine and =6here a,,lica9le> ,ro,eller o,eration. Coloured diagra/s are not used in /aintenance /anuals@ 9ut a syste/ of hatching and shading is nor/ally used to indicate ho6 the syste/ functions. 1 ty,ical electrical syste/ sche/atic diagra/ =refer to Fig. 0>@ is used to gi2e an o2er2ie6 of the co/,lete aircraft syste/ so that /aintenance and diagnosis can 9e initiated. The diagra/ /ay sho6 sources of electrical ,o6er and the distri9ution of that ,o6er to a 6ide range of 9us%9ars. Each su9%syste/ 6ould ha2e an additional diagra/@ sho6ing the circuits@ in detail@ fro/ those 9us%9ars.
'en 1
'en 2
1C Ext
?C Ext
1uto/atic 1C (us Transfer .yste/ 1C (us 1 1C (us
T+U 1
(attery Charger 1
T+U 2
(attery Charger 2
(attery 1
(attery 2
(att (us 1
(att (us 2
?C (us Transfer .yste/
Ty,ical Electrical .yste/ .che/atic ?iagra/ Fig. 0
&age 1
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
5.#.# (loc7 ?iagra/s
?ue to the co/,lexity of electrical and electronic diagra/s@ a (loc7 ?iagra/ =refer to Fig. 13> /ay 9e used to assist in certain tas7s@ such as trou9le shooting@ 9ecause the ,ur,ose of trou9le shooting is /erely to locate the faulty /odule@ rather than to chec7 it out internally. The 9loc7s can re,resent co/,onents@ circuit 9oards@ or re,lacea9le /odules.
+F 1/,lifier
?e/odulator
1F 1/,lifier 5ouds,ea7er
.i/,le (loc7 ?iagra/ Fig. 13 5.#.5 5ogic Flo6charts 5ogic Flo6charts ,ro2ide another aid to trou9le%shooting@ 9y re,resenting the /echanical@ electrical or electronic action of a syste/ 6ithout ex,ressing the constructional or engineering infor/ation. 1 si/,le 5ogic Flo6chart =refer to Fig. 11> can 9e used =9y follo6ing the arro6s through the se;uence>@ to detect faults in an o,eration and to ,ro2ide solutions for correcting the faults.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1"
!"
engineering
.tart
-9tain correct si4e drill
!o
)s drill si4e correctX Ees .ecure drill in chuc7
1dBust drill s,eed
!o
)s drill s,eed correctly setX Ees 1lign and secure 6or7 in cla/,
?rill hole
Finish
.i/,le 5ogic Flo6 Chart Fig. 11
&age 1*
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
*#* Mic&-1ilm9 Mic&-1iche an) C-m.!(e&i'e) P&e'en(a(i-n' ?ue to the increased co/,lexity of /odern aircraft@ the a/ount of infor/ation needed@ 6ithin the Maintenance@ .,ares and +e,air /anuals@ has gro6n to an enor/ous extent. For exa/,le@ the Maintenance /anuals@ for one /odern aircraft alone@ consist of t6enty 2olu/es@ each of 6hich 6ould 9e /ore than " // =3 in> thic7. To co/,ress e2en greater a/ounts of data@ other /edia are utilised@ to /a7e the infor/ation /ore easily a2aila9le to aircraft ser2icing technicians. These includeF Microfil/ Microfiche Co/,uters =C?%+-M>.
5.5.1 Microfil/ This /ethod entails one ,u9lication 9eing re,roduced@ on a roll of fil/ and contained in a s,ecial cartridge case@ a,,roxi/ately three inches =" //> s;uare. The ,ages are se;uentially co,ied onto the fil/ and 6ound u,on a dru/@ 6ithin the cartridge case. 1 /icrofil/ +eader =a ,roBector> is used@ to 6ind the fil/ through a gate and dis,lay a single ,age of textAdra6ing u,on a screen@ 6hich is large enough to ena9le the text and illustrations to 9e read and understood. (ecause of the condensing of the hard co,y 9oo7s into a s/all s,aceL a co/,lete set of /aintenance /anuals can@ thus@ 9e contained in a s/all nu/9er of /icrofil/ cartridges 6hich can 9e stored close to the +eader. 1 nu/9er of these ,roBectors are ,ro2ided 6ith a ,rinting facility@ that allo6s the ,erson@ reading the fil/@ to ,rint a co,y of any sheets 6hich contain infor/ation that is re;uired a6ay fro/ the /achine. 1ll co,ies@ re/o2ed fro/ the /icrofil/ reading roo/@ /ust 9e used once only@ and not retained for later 6or7. This ,ractise ensures that a/end/ents and u,dates are not /issed. 5.5.2 Microfiche 1 si/ilar ,rocess to /icrofil/@ 6ith the exce,tion that /any ,ages of the /anuals are re,roduced on one clear sheet of fil/@ /easuring a,,roxi/ately 133 // x 153 // =# in x in>. Each sheet is ca,a9le of storing a large nu/9er of ,ages =o2er 133> of textAdra6ings and ta7es u, 2ery little s,ace.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 10
!"
engineering
The +eader is si/ilar to the /icrofil/ +eader exce,t that the fil/ slide is /o2ed a9out@ 9eneath the 2ie6ing lens@ until the rele2ant ,age a,,ears u,on the screen. (y si/,ly ,ressing a 9utton on the /achine@ a ,hotoco,y of the ,age 9eing 2ie6ed can 9e ,roduced for re/ote use and@ once again@ any co,ies should not 9e retained for future use. 1/end/ent of 9oth this and the /icrofil/ syste/ is 9y direct re,lace/ent@ 6ith local dis,osal of the un6anted ite/s. 5.5.3 Co/,uter C?%+-M The use of co/,uters@ 6ith res,ect to aircraft /aintenance /anuals@ =and other ,u9lications>@ has the ,ri/ary ad2antage of the huge a/ount of infor/ation that can 9e stored on one Co/,act ?isc =C?>. 1 single co/,uter@ located 6ithin a /aintenance facility@ could ha2e all the necessary ,u9lications =such as the Maintenance Manual@ )llustrated &arts Catalogue and 8iring ?iagra/s>@ for the rele2ant aircraft ty,e@ held on one C?. 1s 6ith the other t6o syste/s@ there should 9e the facility to ,rint the necessary infor/ation re;uired 6ith@ of course@ the li/itation that the infor/ation is only 2alid on%the%day@ and /ust not 9e used for re,etiti2e Bo9s. U,dating of co/,uter%9ased syste/s is 9y the si/,le re,lace/ent of the rele2ant C?%+-M@ although there /ay 9e inter/ediate a/end/ents. 5.5.# .u,,le/entary )nfor/ation )t is i/,ortant that only the current issue@ of 6hiche2er syste/ is in use@ is su,,lied to ser2icing technicians. This /eans that the a/end/ent ,rocedures /ust 9e carefully /onitored =and es,ecially the dis,osal of the out%dated /aterial>. The ne6 a/end/ents co/e 6ith a 5etter of Trans/ittal@ fro/ the rele2ant authority@ in exactly the sa/e /anner as they do 6ith the hard co,y technical ,u9lications. (ecause of the need to dis,ose of large a/ounts of infor/ation@ 6hene2er e2en a /inor u,date or a/end/ent is carried out@ it is nor/al to ,roduce .u,,le/entary )nfor/ation in hard co,y for/@ as an inter/ediate source of current infor/ation. These issues are in addition to either the fil/AficheAC?%+-M syste/s in use and /ust 9e not only carefully /onitored@ 9ut also 6ell ,u9licised. This ensures that the technicians 7no6 that the infor/ation@ contained in the syste/ they are using@ could@ ,ossi9ly@ contain s/all ite/s of out%of%date infor/ation.
&age 23
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
*#6 Ae&-na!(ical S(an)a&)' 1 standard is 2ariously defined asF .o/ething@ esta9lished for use as a rule@ or 9asis of co/,arison@ in /easuring or Budging ca,acity@ ;uantity@ content@ extent@ 2alue or ;uality@ or a le2el or grade of excellence 1ny /easure of extent@ ;uality or 2alue@ esta9lished either 9y la6@ or 9y general use@ or 9y consent.
)n the nor/al ,erfor/ance of their duties@ technicians can find a 6ide array of standards@ esta9lishing the characteristics of the /aterials and co/,onents that they encounter in their day%to%day 6or7 of /aintaining and re,airing aircraft. 5. .1 1ir Trans,ort 1ssociation .,ecification !o. 133 .ince 1 Cune 105 @ the 1ir Trans,ort 1ssociation of 1/erica =1T1>@ has used a s,ecification@ to esta9lish a standard for the ,resentation of technical data@ 9y aircraft@ engine or co/,onent /anufacturers@ that is re;uired for their res,ecti2e ,roducts. This s,ecification is 7no6n as 1T1 .,ecification !o.133 =1T1 133>@ and its t6o Cha,ters clarify the general re;uire/ents of the aircraft industry@ 6ith reference to the co2erage@ ,re,aration and organisation of all technical data. Cha,ter 2 of the 1T1 133 co2ers ,olicies and standards a,,lica9le to s,ecific /anuals and it details the na/es and contents of the 2arious /anuals that /ust 9e ,re,ared 9y the /anufacturer. .uch /anuals include theF 1ircraft Maintenance Manual 8iring ?iagra/s .tructural +e,air Manual 1ircraft )llustrated &arts Catalogue Co/,onent Maintenance Manual )llustrated Tool and E;ui,/ent Manual .er2ice (ulletins 8eight and (alance Manual !on%?estructi2e Testing Manual &o6er &lant (uild%u, Manual 1ircraft +eco2ery Manual Fault +e,orting and Fault )solation Manuals Engine Manual Engine )llustrated &arts Catalogue.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 21
!"
engineering
Cha,ter 1 of the 1T1 133 co2ers ,olicies and standards a,,lica9le to all ,u9lications and ,ro2ides a unifor/ /ethod for arranging technical /aterial@ 6ithin the rele2ant ,u9lications@ in an effort to si/,lify the technicians ,ro9le/ in locating instructions and ,arts. )n the 1rrange/ent of Material section@ in Cha,ter 1 =1%2> of the 1T1 133@ the standard details the use of a three%ele/ent identifier nu/9er. Each ele/ent of the identifying nu/9er consists of t6o digits. The first ele/ent is designed to ,ro2ide identification of all to,ics or syste/s@ 6ithin the res,ecti2e /anuals@ 9y reference to s,ecific Cha,ters. The second ele/ent identifies su9%syste/s =su9% to,ics> as .ections@ 6hile the third ele/ent identifies associated su9%su9%syste/s =su9%su9 to,ics> as .u9Bects. Ta9le # illustrates an exa/,le of ho6 the 1T1 133 nu/9ering syste/ =in this instance using nu/9ers ranging fro/ 2"%33%33 to 2"%31%1#> is used@ to identify the /aterial 6hich is co2ered at ,articular locations 6ithin a ty,ical Maintenance Manual.
First Ele/ent@ Cha,ter =syste/> 2" 2"
2"
2"
Ta9le # EG1M&5E -F 1T1 133 !UM(E+)!' .E.TEM .econd Ele/ent@ Third Ele/ent@ Co2erage .ection .u9Bect =su9%syste/> =unit> 33 33 Material 6hich is a,,lica9le to the syste/ as a 6hole =in this instance Flight Controls>. 31 33 Material 6hich is a,,lica9le to the su9%syste/ as a 6hole =in this instance Ele2ator and Ta9 Control .yste/>. 31 33 Material 6hich is a,,lica9le to the su9%su9%syste/ as a 6hole. This nu/9er =digit> is assigned 9y the /anufacturer. 31 1# Material a,,lica9le to a s,ecific unit of the su9%su9%syste/ =Ele2ator Feel Co/,uter>. (oth digits are assigned 9y the /anufacturer
&age 22
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
The su9Bect is 9ro7en do6n yet further D into &age (loc7s D to ,ro2ide /aintenance ,ersonnel 6ith /ore detailed infor/ation on s,ecific to,ics =or su9% to,ics> 6hich relate to the .u9Bect /aterial. Ta9le 5 sho6s an exa/,le of a &age (loc7 syste/ along 6ith the to,ics and su9% to,ics@ 6hich are allocated to the rele2ant &age (loc7 nu/9ers.
Ta9le 5 EG1M&5E -F 1T1 133 &1'E (5-C: !UM(E+)!' .E.TEM To,ic or su9%to,ic &age (loc7 ?escri,tion and -,eration 1 to 133 Trou9le%shooting 131 to 233 Maintenance &ractices =if 9rief> 231 to 333 =-ther6ise> .er2icing 331 to #33 +e/o2alA)nstallation #31 to 533 1dBust/entATest 531 to 33 )ns,ectionAChec7 31 to "33 CleaningA&ainting "31 to *33 1,,ro2ed +e,airs *31 to 033 !oteF The 6ord EFFECT)<)TE % 6hich /ay a,,ear on the left hand side of the 9otto/ of a ,age D is used to identify the aircraft serial nu/9er@ or /anufacturers serial nu/9er =M.!>@ or aircraft /odel to 6hich a ,articular .u9Bect to,ic /ay refer and those nu/9ers 6ill 9e sho6n. )f the 6ord 155 a,,ears adBacent to the EFFECT)<)TE then the infor/ation concerns all ty,es of aircraft =or co/,onents>@ regardless of any serial nu/9ers. Cha,ter 1 of the 1T1 133 also details the ,olicies and standards a,,lica9le to all ,u9lications 6ith reference to theF &hysical +e;uire/entsF For/at of /edia =&a,er@ Fil/@ &age layoutAnu/9ering etc.> and )ndexing =5ist of Effecti2e &ages Y5E&sZ@ Ta9le of Contents YT-CZ@ Text@ ?i2ider Cards@ .e;uence@ etc.> )ssuance and +e2ision .er2ice 1ircraft and Engine QoningF 1ccess ?oor@ &ort@ &anel and 1rea identification.
Many airlines and si/ilar co/,anies also organise their s,are ,arts in stores de,art/ents under the rele2ant 1T1 s,ecification nu/9ers and@ irres,ecti2e of the aircraft ty,e@ infor/ation on si/ilar co/,onents 6ill 9e found in the sa/e Cha,ter and .ection. 1 co/,lete ta9le of the 1T1 nu/9ering syste/@ su9% syste/ and titles@ allo6s the technician to esta9lish@ ,recisely@ 6here the infor/ation re;uired can 9e found in the res,ecti2e /anuals.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 23
!"
engineering
5. .2 )nternational -rganisation for .tandardisation =).-> This is an international organisation@ 6hich has re,resentati2es fro/ each /e/9er country@ usually consisting of that countrys o6n standardising organisation. 5. .3 (ritish .tandards =(.> These are controlled 9y the (ritish .tandards )nstitution =(.)> and are the recognised 9ody for the ,re,aration and ,ro/ulgation of national standards and codes of ,ractice. The (.) re,resents the United :ingdo/ on /atters ,ertaining to ).-. 5. .# Military .tandard =M.> This standard 6as de2elo,ed 9y the /ilitary@ and has found its 6ay into all as,ects of a2iation. The M. =also M)5> standard has@ all 9ut@ re,laced the 1! syste/ and@ in /any cases@ for/er 1! ,arts are no6 9eing ,roduced as M. or M)5 ,arts. The suffix usually consists of a letter@ 6hich identifies the ite/ =+ for ri2et@ . for steel@ C for ca9le@ etc.>@ and a serial nu/9er. These standards a,,ly 9oth to hard6are and /aterials. For exa/,le@ M)5%C%5#2# is a standard " x 10@ aircraft ca9le@ /ade of car9on steel. 5. .5 1ir Force and !a2y =1!> The 1! syste/ is one of the /ost 6idely used standards in aircraft hard6are. )t 6as de2elo,ed@ together 6ith the M. syste/@ 9y the U. /ilitary to ensure ;uality and unifor/ity. )te/s /anufactured to this standard are not li/ited to the /ilitary and are found in all classifications of aircraft. 5. . !ational 1eros,ace .tandard =!1.>
)te/s of hard6are used 6ithin /ilitary a2iation@ 6hich ha2e 9een ,ro2en satisfactory 9y the aeros,ace industry@ can 9e granted a !1. designation.
&age 2#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
6
%ITS AND CLEARANCES
For ease of /anufacture and re,lace/ent@ it is essential that the co/,onents of si/ilar /echanis/s should 9e interchangea9le. For this reason li/its =tolerances and allo6ances> are i/,osed on the /anufacturing ,rocedures. The li/its on di/ensions ensure that@ if any t6o /ating ,arts are /anufactured to the tolerances and allo6ances@ stated on the dra6ing@ then they 6ill asse/9le 6ithout the need of further hand 6or7ing or /achining to achie2e the re;uired standard of fit. (ecause shafts are /uch easier than holes to /achine s/all dia/eters@ the /ain syste/s of 5i/its and Fits@ for engineering ,ur,oses@ is usually the hole%9ased syste/. The holes are created to a certain tolerance and the si4es of the shafts are altered to ,ro2ide the re;uired class of fit 9et6een the t6o ite/s. 6#1 Dimen'i-n' Mass ,roduction has long 9een the 9asis of the a,,roach to the /ost econo/ic /ethods of /anufacturing and the co/,lete re,lace/ent of a defecti2e ite/ is co//on ,ractice in the /aintenance of aircraft and aeros,ace co/,onents. For this reason@ li/its are i/,osed on the /anufacturing ,rocesses@ to ensure that@ if any t6o /ating ,arts are /anufactured to the di/ensions as stated on the rele2ant dra6ings@ then the ,arts 6ill asse/9le 6ithout need of further /aBor adBust/ents and in the least ti/e ,ossi9le. The li/its are 9ased on the allo6ances and tolerances i/,osed on the di/ensions of the /anufactured ,arts. These di/ensions 6ill 9e gi2en the accuracy re;uired 9y the designer of the res,ecti2e ,arts. .1.1 1llo6ances 1n allo6ance is a difference in di/ension that is necessary to gi2e a ,articular class of fit 9et6een t6o ,arts. )f@ for exa/,le =and using a ty,ical li/it syste/>@ a shaft 6ere re;uired to locate 6ith a corres,onding hole in a co/,onent. Then@ to assist in the econo/y of /anufacture@ either the hole or the shaft is /ade as accurately as ,ossi9le to the no/inal si4e and an allo6ance is a,,lied to the associated ite/. The ter/ shaft also includes 9olts and ,ins. )f the shaft is constant and the hole 2aries in si4e@ then the syste/ used is said to 9e shaft%9ased. )f the hole is constant and the shaft 2aries in si4e@ then the syste/ is hole 9ased. The hole%9ased syste/ is the one in /ore general use.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
.1.2 Tolerances
The ite/ di/ensioned to include the allo6ance also has high and lo6 li/its and@ therefore@ a tolerance. The correct allo6ance 6ould 9e the difference 9et6een the high li/it of the shaft and the lo6 li/it of the hole.
The tolerance on a di/ension is the 2ariation tolerated and /ay 9e considered as a nu/erical ex,ression of the desired ;uality of 6or7/anshi,. )t is the difference 9et6een the high and lo6 li/its of si4e for that di/ension =refer to Fig. 1>. Thus@ a ,art that should 9e exactly 25 // no/inal dia/eter@ 6ill 9e acce,ted for a certain ,ur,ose if it is 6ithin the li/its 25.1 //@ =the high li/it>L and 2#.0 //@ =the lo6 li/it>. The difference 9et6een the t6o =3.2 //> is the tolerance.
$igh li/it of hole
5o6 li/it of hole
5o6 li/it $igh li/it of shaft of shaft
.haftA$ole Tolerance Ter/s Fig. 1
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
Ta9le 1 sho6s that tolerances /ay 9e stated in one of three 6ays@ using a hole that has a no/inal si4e of 133 // dia/eter and a tolerance of 3.32 // as an exa/,le. Ta9le 1 TE&E. -F T-5E+1!CE. (ilateral 133 // 3.31 // Unilateral 133 // W 3.32 // 133 // D 3.33 // 5i/its 133.31 // 00.00 // 8ith sheet /aterial@ such as ,atch ,lates@ used in certain re,airs@ the di/ensions ;uoted in the re,air sche/e usually ha2e a tolerance in one direction only@ the no/inal si4e 9eing the lo6er li/it. )n effect the ,atch ,late /ust ne2er 9e 9elo6 the no/inal si4e@ although it can 9e slightly o2er@ in accordance 6ith the re,air sche/e in the /anual. 6#$ D&illin0 Si>e' 1-& /-le' The si4e of hole to 9e drilled de,ends u,on the ,ur,ose of that hole. 1 hole drilled for a ri2et 6ith a s,ecific dia/eter 6ould differ fro/ those drilled to ta7e a scre6 thread@ or the ,lain shan7 of a 9olt@ of the sa/e dia/eter. .i/ilarly the si4e of a hole 6hich is to acco//odate a shaft 6ill de,end on the si4e of the shaft and on the /anner in 6hich the holeAshaft co/9ination is to 9e used. 1dditionally@ if the hole is to 9e rea/ed@ then it /ust 9e drilled slightly s/aller than its no/inal si4e@ to allo6 for the /etal re/o2ed 9y the rea/er. ?rill si4es =as discussed in the Tools to,ic> are fixed and can 9e found on charts that list each standard drill si4e@ together 6ith other colu/ns such as clearance and ta,,ing si4es. These charts /ay also include e;ui2alent si4es dis,layed in /etric@ fractional@ letter and in the nu/9erAletter syste/. 6#+ Cla''e' -1 %i(' There are three ,rinci,al classes of fit@ 9et6een shafts and holes@ and they are theF )nterference FitF 6here the shaft is larger than the hole Transition FitF 6here the shaft and hole are a,,roxi/ately the sa/e si4e Clearance FitF 6here the shaft is s/aller than the hole.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
)nterference Fit
Transition Fit $ole%(ased .yste/ (ritish .tandards .yste/ of Fits Fig. 2
Clearance Fit
.3.1 !e6all .yste/ )n the early !e6all hole%9ased syste/ of li/its@ the holes are classified as Class 1 and Class ( fits. Class 1 holes are /anufactured to a closer tolerance than are Class ( holes. Ta9le 2 sho6s ho6 the shafts are classified@ using the letters F@ &@ ?@ G@ E@ and Q. Ta9le 2 !E8155 .E.TEM -F F)T. Ty,e of Fit Force
Class of Fit )nterference F
?ri2ing ? Transition & &ush
Clearance G@ E and Q
+unning
+e/ar7s Mechanical ,ressure is re;uired for asse/9ly and@ once asse/9led@ no dis/antling is li7ely to 9e re;uired. These are a little less tight than Force Fit and one ,art can 9e dri2en into the other. .light /anual effort is re;uired to asse/9le the ,arts. .uita9le for detacha9le or locating ,arts 9ut not for /o2ing ,arts. .uita9le for 2arious ty,es of /o2ing ,arts. Class Q ,ro2ides the finest fit
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
.3.2 (ritish .tandards .yste/ The (ritish .tandard =(. #533> hole%9ased syste/ of fits =refer to Fig. 2>@ also uses the 9asic ter/inology for holes and shafts. The ter/inologies are si/ilar to those used in the !e6all syste/ =and se2eral other syste/s>@ the holes and shafts are identified 9y a /ore extensi2e al,haAnu/eric identifier. )t can@ ho6e2er@ 9e seen that@ in an )nterference Fit@ the u,,er and lo6er li/its of the shaft are greater than the corres,onding li/its of the hole and@ thus@ force is necessary to achie2e the fit. )n the Transition Fit@ the differences in the u,,er and lo6er li/its of 9oth ite/s are negligi9le so that only light effort is re;uired to insert the shaft into the hole. The u,,er and lo6er li/its of the shaft@ in a Clearance Fit@ are al6ays less than those of the hole@ so that the shaft /o2es easily 6ithin the hole. 6#3 Sche)!le -1 %i(' an) Clea&ance' 8ear occurs at any ti/e that there is /otion 9et6een t6o ,arts. This /otion can 9e intentional@ such as 6hen a shaft rotates in a ,lain =Bournal> 9earing or 6hen a roller /o2es 9ac7 and forth o2er a trac7. 8ear can also 9e accidental@ 6here t6o ,arts@ that should 9e i//o2a9le@ chafe together. )f the ,arts are intended to /o2e together@ then the /aintenance docu/entation 6ill ha2e a .chedule of Fits and Clearances@ 9ased on the li/it syste/@ issued for each /echanis/@ used on the aircraft. )f the ,arts are not intended to /o2e together@ it 6ill de,end u,on ins,ection ,rocedures to disco2er the ,ro9le/ and re,air sche/es 6ill 9e initiated@ in an atte/,t to ,re2ent recurrence. The .chedule of Fits and Clearances contains ta9les@ 6hich s,ecify the li/its on 6ear and other characteristics such asF -2ality =of a hole or shaft> (o6 of a shaft T6ist of a shaft.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
.#.1 5i/its for 8ear
The four di/ensions@ ty,ically co2ered in 6ear ta9les areF ?i/ension !e6 &er/issi9le 8orn ?i/ension Clearance !e6 &er/issi9le 8orn Clearance.
?i/ension !e6 relates to the si4e of the ,art 6hen ne6@ and 6ill sho6 the rele2ant tolerances. &er/issi9le 8orn ?i/ension refers to the si4e to 6hich a ,art /ay 6ear 9efore it /ust 9e reBected as unser2icea9le. &arts@ 6hich are not 6orn 9eyond this si4e@ can 9e used again@ ,ro2iding a suita9le /ating ,art is chosen to 7ee, the clearance 6ithin the ,er/issi9le figure. This 6ill fre;uently in2ol2e choosing a ne6 ,art to /ate 6ith the 6orn ,art. Clearance !e6 is the desired clearance in li/it for/. )nterference fits are ;uoted as negati2e clearances. &er/issi9le 8orn Clearance refers to the /axi/u/ allo6a9le clearance 6hen reasse/9ling the co/,onent. .#.2 5i/its for -2ality This usually occurs as a result of the surface 6earing@ through friction or linear /o2e/ent. -2ality and can a,,ly e;ually to holes and shafts =refer to Fig. 3>. $oles /ay 9e tested for o2ality@ using such instru/ents as 'oA!o%'o gauges@ internal /icro/eters@ or calli,ers@ as 6ere ,re2iously discussed in the Tools to,ic of this course. 1 shaft /ay 9e tested for o2ality@ 9y the use of sna, gauges@ external calli,ers and /icro/eters@ 6hich 6ere@ again@ discussed in the Tools to,ic. )t is i/,ortant to test for o2ality of a shaft@ 9efore testing it for 9o6@ as the results /ay 9e sus,ect if 9o6 is done first. (o6 in a shaft can 9e deter/ined@ in a 6or7sho,@ 9y utilising < 9loc7s@ a surface gauge and a ?T) =in conBunction 6ith a surface ta9le>.
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
8ear
8ear $ole -2ality of a $ole or a .haft Fig. 3 .#.3 5i/its for (o6 8hen dealing 6ith shafts and tu9es@ it is 2ital that not only are the ends s;uare 6ith each other@ 9ut that the centreline of the co/,lete shaft or tu9e is straight. )f the centre line of the shaft is not straight@ then the ite/ is 9o6ed. 8hen the shaft or tu9e is rotating@ es,ecially at a high s,eed in a 9o6ed state@ there is the ris7 of 2i9ration@ 6hich can lead to /echanical failures@ loosening of fasteners and =/ost critical of all> fatigue. 1ll cylindrical ite/s@ 9oth tu9ular and solid@ can 9e gi2en a li/it to the a/ount of 9o6 ,er/itted. For exa/,le a dri2e shaft@ 6hich rotates a9out 1533 r,/@ /ay ha2e a li/it of 3.25 // =3.31 in> 9o6 o2er the length of the shaft. This ensures that@ 6ithin the li/its of ,roduction@ the dri2e shafts are effecti2ely straight@ gi2ing the least ,ossi9le 2i9ration. .haft
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age "
!"
engineering
.#.# 5i/its for T6ist
T6ist is the result of a,,lied torsion on circular or s;uare%sectioned shafts. )f the t6ist disa,,ears@ as a result of re/o2ing the force@ then the shaft 6ill ha2e 9een loaded 9elo6 its elastic li/it. )f the shaft re/ains t6isted@ after re/o2al of the load@ then it has 9een loaded a9o2e its elastic li/it. The action of a shaft =of 6hate2er section>@ carrying a tor;ue load is to t6ist in ,ro,ortion to the tor;ue a,,lied. The result of cyclic loading of shafts is that@ at certain ti/es@ the shafts ha2e to 9e chec7ed for ,er/anent t6ist. )f the shaft has a s;uare section@ it can 9e chec7ed for t6ist on a surface ta9le using a ?T) /ounted on a surface gauge. .olid or tu9ular shafts that ha2e to 9e chec7ed for t6ist 6ill ,ossi9ly ha2e 6itness /ar7s or lines engra2ed or etched at each end of the shaft. The shafts can 9e chec7ed@ 9y /ounting the shaft in < 9loc7s and@ then@ locating these /ar7s in the hori4ontal ,osition. )t is ,ossi9le to /easure the a/ount of t6ist@ to 6hich a shaft is su9Bected@ 6hilst in o,eration or rotation@ 9y the use of strain gauges. These e/it 2arying a/ounts of electric current 6hen under strain@ gi2ing an indication =on a cali9rated instru/ent> of the load 9eing a,,lied. The designer of the aircraft or e;ui,/ent 6ill set all li/its@ 6ith regards to the distortion of ,arts and set the/ do6n in the rele2ant /anuals. The /ethods used to /easure the distortion 6ill either 9e standard ,rocedures@ such as using a ?T) and surface ta9le etc.@ or 6ill ha2e a s,ecial ,rocedure included in the /anuals.
&age *
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
7 RI?ETING
+i2ets are a non%detacha9le for/ of fastening de2ice@ used extensi2ely on aircraft@ to secure the ite/s of co/,onents 9uilt u, fro/ sheet /etal. They are ideal for for/ing li;uid%tight Boints@ are chea,er@ lighter in 6eight and are /ore ra,idly fastened than 9olts. +i2ets@ ho6e2er@ ha2e the disad2antage that they are not really suita9le for tensile loads. 1 ri2eted asse/9ly cannot 9e readily dis/antled. +i2ets@ 9asically fall into t6o classes@ 6hich areF .olid ri2ets $ollo6 or tu9ular ri2ets
+i2ets are su,,lied 6ith one head already for/ed@ the tail 9eing for/ed 9y hand% o,erated or /achine tools. 7#1 T2.e' -1 S-li) Ri@e( .olid ri2ets are a2aila9le in a 2ariety of sha,es and /etals. The co//on ty,es of (ritish ri2et =refer to Fig. 1> are the sna, head@ 6hich is used for general ,ur,oses@ the /ushroo/ head@ 6here less resistance to the air is essential@ and the countersun7 head@ 6here a flush finish is re;uired. )n the U.1 the co//on heads are the uni2ersal =si/ilar to the /ushroo/ head> and the countersun7 head. Countersun7 heads are a2aila9le in a 2ariety of different head angles@ usually 3@ 03@ 133 and 123@ 6ith the /ost co//on 9eing the 133.
.na, $ead
Mushroo/ =or Uni2ersal> $ead +i2et Ty,es Fig.1
Countersun7 $ead
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
".1.1 +i2et Materials
Unless other6ise stated@ the ri2ets /ust 9e of the sa/e /aterial as the 6or7 9eing ri2eted. The ri2et /aterial /ay 9e identified 9y /ar7ings@ colour@ anti% corrosion treat/ent or /agnetic ,ro,erties. .olid ri2et /ar7ings are usually situated on the head or tail of the ri2et. Tu9ular ri2ets are not /ar7ed. 8hen in dou9t as to the identification of ri2ets@ reference should 9e /ade to the ,ac7aging la9el. .olid ri2ets can 9e /ade fro/ a 2ariety of /aterials 6ith alu/iniu/ alloy 9eing the /ost co//on. The /aterial and s,ecifications of (ritish and 1/erican ri2ets are not the sa/e. The ty,e of ri2et used for re,air is dictated 9y an aircrafts /aintenance /anual. &er/ission fro/ the aircraft /anufacturer is re;uired 9efore any changes@ to ri2et s,ecification@ are allo6ed. ".1.2 (asic +i2et 5ocation Ter/inology (asic ter/inologies =refer to Fig. 2> are e/,loyed@ to descri9e the location of ri2ets relati2e to each other and to the li/iting 9oundaries of the asse/9ly. The /ost co//on ter/s are theF &itchF 6hich is the distance 9et6een t6o ri2ets in a ro6@ /easured centre to centre@ and it should 9e at least four ti/es the ri2et dia/eter =#?>. .,acingF 6hich is the distance 9et6een adBacent ro6s@ and it should 9e 9et6een 3? and #?. 1 4ig4ag ,attern of s,acing is nor/ally used for li;uid% tight Boints. 5andF 6hich is the distance 9et6een ri2et centres and the edge of the /etal sheet and it not should 9e less than 2?. 1llo6anceF 6hich is the a/ount of ri2et shan7 that ,rotrudes 9eyond the /aterial 9efore the ri2et is for/ed. ClearanceF 6hich is the a/ount that the ri2et hole is larger@ than the ri2et shan7 dia/eter.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
&itch
.,acing 5and
Clearance
1llo6ance
Ter/inology of +i2et 5ocations Fig. 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
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engineering
7#$ T2.e' -1 Ri@e(e) J-in(' The location of the ri2eting dictates the ty,e of Boint =refer to Fig. 3> that is /ade. 1n ordinary la, Boint is used on lightly loaded /e/9ers and@ to ,ro2ide a flush surface on one side@ the Boint /ay 9e Boggled. 8here one flush surface and greater strength is re;uired@ the single 9utt Boint is used. The strongest Boint is the dou9le stra, 9utt Boint.
5a, Coint
Coggled 5a, Coint
.ingle .tra, (utt Coint
?ou9le .tra, (utt Coint
Ty,es of +i2eted Coints Fig. 3 7#+ Cl-'in0 S-li) Ri@e(' This is usually done during a re,air or /odification to the aircraft structure. The re,air sche/e or /odification leaflet 6ill detail the ri2et si4e@ ty,e and s,acing to 9e used 6hich@ usually 6ill 9e the existing layout and /aterials used in adBacent ,arts of the structure. The ri2et dia/eter 6ill nor/ally 9e a,,roxi/ately three ti/es the thic7ness of a single sheet of the /aterial 9eing Boined. The tools re;uired to close =set> a solid ri2et are a ri2et sna,@ reaction 9loc7 =dolly> and ,neu/atic ha//er =ri2et gun>. )f access is restricted@ then t6o ,eo,le 6ill 9e re;uired to co/,lete the tas7@ % one holding the 6or7 and one ri2eting. 1 solid ri2et /ay 9e closed as follo6sF

)t should@ first@ 9e ensured that the ,lates are secured 9y use of gri,,ing ,ins The hole is ,re,ared and the correct ri2ets o9tained 1 ri2et@ of the correct dia/eter and length@ is inserted into the hole The ri2et head is su,,orted in the sna, and the dolly ,laced on the tail of the ri2et
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age #
!"
engineering

5ight 9lo6s are a,,lied@ 6ith a ha//er@ to the sna, 6hilst the dolly is 7e,t on the ri2ets tail The ,artially for/ed ri2et is ins,ected and =if satisfactory> /ore 9lo6s are a,,lied 6ith the ha//er until the ri2et is for/ed correctly. Cl-'in0 /-ll-8 Ri@e('
7#3
There are a 2ariety of hollo6 ri2ets@ designed ,ri/arily for a,,lication 6here there is access to only one side of the Bo9. These include Tuc7er%,o,@ Cho9ert@ 12del@ Cherry and the $i%5o7 fa/ily of /odern fasteners. ".#.1 Tuc7er%,o, $and%o,erated ,o,%ri2et ,liers or 5a4y%tongs ,liers can 9e used to close Tuc7er% ,o, ri2ets. 1 ,rocedure for using the 5a4y%tongs ty,e ,liers is as follo6sF

The 5a4y tongs are fully extend and the /andrel shan7 inserted into the chuc7 The tongs are slightly co/,ressed and the ri2et inserted into the hole in the /aterial 9eing ri2eted The chuc7 is held fir/ly and s;uarely against the /aterial@ 6hile the tongs are further co/,ressed@ until the head of the /andrel closes the ri2et and the ste/ 9rea7 off.
The 9ro7en off /andrel ste/s@ s6arf@ ri2et heads and shan7s@ 6hich are discarded during a re,air o,eration@ /ust 9e re/o2ed after co/,letion of the tas7. The danger of such 6aste /aterial fouling ite/s such as control ca9les@ cannot 9e o2er%e/,hasised. ".#.2 Cho9ert Cho9ert ri2ets =refer to Fig. #> are 2ery si/ilar to Tuc7er &o, ri2ets@ exce,ting that the /andrel ,ulls fully through the ri2et and is used /any ti/es@ =including so/e 6hich ha2e a /aga4ine facility allo6ing re,etiti2e o,eration>. To o,erate the toolF

The /andrel is lu9ricated and threaded 6ith the ri2et The ri2et is then threaded into the Ba6s of the tool 6ith the o,erating handle fully anti%cloc76ise The ri2et and /andrel are ,ushed fully into the tool Ba6s The ri2et is ,lace into the hole@ in the 6or7@ and the tool is chec7ed for s;uare. The o,erating handle is turned cloc76ise@ to ,ull the /andrel through the ri2et@ and@ 6hen the resistance ceases@ the ri2et is secured
1fter closing the Cho9ert ri2et a ,in is inserted through the centre of the ri2et@ to ,ro2ide additional shear strength and so/e sealing ,ro,erties.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
Mandrel
Closing a Cho9ert +i2et Fig. # ".#.3 12del 8here the strength of a solid ri2et and a sealed Boint is re;uired@ 12del ri2ets =refer to Fig. 5> are one of the ,ossi9le choices. These lea2e ,art of the /andrel fir/ly in ,lace@ the to, of 6hich can 9e /illed off to lea2e a flush surface finish. Mandrel 12del +i2et
Mandrel /illed flush 6ith s7in Closing 12del +i2ets Fig. 5
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
".#.# Cherry Max
-ne of the /ost co//on ri2eting syste/s is the Cherry Max syste/@ ,roduced in the U.1@ 9y Cherry Textron. The syste/ is one of a range ,roduced 9y the co/,any@ others include Friction%loc7 and Mechanical%loc7 Cherry ri2ets. Cherry Max ri2ets =refer to Fig. > consist of four co/,onents@ asse/9led as a single unit. The co/,onents consist of aF .te/ 6ith a 9rea7 notch shear ring and ,lug section 5oc7ing collar@ 6hich loc7s the ste/ Fastener slee2e 6ith a loc7ing collar di/,le ?ri2ing an2il@ to ensure correct installation.
Mandrel
?ri2ing 1n2il
Tu9ular +i2et .lee2e Unfor/ed 5oc7ing Collar
For/ed 5oc7ing Collar
(ul9ed $ead Cherry Max +i2ets Fig.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age "
!"
engineering
".#.5 $i%5o7
-ne other fa/ily of fasteners that ha2e ta7en the ,lace of ri2ets in certain high load situations is the $i%5o7 =refer to Fig. ">@ $i%5o7 $i%Tigue and $i%5ite grou,. These fasteners 2ary fro/ those /entioned 9efore@ not only 9ecause they are scre6ed do6n to full closure@ 9ut they are also installed using ordinary hand tools such as o,en%ended s,anners or 1llen 6renches@ a2oids the need for co/,lex and ex,ensi2e s,ecial closing tools. The collar is tightened onto the ,in to close the t6o sheets of /etal@ and 6hen it reaches the correct tor;ue the hexagonal dri2e ,ortion shear off. The collar ,art of the fastener /ay ha2e a fi9re 6asher attached to aid sealing ,ro,erties.
Collar Fi9re Collar
&in
Cl-'in0 a /i4L-" Ri@e(
Fig. " ".#. +i2nuts +i2nuts are a for/ of 9lind ri2et@ 6hich can 9e used as an anchor nut@ 9ecause the internal 9ore is threaded to recei2e a 9olt or scre6. These fasteners can 9e found 6ith either countersun7 or flat heads and are installed 6ith a s,ecial tool@ fitted 6ith a threaded /andrel. This /andrel is scre6ed into the ri2nut and@ 6hen the gun is o,erated@ the ,ull force on the /andrel ex,ands the shan7@ lea2ing the ri2nut securely fastened and a9le to recei2e a 9olt or scre6 after the tool is re/o2ed.
&age *
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
7#* In'.ec(i-n -1 Ri@e(e) J-in(' +i2eted Boints /ust 9e ins,ected at all stages of ,roduction and o,eration. This /eans that the /anufacturing stages /ust 9e thoroughly ins,ected to ensure that the finished 6or7 /eets the re;uired s,ecifications. 8hilst in ser2ice@ ri2ets /ust 9e ins,ected regularly@ to chec7 for a nu/9er of faults that /ight ha2e occurred@ such as corrosion@ fretting and fatigue. 1fter the ri2ets ha2e 9een closed@ they should 9e ins,ected to ensure that they are tight and fully for/ed. +i2et heads /ust not 9e defor/ed or crac7ed and the surrounding area /ust 9e free fro/ distortion and unda/aged 9y ri2eting tools. 1ll aircraft /aintenance /anuals contain diagra/s of for/ed ri2ets and their ,ossi9le faults =refer to Fig. *>. These diagra/s sho6 6hat is acce,ta9le and 6hat is not.
Clinched $ead
Coc7ed $ead
Crac7ed .ho, $ead Ty,ical +i2et Faults Fig. *
Countersin7ing too ?ee,
8hilst ri2ets that are clearly not satisfactory /ust 9e changed@ care /ust 9e ta7en 6hen considering re,lacing those only slightly 9elo6 standard. )t is ,ossi9le that /ore har/ could 9e done re,lacing the/@ than lea2ing the/ in ,lace.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 0
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engineering
)f there are any signs of da/age to the airfra/e structure@ then a thorough ins,ection of the 6hole area /ust 9e /ade. $idden da/age /ay extend 9eyond the area of 2isi9le defor/ation@ so that any ri2eted Boint that sho6s an indication of da/age should 9e ins,ected 6ell 9eyond the last defor/ed ri2et. )ns,ection of a ri2et head for stretch can 9e achie2ed 9y sliding a feeler gauge under the head or tail. 1 staining colour of 9lac7 or grey around a ri2et head is an indication that it has stretched. )f any dou9t exists it /ay 9e necessary to drill out the ri2et and exa/ine the hole for indications of elongation or tearing. 1ny stretching 6ill 9eco/e a,,arent 6hen the ri2ets are re/o2ed@ as the s7in 6ill /o2e ,osition. -nce the /aterial has settled it /ay 9e necessary for the holes to 9e drilled out o2ersi4e@ ,ro2iding this is in accord 6ith the re,air ,u9lications. 7#6 Ri@e( Rem-@al P&-ce)!&e 1s 6ith all /aintenance tas7s on aircraft@ the ,rocedure for re/o2ing solid ri2ets 6ill 9e detailed in the 1MM. The follo6ing ,rocedure ex,lains a 9asic /ethod of ri2et re/o2alF The centre of the /anufactured ri2et head is carefully /ar7ed 6ith a centre ,unch Using a t6ist drill the sa/e si4e as the ri2et shan7 dia/eter@ the ri2et is drilled to the de,th of the head The head is carefully re/o2ed@ 6ith a flat chisel or is ,rised out 6ith a ,in ,unch The re/aining shan7 is then ,unched out 6ith a ,arallel ,in ,unch of the sa/e dia/eter as the ri2et shan7.
1n alternate /ethod@ occasionally used 9y so/e /anufacturers@ is to drill the tail of the ri2et off first and re/o2e the re/aining shan7 fro/ the o,,osite end. Care needs to 9e ta7en@ during ri2et re/o2al@ to ensure that the least ,ossi9le da/age is done to the original hole and its surrounding structure. 8hen re/o2ing ri2ets fro/ 9onded asse/9lies it is essential not to a,,ly shear loads@ 6hich are lia9le to ,art the 9ond.
&age 13
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
A PIPES AND /OSES
&i,es and hoses can 9e called u,on to carry a 6ide 2ariety of different fluids 6ithin an aircraft@ including fuel@ hydraulic and engine oils@ de%icing fluids@ ,itot and static air. The ,ressure 6ithin these ,i,es can 2ary fro/ a/9ient to 333 M &a =333 9ar or #333 ,si>. 1ll ,i,es and hoses /ust 9e /anufactured@ installed and connected so that no lea7s occur in ser2ice@ 9ecause a lea7 in a 2ery lo6%,ressure ,itot air tu9e can 9e Bust as dangerous as a lea7 in an extre/ely high% ,ressure hydraulic line. +igid ,i,elines are@ generally@ /ade fro/ stainless steel@ Tungu/ =Trade na/e for a high%tensile@ co,,er alloy> and alu/iniu/ alloy. +e,lace/ent ,i,elines are@ usually @ su,,lied 9y the /anufacturer@ ready for installation@ 6ith the ,i,e 9ent to the correct cur2ature and the ,i,e ends flared and ,ro2ided 6ith the a,,ro,riate end fittings. )n certain circu/stances@ it /ay 9e ,er/issi9le to /anufacture ne6 ,i,elines fro/ lengths of ,i,e. 1 ne6 ,i,eline 6ill 9e /ade@ 9y cutting the 9asic ,i,e to the correct length@ attaching the correct cou,lings and ex,anding the ends 9y the use of a flaring tool. +e;uests for the 9asic ,i,e /aterial 6ill re;uire details of theF

Metal s,ecification =?T?@ (.@ 1! etc.> -utside dia/eter =-?> 'auge of the 6all thic7ness =.8'> 5ength of ,i,e re;uired.
Flexi9le hoses are o9tained fro/ the aircraft /anufacturer using the aircrafts )llustrated &arts Catalogue =)&C>. )t is ,ossi9le that@ in certain circu/stances@ a re,lace/ent hose can 9e /anufactured in a 6or7sho, or hose 9ay. 1,,ro2al to /anufacture the re,lace/ent hose /ust 9e sought fro/ the aircrafts /anufacturer. A#1 Pi.e Ben)in0 To lessen the ,ossi9ility of the ,i,e 6all 7in7ing 6hen it is 9eing 9ent@ it /ay 9e filled 6ith a s,ecial alloy@ 6hich can 9e re/o2ed after the 9ending o,eration. These alloys are 7no6n as fusi9le alloys@ so/e of 6hich /elt 9elo6 133 C and can@ therefore@ 9e /elted out 9y i//ersion in 9oiling 6ater. The ,i,e is oiled first@ to ,re2ent the alloy adhering to the tu9e 6all. )t is next ,lugged at one end@ ,re%heated and then filled 6ith the /elted alloy. -nce cooled@ the ,i,e can then 9e 9ent as re;uired.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
1fter 9ending@ the ,i,e should 9e unloaded@ 9y i//ersing it in 9oiling 6ater until all the alloy has run out. The ,i,e /ust then 9e cleaned internally to ensure that any alloy adhering to the 6alls of the ,i,e is re/o2ed. This is acco/,lished 9y using a ,ull through 6ith the ,i,e i//ersed in 9oiling 6ater or 9y using a stea/ cleaner. The co/,lete re/o2al of the fusi9le alloy fro/ the ,i,e is extre/ely i/,ortant as its ,resence /ay lead to 9loc7ages or corrosion and@ in steel tu9es@ 6hich /ay 9e su9se;uently heat%treated@ the ,resence of any alloy 6ould cause inter% crystalline crac7ing. *.1.1 .i/,le (ending Cigs 1 si/,le 9ending Big =refer to Fig. 1> is su,,lied 6ith a range of rollers and sto,s and the ,i,e is 9ent using the correct co/9ination of co/,onents chec7ing the ne6 ,i,e against either a te/,late or the old ,i,e.
.i/,le (ending Cig Fig. 1 *.1.2 $and &i,e%(ending Machines $and ,i,e%9ending /achines are a2aila9le for ,i,e si4es u, to 12 // =H O in> and for si4es of 12 // to 25 // =O in to 1 in>. 1 ty,ical hand ,i,e%9ending /achine =refer to Fig. 2> 6ould ha2e a /atching for/er and guide for each ,i,e si4e in the range@ gi2ing a 9end radius of a,,roxi/ately four ti/es the ,i,e dia/eter. 1 ,ressure indicator allo6s adBust/ent@ so that 6hen 9ending thin 6all ,i,es@ there is no ris7 of 6rin7ling or flattening. The roller ensures that the load of 9ending is trans/itted axially to the ,i,e@ 2ia the guide@ 6hich ensures that no sliding and so no da/age@ ta7es ,lace 9et6een the guide and ,i,e.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1ccurate 9ends can 9e /ade either fro/ a dra6ing or a te/,late@ 9y follo6ing si/,le instructions 6hen /ar7ing out the 9end. This is es,ecially true 6hen the 9ends ha2e to 9e a s,ecific di/ension fro/ the end of the ,i,e or a series of 9ends ha2e to 9e /ade to ,roduce a co/,lex sha,ed ,i,e asse/9ly.
&ressure )ndicator 1dBusta9le .to,
1dBusta9le .cre6
For/er +oller &i,e 'uide &ull this 6ay to (end &i,e

(ending 1r/
$and &i,e%(ending Machine Fig. 2 A#$ Pi.e %la&in0 Flaring can 9e achie2ed only 6hen the end of the ,i,e has 9een accurately s;uared off and cleaned out. -nce a flare has 9een for/ed correctly@ it should re/ain co/,letely fluid tight at all nor/al ,ressures. *.2.1 Flaring Tool &i,e flaring tools@ co/e in a 2ariety of si4es@ 6ith a range of ,i,e si4es that can 9e flared 9y each ,articular tool. 1 ty,ical flaring tool =refer to Fig. 3>@ is used to flare tu9es in the range 12 // to 25 // ==O in to 1 in>. .ets of half%9ushes or dies co2er the range of tu9e si4es for each /achine. The flaring tool is usually /ounted in a hand 2ice or so/e other rigid /ounting. -nce the half%9ushes ha2e 9een installed@ the union%nut and collar are ,laced onto the tu9e and the tu9e is then cla/,ed into the 9ushes@ 6ith the tu9e end flush 6ith the end of the dies or half 9ushes.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
$alf (ushes &i,e 5atch Fitting .ecuring .cre6
5atch Fitting Threaded .lee2e +otation $andle
Ex,ander Cone +otation $andle Ex,ander Cone Threaded .lee2e
&i,e Flaring Tool Fig. 3
The threaded slee2e is slo6ly fed into the end of the tu9e 6hilst si/ultaneously turning the ex,ander cone 2ia the rotation handle. This s,reads the end of the tu9e until it contacts the inner face of the 9ushes. 1 correctly finished flare should lea2e ,rescri9ed a/ount of the tu9e ,roBecting fro/ the collar. The finished flared end 6ith the union nut and collar can 9e connected to a 2ariety of other end fittings. These can include other ,i,es@ and 9oth internal and external ada,ters fitted to a nu/9er of different co/,onents. *.2.2 .tandard Flared &i,e Cou,lings <arious ty,es of standard flared ,i,e cou,lings =refer to Fig. #>@ are a2aila9le in aircraft fluid syste/s. These cou,lings ha2e different angles and 6hilst they /ay loo7 si/ilar@ they are not interchangea9le. The 1'. syste/ uses a 32 flare 6hilst the 1! syste/ uses flares of "# included angle. Care /ust 9e ta7en to ensure that the correct cou,lings are fitted 6hen /anufacturing these ,i,es.
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
Collar Flared ,i,e
Externally coned ada,ter
)nternally coned ada,ter
Union nut &i,e to external cone ada,ter
.,herical%ended ada,ter ni,,le
.lee2e
.,herical%ended ada,ter ni,,le &i,e to internal cone ada,ter
&i,e to ,i,e
.tandard Flared &i,e Cou,lings Fig. # *.2.3 Flareless Cou,lings The flaring o,eration lea2es the tu9e end in a stressed condition 6hich@ as the flare ta7es a large a/ount of the 2i9ration loadings@ can result in fatigue failure. To o2erco/e this situation@ the flareless cou,ling 6as introduced. The flareless cou,ling@ achie2es its sealing ,ro,erties 9y the defor/ation of a slee2e@ 9uilt into the cou,ling =refer to Fig. 5>. The end of this slee2e has a shar,@ hoo7ed sha,e@ 6hich is 7no6n as a ,ilot. )t is the action of this shar, hoo7@ cutting into the ,i,e@ 6hich ,ro2ides the re;uired sealing ,ro,erties. The indi2idual ,arts of the cou,ling are asse/9led and the nut is si/,ly scre6ed do6n on to its union until finger tight@ then turned one further turn 6ith a s,anner. This action 9o6s the slee2e and causes it to 9ite into the tu9e at its for6ard end. 8hen the nut is slac7ened@ the slee2e re/ains ,er/anently 9o6ed and attached to the ,i,e. This ,re%setting can 9e done either 6ith the ser2ice union or 6ith a s,ecial hardened steel union that is only used for ,re%setting.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
Under%ightened ,re%set
$oo7ed .lee2e
Correctly tightened ,re%set
-2er%tightened ,re%set
Flareless &i,e Cou,ling &re%set Fig. 5 1fter ,re%setting@ the ,i,e should 9e ins,ected to ensure the slee2e is correctly 9o6ed =)t is ,er/issi9le for the slee2e to rotate on the ,i,e>. )n ser2ice@ the nut should 9e tightened until a distinct resistance is felt@ then tightened further@ % the a/ount de,ending on the tu9e si4e and /aterial. Under no circu/stances should the nut 9e tightened further to sto, any lea7s@ this action 6ill ,er/anently da/age the tu9e end and slee2e. A#+ In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 Pi.e' an) /-'e' (efore any ins,ections can 9e done@ it /ust 9e ensured that the co/,onents are scru,ulously clean and that all critical areas are 2isi9le if the ins,ection is done 6hile the co/,onent is in its nor/al@ installed location =in situ>. +igid ,i,es should 9e ins,ected for signs ofF Chafing Corrosion D 9oth externally and internally 6here ,ossi9le Crac7ing of flared ends 6here a,,ro,riate ?efor/ation and ?ents ?eterioration in condition of end fittings and their threads.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age
!"
engineering

$ose asse/9lies should 9e ins,ected for such defects asF (listering D (oth externally and internally 6here ,ossi9le (urn da/age or discolouration Chafing@ circu/ferential crac7ing or cra4ing of the outer co2er ?ate of /anufacture D to ensure that it is 6ithin its ,rescri9ed life@ and that it 6ill re/ain so until the next ins,ection ?eterioration in condition of end fittings and their threads Flattening@ 7in7ing or t6isting.
The rele2ant /aintenance /anual 6ill state the inter2als of ins,ections and the criteria 6hich /ust 9e /et 9efore rigid ,i,es or hose asse/9lies /ay 9e considered fit for further ser2ice. *.3.1 (ore Testing of &i,es &i,es should 9e tested to ensure that the 9ore is clear and di/ensionally correct after for/ing. -ne /ethod of satisfying this re;uire/ent is to ,ass a steel 9all@ 6ith a dia/eter of *3J of the internal dia/eter of the ,i,e@ through the ,i,e in 9oth directions. 8hen the design or si4e of the ,i,e and end fittings@ /a7es this test i/,ractical or 6hen a /ore searching test is re;uired@ the dra6ing 6ill nor/ally re;uire a flo6 test to 9e ,erfor/ed. *.3.2 $ydraulic &ressure Testing of &i,es $ydraulic ,ressure testing consists of firstly carrying out a flo6 test. This /eans a full 9ore flo6 9y ,u/,ing fluid through the ,i,e and chec7ing the flo6 at the o,en end. )f this chec7 is satisfactory@ the o,en end should 9e suita9ly 9lan7ed. -nce the flo6 test has 9een carried out@ the oil ,ressure should then 9e 9uilt u, to that ,rescri9ed on the dra6ing@ usually 1O ti/es the /axi/u/ 6or7ing ,ressure. The duration of the test /ust gi2e the ,i,e a chance to sho6 any lea7s or other ,ro9le/s. *.3.3 &neu/atic and -xygen &ressure Testing of &i,es These ,i,es are usually gi2en an initial hydraulic ,ressure test@ using 6ater as the test /ediu/@ follo6ed 9y a co/,ressed air test that is li/ited to /axi/u/ syste/ ,ressure. Using high%,ressure air during the test is 2ery dangerous and the ,i,e=s> under test should 9e ,laced 9ehind a ,rotecti2e screen andAor su9/erged in 6ater. *.3.# Cleaning 1fter Test
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age "
!"
engineering
1fter a ,i,e has 9een tested@ it should nor/ally 9e flushed out using a suita9le sol2ent@ dried out using a Bet of clean@ dry air and 9lan7ed off@ using the a,,ro2ed 9lan7s. &i,es that 6ill 9e used in high%,ressure air and gaseous or li;uid oxygen syste/s /ust 9e scru,ulously clean and free fro/ any ,ossi9le conta/ination 9y oil or grease. )t is nor/al to reco//end that ,i,es for use in these syste/s are flushed 6ith Trichloroethane or so/e other suita9le sol2ent@ 9lo6n through 6ith dou9le filtered air and 9lan7ed%off@ 6ith the a,,ro2ed 9lan7s i//ediately after6ards. *.3.5 Testing Flexi9le $oses -nce the /anufactured hose has 9een chec7ed for satisfactory ,hysical condition@ the hose /ust 9e flo6 and ,ressure tested. The flo6 test 6ill 2erify 6hether the hose inner lining is secure and not acting as a for/ of non%return 2al2e. This is achie2ed 9y ,assing the fluid through the hose asse/9ly 9oth 6ays to confir/ that there is an e;ual and free flo6. 8here a re,lace/ent hose has 9een /anufactured in a local hose 9ay@ a 9ore test /ay 9e done@ in the sa/e /anner as that 6ith rigid ,i,es@ 9y use of a 9all 9earing 9eing rolled in 9oth directions through the hose. )n this instance@ ho6e2er@ the dia/eter of the 9all should 9e 03J of the internal dia/eter of the hoses end fittings. The hose should then 9e ,roof%tested 9y ca,,ing one end of the hose and a,,lying the test ,ressure@ usually t6ice the 6or7ing ,ressure@ to it for 9et6een one and fi2e /inutes. A#3 In'(alla(i-n an) Clam.in0 -1 Pi.e' &rior to installation@ the ,i,e should 9e chec7ed to esta9lish that it is of the correct ty,e and that there is e2idence of ,rior ins,ection and testing. This /ay in2ol2e chec7ing the ins,ectors sta/, and ,art nu/9er. -nce the ,i,e has 9een chec7ed for signs of da/age@ dirt or corrosion@ and found ser2icea9le@ it /ust then 9e i//ediately installed. 8hen trans,orting lengths of ,i,e@ es,ecially long lengths@ great care /ust 9e ta7en not to 7in7 or other6ise da/age the ,i,e ,rior to installation. -nce in ,osition@ the ,i,es should 9e loosely ,laced into ,osition in the su,,orting cla/,s@ and adBusted so that the connections align correctly. The connections can then 9e tightened u,@ the cla/,s fastened and any 9onding leads attached. *.#.1 &i,e .u,,orts
&age *
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
Multi,le ,i,e su,,orts are often used to sa2e s,ace and these can 9e /ade fro/ a 2ariety of /aterials@ such as fi9re 9loc7s@ alu/iniu/ alloy@ /oulded ru99er or nylon. The cla/, hal2es are usually Boined together and attached to the aircraft structure 9y 9olts. )t is i/,ortant that the edges of the se/i%circular recesses are not shar, and are of the correct si4e for the ,i,e in use.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 0
!"
engineering
)n so/e instances@ ,ac7ing 6ill 9e installed 9et6een the ,i,e and the cla/,ing /aterial. This 6ill usually 9e to reduce 2i9ration or to insulate the ,i,e and cla/, /aterial@ if they are li7ely to suffer fro/ electrolytic corrosion. )ndi2idual ,i,e cla/,ing is usually achie2ed using & cli,s. These are light alloy loo,s 6ith a ru99er slee2e@ 6hich 6ra, around the ,i,e and are held 9y a single 9olt to the aircraft structure. To a2oid the ris7 of fretting occurring 9et6een the ,i,e and 2arious ,arts of the aircraft@ /ini/u/ di/ensions /ust 9e o9ser2ed 9et6een these co/,onents@ 6hich can 9e found in the 1MM. The C11)&s list these di/ensions as // =3.25 in> fro/ fixed structure@ 1* // =3." in> fro/ control rods and 25 // =1 in> fro/ control ca9les@ 9ut the 1MM /ust al6ays ta7e ,recedent. A#* C-nnec(i-n -1 Pi.e' 8hen connecting ,i,es 6ith 9ra4ed@ flared or flareless cou,lings@ there are a nu/9er of ,oints to 9e considered.

Union nuts /ust 9e free to rotate and can 9e slid 9ac7 fro/ the end of the ,i,e 6ithout fouling. 1ll loose ite/s such as ni,,les and 6ashers@ are of the correct ty,e and correctly located. 1ll ,i,e ends align correctly 6ithout any undue ,ressure on the ,i,e. =&i,es should ne2er 9e forced into ,osition@ neither should they e2er 9e ,ulled%u, into ,osition 9y their union nuts>.
A#6 Main(enance -1 Pi.e' an) /-'e' The correct /ethods of installing ,i,es and hoses =refer to Fig. > /ust 9e follo6ed if da/age =and ,ossi9ly disaster> is not to result. &i,es attached to the airfra/e structure@ are often shielded and 6ill not usually 9e lia9le to accidental da/age. -ther ,i,es /ay 9e located in ex,osed ,ositions@ 6here they /ay 9e susce,ti9le to da/age or corrosion. &i,es located in 6heel 9ays or attached to an undercarriage leg could easily 9e da/aged 9y stones and /ud or corroded 9y thro6n%u, 6ater. .o/e ,i,es /ay 9e 9adly sited and /ay 9e su9Bect to a9use fro/ carelessly ,erfor/ed and unrelated ser2icing acti2ities. Chafing can occur in /any ,laces@ such as cla/,s and cli,s@ so care /ust 9e sho6n to eli/inate or at least reduce the chances of this ha,,ening. Crac7ing of ,i,es can occur 6hen ,ulsations are ,resent andAor the ,i,e has shar, 9ends. This ris7 /ust also 9e considered 6hen ins,ecting ,i,e runs.
&age 13
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
5i;uid lea7s can 9e found 9y the ,resence of fluid@ or at least da/,ness@ on the ,i,e or cla/,s. 'aseous lea7s /ust 9e searched for using one of the ,ro,rietary lea7%detecting fluids. The rele2ant 1MM 6ill gi2e details on ho6 a ,articular hose is installed in the aircraft@ 9ut@ in general@ a hose should 9e at least 3J longer than the /axi/u/ distance 9et6een end fittings. Consideration should also 9e gi2en to the orientation of a hose and@ once correctly installed@ the 6itness lines@ /ar7ed on the hose@ should 9e straight. .tructure
$ose to tight
$ose t6isted and under tension
$ose correct tension Correct and )ncorrect Methods of $ose )nstallation. Fig. A#7 Pi.e I)en(i1ica(i-n Ta.e -nce a ,i,e has 9een fitted to the aircraft@ it should ha2e syste/ identification ta,e attached to ena9le engineers to identify 6hich syste/ each ,i,e 9elongs to. The ta,e co/es in rolls of a9out 25 // 6ide and uses colours@ sy/9ols and letters to differentiate 9et6een different ,i,es. 1 s/all length of the ta,e is 6ound around the ,i,e at con2enient ,oints.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 11
!"
engineering
= SPRINGS
Module =Materials and $ard6are> dealt 6ith the 2arious ty,es of s,rings@ the /aterials fro/ 6hich they are /ade@ their characteristics and their a,,lications 6ithin the aeros,ace industry. Consideration in Module " is gi2en only to the ins,ection and testing of s,rings. =#1 In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 S.&in0' .,rings 6ill generally re;uire little in the 6ay of /aintenance. Those that are in ex,osed areas can 9eco/e corroded o2er ti/e and those in areas of high te/,erature can@ if they 9eco/e o2erheated@ lose their te/,er and cease to ha2e the necessary /echanical co/,liance to satisfy the tas7 for 6hich they 6ere designed. Corrosion@ that occurs on static s,rings@ can reduce the loads that the s,ring can carry@ 6hilst if a s,ring that carries cyclic loads 9eco/es corroded@ then the co/9ination of fatigue and corrosion can result in a serious loss of fatigue strength. -2er heating@ usually sho6n as 9listering of the surface ,rotection can@ in extre/e circu/stances@ sho6 a change of colour of the /etal due to the loss of te/,er. )t /ust 9e assu/ed in this e2ent that the s,ring is not suita9le for the designed tas7. )t is i/,ortant that any ex,osed s,rings are carefully ins,ected for signs of either of the ,ro9le/s of corrosion and o2erheating. )n so/e instances@ s,rings ha2e to 9e chec7ed against figures or gra,hs to ,ro2e 6hether they are in a suita9le condition to continue in ser2ice. .o/e chec7s ha2e to 9e done out at ,rescri9ed inter2als 6hilst others are done on an o,,ortunity 9asis@ such as 6hen a 9ra7e unit a hydraulic actuator is dis/antled for o2erhaul. The /ost co//on chec7@ done on coil s,rings is on its static /easure/ent. The /anufacturer 6ill ,u9lish the exact di/ension of the unloaded s,ring 6ith so/e s/all tolerance@ 6hilst the ser2icing technician 6ill accurately /easure the s,rings length and co/,are the t6o di/ensions. &ro2iding that the s,ring is 6ithin the ,u9lished figures@ then the s,ring is considered to 9e ser2icea9le.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
The other chec7@ usually co/,leted in a 6or7sho, en2iron/ent@ is the loadAdeflection chec7. 1 s,ecial test rig is used@ to load the s,ring 6ith either a co/,ressi2e@ tensile or a torsional loading and a /eter on the rig 6ill dis,lay the load 2ersus deflection figures. 1 series of loads are@ su9se;uently@ a,,lied to the s,ring and the rele2ant deflections noted. -n co/,letion@ the figures are co/,ared to a gra,h@ ,u9lished 9y the s,ring /anufacturer@ to esta9lish the ser2icea9ility of the s,ring. )f a s,ring fails any of these chec7s it is@ si/,ly@ re,laced 9y a ser2icea9le ite/.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
1; BEARINGS
8hen correctly installed and efficiently lu9ricated@ 9earings re;uire little 9ut thorough@ attention during ser2ice@ to ensure a long 6or7ing life. The /aBority of 9earings used in aircraft engineering are of the sealed or shielded ty,e. These 9earing are designed to ,re2ent the ingress of foreign /atter@ 6hich 6ill da/age or conta/inate the 9earing contact surfaces. 1;#1 Cleanin0 an) In'.ec(i-n -1 Bea&in0' Cleaning (efore a 9earing can 9e chec7ed it /ust 9e cleaned thoroughly to re/o2e any dirt and the old lu9ricating fluid. The /anual 6ill dictate the cleaning ,rocess including use of any sol2ent@ 9ut a ty,ical /ethod is as follo6s. +e/o2e any excess grease 6ith clothes and dry co/,ressed air@ 6hilst ensuring that the rolling ele/ents re/ain stationary or only rotate slo6ly. .oa7 the 9earing in an a,,ro2ed sol2ent@ such 6hite s,irit@ to re/o2e the re/aining grease. The sol2ent /ay 9e a,,lied as a forced Bet if necessary. ?ry the 9earing 9y using clean 6ar/ and dry co/,ressed air@ again a2oiding fast rotation of any rolling ele/ents. 5ightly lu9ricate all 9earing surfaces 6ith oil to ,re2ent the onset of corrosion.
Testing Testing a 9earing is usually restricted to rotational chec7s and excessi2e 9ac7lash or free ,lay. .lo6 rotation of the rolling ele/ents and race6ay 6ill highlight any roughness due to da/age@ corrosion or 6ear. 1 ser2icea9le 9earing should ha2e a s/ooth actuation. Free ,lay should 9e tested in 9oth a radial and axial direction and is nor/ally done 9y using a ?T). .o/e 6ear is usually ,er/itted and 6ill de,end on the grade of fit@ 9ut any 6ear that lea2es excessi2e 9ac7lash in the syste/ is unsatisfactory. The rate of this 6ear de,ends on the s,eed the 9earing is rotated at@ 6ith high s,eed 9earings failing ;uic7er than those 6hich rotate slo6ly or through distances of less than one co/,lete re2olution. 1 9earing that has any indication of a fault should 9e discarded i//ediately. ?ue to their construction internal ins,ection of shielded 9earings 6ill 9e restricted. Ta,er 9earings can 9e dis/antled and a thorough ins,ection of the rolling ele/ents and race6ay surfaces can 9e co/,leted.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
1;#$ In'.ec(i-n -1 Bea&in0'
-nce clean the 9earing should 9e ins,ected for signs of failure@ so/e of the /ore co//on 9eingF 1. 2. 3. #. 5. . ". !or/al Fatigue Excessi2e 5oading )nstallation and Misalign/ent 5oose Fitting or .,inning (rinelling -2erheating and 5u9rication ?eficiency Conta/ination and Corrosion
13.2.1 !or/al Fatigue !or/al fatigue failure is often sho6n as a fracture of the running surface@ 6ith su9se;uent re/o2al of s/all ,articles of /etal and is co//only called s,alling. =+efer Fig. 1> )t occurs on 9oth rolling ele/ents and race6ays@ and is al6ays acco/,anied 9y an increase in 2i9ration. Moderately s,alled areas sho6 the 9earing has reached the end of its nor/al ser2ice life. 13.2.2 Excessi2e 5oads Excessi2e loading of a 9earing is usually the sa/e as nor/al fatigue@ 9ut the rolling ele/ents 6ear ,ath is usually hea2ier. There is also increased e2idence of o2erheating 6ith a 6ides,read and dee,er fatigue or s,alled area. This often causes ,re/ature 9earing failure. =+efer Fig. 1>
.,alled 1rea (all &ath
Fig. 1 .,alled 1reas

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engineering
13.2.3 )nstallation and Misalign/ent )nstallation da/age is usually the result of an i/,act that occurs 6hen a 9earing is fitted incorrectly. This /ay 9e due to a shar, stri7e fro/ a drift or ,ressing the 6rong race6ay 6hen /ounting the 9earing. Misalign/ent da/age can 9e seen on the race6ay of the non%rotating ring 9ecause the rolling ele/ent 6ear ,ath is not ,arallel to the race6ay edge. Excessi2e /isalign/ent can cause high te/,eratures as 6ell as hea2y 6ear of the cage. 13.2.# 5oose Fit 1 9earing should al6ays 9e /ounted onto a shaft or housing 6ith an interference fit. )f the race6ay 9eco/es loose then it 6ill rotate on these surfaces and cause fretting. This fretting 6ill re/o2e /etal ,articles@ 6hich oxidise and lea2e a distincti2e 9ro6n colour. )t usually occurs 6hen the 9earing outer race6ay rotates inside a 6orn housing. The external surface of the race6ay 6ill 9e scored and discoloured as a result of a loose fitting 9earing. =+efer Fig. 2>
Fig. 2 5oose Fit ?a/age 13.2.5 (rinelling (rinelling /ar7s on a 9earing race6ay rese/9le the indentations that result fro/ a (rinell $ardness Test. They are descri9ed as 9eing either True (rinell or False (rinell /ar7s. True (rinelling occurs 6hen loads on the 9earings race6ay exceed the elastic li/it of the race6ay /aterial. (rinell /ar7s are indentations on the rolling ele/ent caused 9y an excessi2e static or dyna/ic loads. The indentations can 9e seen on the race6ays and 6ill increase 9earing noise and 2i9ration@ 6hich leads to the 9earings ,re/ature failure. The da/age is often caused 9y dro,,ing the 9earing or installing it incorrectly. =+efer Fig. 3 5eft>
!"
engineering
False (rinelling occurs 6hen there is only s/all relati2e /otion 9et6een the rolling ele/ents and race6ays during non%rotation ,eriods. )t is characterised 9y elli,tical 6ear /ar7s in the axial direction at each rolling ele/ent ,osition =+efer Fig. 3 +ight>. )f the 9earing is not turning then an oil fil/ cannot 9e for/ed to ,re2ent race6ay 6ear. False (rinelling /ar7s are nor/ally ,er,endicular to the line of /otion@ 6ell defined and /ay9e surrounded 9y de9ris.
Fig. 3 True (rinelling =5eft> False (rinelling =+ight> 13.2. -2erheating and 5u9rication Failure Excessi2e heating of a 9earing /anifests itself as discoloration of the rings@ rolling ele/ents and cages fro/ gold to 9lue. Excessi2e te/,eratures 6ill usually 9e in excess of #33MC. )n extre/e cases the rolling ele/ents and race6ays 6ill defor/. 1 9lueA9lac7 colour indicates an area close to the heat source and changes to a sil2erAgold discoloration the further you /o2e a6ay. Failure or lac7 of lu9rication often has si/ilar signs as o2erheating 9ecause good lu9rication should cool the /aterial and transfer a6ay any heat ,roduced during rotation. +estricted flo6 and excessi2e te/,eratures can also degrade the che/ical co/,osition of the oil@ /a7ing it ineffecti2e and increase 6ear rates. The outco/e of either o2erheating or lu9rication failure 6ill al6ays result in the e2entual failure of the 9earing.
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
13.2." Conta/ination and Corrosion Conta/ination is one of the leading causes of ,re/ature 9earing failure. The sy/,to/s are dents or scratches e/9edded in the 9earing race6ay and rolling ele/ents@ resulting in 9earing 2i9ration and 6ear. =+efer Fig. # 5eft> The conta/inant 6ould 9e an a9rasi2e su9stance that gets into the 9earing@ such as sand@ grit or dust. The ,rinci,al sources are dirty tools@ conta/inated 6or7 areas@ dirty hands and foreign /atter in the lu9ricant or cleaning solutions. Corrosion is usually the result of a che/ical attac7 on the 9earing /aterial 9y an inco/,ati9le fluid such as /oisture. )t /anifests itself as either 9lac7 ,itting /ar7s or redA9ro6n rust coloured areas on the rolling ele/ents@ race6ays@ or cages. )t usually results in increased 2i9ration follo6ed 9y 6ear. =+efer Fig. # +ight>.
Fig. # Conta/ination =5eft> Corrosion =+ight> 1;#+ Sa1e(2 P&eca!(i-n' The cleaning of 9earings for ins,ection nor/ally in2ol2es the use of sol2ents@ so the a,,ro,riate &&E should 9e 6orn. This 6ill include res,iratory@ eye and s7in ,rotection 9y using 9reathing /as7s@ goggles and ins,ection glo2es. The /oisture fro/ the hu/an hand /ay conta/inate a 9earing surface@ as easily as the lu9ricant can cause da/age to the s7in through der/atitis. 1;#3 S(-&a0e )f a 9earing is to 9e used i//ediately after ins,ection@ it should 9e lu9ricated 6ith correct lu9ricant and installed. )f there is lia9le to 9e a delay 9efore installation@ then the 9earing should 9e coated in rust%,re2enting inhi9iting oil@ 6ra,,ed in grease,roof ,a,er@ 9oxed and la9elled. The 9earing should al6ays 9e stored hori4ontally@ in a clean dry at/os,here.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
11 TRANSMISSIONS
The 2arious ty,es of trans/ission /echanis/s 6ere descri9ed in Module =Materials and $ard6are>. $ere@ in Module "@ consideration is gi2en to the ins,ections relati2e to such trans/ission /echanis/s asF 'ears (elts and &ulleys Chains and .,roc7ets .cre6 Cac7s 5e2ers &ush%&ull +od .yste/s.
11#1 Gea&' 'ears can 9e found in a 6ide 2ariety of a,,lications@ throughout aircraft and engine installations. The /ost co//on a,,lications are those used to reduce or increase the rotational s,eed of an in,ut shaft. .o/e aircraft engines utilise a reduction gear9ox to slo6 the /ain shaft s,eed to a lo6er figure for either the ,ro,eller or the fan. 1ccessory dri2e gear9oxes@ actuators@ fla, /echanis/s and so/e flying control runs use gears of one for/ or another. 8ear in gears@ assu/ing that the 9earings are not 6orn@ 6ill 9e found on the faces of the gear teeth. This 6ear sho6s u, as excessi2e 9ac7lash@ 6hich can 9e easily found 9y si/,ly rotating the in,ut /echanis/@ such as the /ain dri2e shaft@ 6hilst holding the out,ut rigidly. )t should 9e 9orne in /ind that a s/all a/ount of 9ac7lash is essential for the correct o,eration of 9earings. (y rotating the in,ut in 9oth directions@ the angular difference@ 6hen /easured@ is the accu/ulation of 6ear of all the gear teeth. The /aintenance /anual should gi2e the total 9ac7lash figure for the ,articular train of gears@ to indicate 6hether the train is ser2icea9le or if further ins,ection is needed. (ecause the /aBority of gears@ 6hether in a train or a single ,air of gears@ are 6ithin so/e other co/,onent@ any signs of 6ear or other ,ro9le/s are usually sol2ed 9y re,lace/ent of the /aBor co/,onent. 11#$ Bel(' an) P!lle2' )t is rare to find 9elt dri2es 9eing used on /odern aircraft. ?ue to the ris7 of sli,,age once the 9elt has ta7en on a slight stretch@ there has to 9e so/e /ethod@ often auto/atic@ to retain the set tension o2er a long ,eriod.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
)n so/e installations@ the dri2e fro/ the high%s,eed engine to the lo6%s,eed ,ro,eller is acco/,lished 9y the use of a toothed 9elt dri2e. The teeth on the inside of the 9elt engage 6ith groo2es /achined onto the dri2e =and dri2en> ,ulleys. This reduces the chance of sli,,age. Most ,iston engines on s/aller aircraft ha2e a 9elt dri2e to the ac generator or the 2acuu/ ,u/,@ si/ilar to that found on /any /otor cars. The sa/e /aintenance a,,lies to /ost 9elts@ in that the security is chec7ed 9efore each flight. The 9elts /ust also 9e chec7ed@ at regular inter2als@ for signs of 6ear@ 9y fraying and s,litting@ in addition to a tension chec7 on the either the 9elt itself or the tensioning /echanis/. The /aBority of 9elts =6hate2er their usage>@ ha2e a finite life and are also su9Bect to on%condition /onitoring. 11#+ Chain' an) S.&-c"e(' Chain asse/9lies should 9e ins,ected at the s,ecified fre;uency@ 6hich is laid do6n in the aircraft /aintenance /anual. -ne of the /aBor chec7s should 9e that the chain ,asses s/oothly o2er the s,roc7ets. )f there is any roughness or 9inding@ then further chec7s 6ill 9e re;uired. 1nother /aBor chec7 of the chain asse/9ly is that for 6ear@ 6hich in2ol2es a,,lying a load to detect 6hether the chain is 6orn. The load can 9e a,,lied to a free length of chain 6here the a/ount of deflection can 9e /easured and co/,ared to a li/it ,u9lished in the /anuals. 1n alternati2e 6ould in2ol2e ,ulling the chain at a ,ulley and seeing if the chain can 9e lifted fro/ the s,roc7et 9y a significant a/ount. Failure of either of the ,receding chec7s@ follo6ed 9y a chec7 for chain elongation@ 6ould re;uire re,lace/ent of the chain. 1 ty,ical ,ercentage li/it of elongation could 9e 2J 6hen the cleaned and dried chain is loaded 6ith the correct tension. Chains should also 9e chec7ed for nor/al faults that can 9efall /ost /echanis/sL these include da/age@ corrosion@ cleanliness and insufficient lu9rication. -ne other ins,ection@ 6hich could 9e done on a chain asse/9ly@ /ight 9e for correct articulation. This chec7 in2ol2es the chain 9eing dra6n o2er the ,lain shan7 of a scre6dri2er. Tight Boints@ found 9y this /ethod@ should 9e carefully ins,ected and the chain reBected if there are any dou9ts as to its ser2icea9ility.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
11#3 Sc&e8 Jac"'
There is little /aintenance to 9e carried out on scre6 Bac7s@ a,art fro/ regular greasing of all the ex,osed threaded ,ortions and chec7s for 9ac7lash 9et6een the nut and the scre6. .o/e scre6 Bac7s are in the for/ of actuators and so/e are used to dri2e fla,s and other aerodyna/ic de2ices. 1 scre6 Bac7 actuator =refer to Fig 1> is a fairly si/,le design and correct /aintenance is 2ital 9ecause it is ,art of the flying controls. The actuator has a grease ni,,le fitted@ 6hich allo6s not only the 9earings to 9e 7e,t 6ell lu9ricated@ 9ut the scre6 6ill also ,ic7 u, so/e grease 6hen the actuator is extended and retracted. )n%ser2ice chec7s@ other than lu9rication 6ill ,ro9a9ly only include 9ac7lash chec7s on the actuating shaft. These 6ill ,ro9a9ly /ean no /ore than a side%to% side hand /o2e/ent of the rudder tri/ ta9@ 6hich ensures that the /o2e/ent is not excessi2e.
Thrust (earings Control .urface 1ttach/ent
Control )n,ut
Threaded .cre6 .haft .cre6 Cac7 1ctuator Fig. 1
1nother for/ of scre6 Bac7 is that used to dri2e fla,s u, and do6n. This for/ of Bac7 6ill usually 9e found 6ith a dri2e gear9ox@ trans/itting the /oti2e ,o6er to the scre6 and 9all nut@ that connects to the fla, structure.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
The rotation of the fla, /otor dri2es a nu/9er of the gear9oxes si/ultaneously@ 6hich trans/it rotation to their res,ecti2e scre6s. The 9all nuts are all dri2en do6n the scre6s and these ,ush the fla,s to their selected ,osition. (ecause the scre6 Bac7s and their 9all nuts are ex,osed to the ele/ents@ it is essential that all chec7s and lu9rication re;uired /ust 9e thoroughly done. 1s ,re2iously /entioned@ the scre6 Bac7s /ust 9e thoroughly greased 9ut only after all dirt@ sand and other /aterials ha2e first 9een co/,letely re/o2ed. The nuts 6ill 9e chec7ed for 6ear at regular inter2als and this chec7 6ill ,ro9a9ly re;uire s,ecial tools and /easuring Bigs. -n a day%to%day 9asis@ the 9ac7lash on the nutAscre6 co/9ination can 9e chec7ed 9y an u, and do6n /o2e/ent of the fla, trailing edge. 11#* Le@e&' 5e2ers can 9e found in nu/erous ,laces 6ithin an aircraft and /aintenance of these ite/s can 2ary@ de,ending on their location and ,ur,ose. 1s a rule@ le2ers 6ill 9e used to trans/it thrust fro/ one /ediu/ to another. For exa/,le@ a ,ushA,ull syste/ /ay dri2e a le2er that o,erates a ser2ice@ 6ith an increase or decrease of /echanical ad2antage or a change of direction. 1,art fro/ the 9earings of the le2er re;uiring lu9rication@ =unless they are sealed% for%life 9earings>@ there is little /aintenance re;uired@ other than ,hysical chec7s for da/age@ distortion and crac7s.
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
11.5.1 &ush%&ull +od .yste/s The /aBority of aircraft ,ush%,ull syste/s can 9e found in 9oth the flying and engine controls =refer to Fig. 2>. They /ay consist of a series of hollo6 alu/iniu/ tu9es@ 6hich ha2e either fixed or adBusta9le end fittings. .o/eti/es@ to ,re2ent the tu9es 2i9rating@ their length is 7e,t short and idler le2ers are fitted 9et6een each ,air of tu9es. 1s an alternati2e@ rollers or 9ushes can 9e installed along the length of the ,ush%,ull tu9es to ,ro2ide su,,ort.
+ange of Mo2e/ent
Engine Fuel Control Unit
&ush%&ull +ods &i2ot &oint .tructure
+ange of Mo2e/ent
.u,,ort 1r/
&ush%&ull +od Mechanis/s Fig. 2
The /aintenance re;uired for this ty,e of control consists generally of ins,ection and rigging. 1s the 9earings in 9oth the idler le2ers if fitted@ and the end fittings are nor/ally sealed for life@ the only ins,ections to carry out are for signs of da/age and o2erheating. )f the ,ilot co/,lained of stiff controls@ then a chec7 of each 9earing asse/9ly 6ould 9e re;uired@ to chec7 6hich 9earing 6as stiff. +igging of ,ush ,ull rods is relati2ely si/,le. The rigging ,ins hold the rods and le2ers in the datu/ ,osition and the adBusta9le ends are altered until all the connecting 9olts can 9e inserted 6ithout any force 9eing re;uired.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1$ CONTROL CABLES
Control ca9les@ their /a7e u, and their associated co/,onents 6ere discussed in Module . Consideration is gi2en@ here in Module "@ to the ins,ections relati2e to control ca9les and co/,onents of 2arious ty,es. 1$#1 S8a0in0 -1 En) %i((in0' 1ll ca9les@ used in aircraft controls runs@ ha2e so/e for/ of end fittings attached to each end of the ca9les. These end fittings are usually s6aged onto the ca9le@ /eaning that the end fitting is slid o2er the ca9le 9efore 9eing s;uee4ed@ to reduce its dia/eter@ and cause it to gri, the ca9le 2ery tightly. ?uring ,roduction of these ca9les@ the co/,leted end fitting 6ill 9e carefully chec7ed@ using a 'oA!o%'o gauge@ to ensure that the ca9le has 9een gri,,ed satisfactorily. The finished ca9le asse/9ly 6ill also 9e ,roof tested to confir/ its suita9ility for use as an aircraft control ca9le. 1$#$ In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 C-n(&-l Ca6le' -nce in ser2ice@ the ca9les 6ill 9e ins,ected regularly for a 2ariety of ,ossi9le faults@ 6hilst the s6aged end fittings 6ill re;uire /ini/al ins,ection. )n so/e installations@ red ,aint is a,,lied at the Bunction of the end fitting 6here the ca9le e/erges@ leading to a ga, sho6ing if the ca9le has sli,,ed 6ithin the s6aged end fitting during nor/al ser2ice. .o/e indi2idual ferrules@ fitted to non%critical ca9les@ /ay 9e ins,ected for signs of crac7ing 6hilst in ser2ice. )t is rare for ca9les to 9e re/o2ed fro/ ser2ice to ha2e a scheduled ,roof load test. )f there is any dou9t to the ,ossi9ility of the ca9les lasting a long ti/e in ser2ice@ they 6ill 9e either chec7ed for stretch 9y /easuring their length under load@ or they 6ill 9e gi2en a finite life and re,laced 6hen that life is reached. Ca9le syste/s ha2e to recei2e regular ins,ections due to their 9eing su9Bect to a 6ide 2ariety of en2iron/ental conditions and 6ear. Their degradation@ due to 6ear@ can ta7e the for/ of 6ireAstrand 9rea7age =6hich is fairly easy to detect>@ or /ay exist as less 2isi9le =internal> 6ear@ or as corrosion and distortion. 12.2.1 Ca9le 8ear Critical areas for strand 9rea7age are 6here the ca9le ,asses o2er ,ulleys or through fairleads. Exa/ination of ca9les 6ill nor/ally in2ol2e ,assing a cloth along the length of the ca9le@ 6hich 6ill 9oth clean any dirt fro/ it and detect 9ro7en strands if the cloth snags on the ,roBecting 6ires.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
There 6ill 9e li/its@ ,u9lished 9y the /anufacturer@ 6hich say ho6 /any strands ,er unit length can 9e 9ro7en. +e/o2ed ca9les can 9e 9ent through a gentle radius@ 6hich /ay sho6 u, 9ro7en internal strands that 6ould not 9e 2isi9le 6hen installed and tensioned. External 6ear =refer to Fig. 1> 6ill extend along the ca9le@ e;ual to the distance the ca9le /o2es at that location and /ay occur on one side of the ca9le or o2er its entire circu/ference. The li/its of ,er/itted 6ear 6ill 9e found in the 1MM.
.ide <ie6
.ide <ie6
&lan <ie6
&lan <ie6
Ca9le 8orn H 53J ?ia/eter
Ca9le 8orn I 53J ?ia/eter
External Ca9le 8ear Fig. 1 )nternal 6ear occurs in si/ilar ,laces in the 6ire to external 6ear@ around ,ulleys and fairleads and is /uch /ore difficult to detect. .e,arating the strands@ after re/o2ing the ca9le@ is the only 6ay to detect internal 6ear and this only ,er/its li/ited ins,ection. 'enerally any signs of internal 6ear 6ithin a ca9le 6ill /ean its re,lace/ent. (ro7en strands on a ca9le at a location not adBacent to a ,ulley or fairlead@ could 9e an indication that the 9rea7age 6as due to corrosion. The ins,ection of a ca9le for internal corrosion should 9e done off aircraft@ and 6ill in2ol2e reBection of the ca9le if corrosion is found.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
The /aintenance carried out on ca9le runs usually in2ol2es 9oth regular ins,ections and ,reser2ati2e /easures. 8ith the /aBority of ca9les 9eing steel% 9ased@ it is 2ital that ca9les@ ,assing through high ris7 areas such as 9attery 9ays@ toilets and galleys@ recei2e regular rust ,re2entati2e treat/ents in addition to 2isual ins,ections. Most ca9les ha2e external corrosion ,re2entati2e co/,ounds a,,lied in 2arying a/ounts@ 6hilst internally they 6ill ha2e 9een soa7ed in so/e for/ of thin grease or lo6%te/,erature oil to resist the for/ation of the difficult to detect internal corrosion. !or/ally in dry and desert at/os,heres@ the a,,lication of certain co/,ounds to ca9les is not ,er/itted. This is 9ecause the adhesi2e ,ro,erties of these co/,ounds 6ill cause the sand and dust to stic7 to the ca9le and@ thus@ cause extre/ely high rates of 6ear. 1ll controls 6ill 9e /onitored@ 9y the flight dec7 cre6@ on a day%to%day 9asis 9ut@ during /aintenance@ /ore su9Becti2e tests /ust 9e co/,leted. The tension of the ca9les 6ill 9e /easured@ as 6ill the rigging of the co/,lete runs@ to ensure that the controls re/ain accurate and ,recise in their o,eration. 8hilst it is not usual to find faults on the ca9le end fittings@ these should all 9e chec7ed for any signs of da/age@ corrosion and stressing of the ca9le at the end fitting. )te/s chec7ed 6ill include turn9uc7les and 9all end fittings@ to ensure that the ca9le is o,erating at the designed angle@ tension and o2er the correct range. 12.2.2 (o6den and Teleflex Ca9le .yste/s 1 ty,ical (o6den ca9le control /ight 9e a 9ra7e le2er on the control colu/n o,erating a re/ote 9ra7e control 2al2e. Maintenance of (o6den ca9le syste/s is usually restricted to cleaning and lu9rication of the inner ca9le at regular inter2als and adBust/ent of the outer conduit =e.g. if the 9ra7es needed adBust/ent>. The lu9rication 6ould 7ee, /oisture out of the ca9le to ,re2ent it free4ing at lo6 te/,eratures. The Teleflex ca9le syste/ is /ore co/,lex than the (o6den ca9le syste/ in that the o,erating ca9le@ 6ithin the conduit@ is actually a nu/9er of s,irally 6ound ca9les 6hich surround a core tension ca9le@ gi2ing it su,,ort. This allo6s the ca9le to trans/it a ,ush force as easily as a ,ull force@ doing a6ay 6ith the need for any for/ of return s,ring. 1 ty,ical use of a Teleflex syste/ /ight 9e a throttle le2er to engine fuel control syste/ connection.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
The Teleflex ca9le syste/ is a snug fit 6ithin the conduit and@ 9ecause there /ight 9e the chance of it 9eco/ing sei4ed@ due to foreign o9Bects@ dirt or free4ing@ it is 2ital that the inner ca9les are regularly re/o2ed@ cleaned and lu9ricated 6ith lo6 te/,erature grease. )t is also i/,ortant that the conduits are thoroughly cleaned using a for/ of ,ull%through@ ,rior to the inner ca9le 9eing installed. 1t longer inter2als@ it /ight 9eco/e necessary to ins,ect the outer conduit for signs of da/age or 7in7ingL 6hich can cause the control to 9eco/e tight or notchy. 1$#+ In'.ec(i-n -1 C-n(&-l Ca6le P!lle2' 8hen ins,ecting ca9les for the ,re2iously /entioned 6ear and 9rea7ages@ the co/,lete ca9le runs /ust 9e exa/ined for incorrect routing@ fraying@ t6isting or 6ear at fairleads@ ,ulleys and guards. &ulleys /ust 9e ins,ected for 6ear =refer to Fig. 2>@ to detect indications of sei4ure@ flat s,ots@ e/9edded foreign /aterial and excessi2e tension. 1ny signs of contact 6ith adBacent structure@ ,i,e%6or7@ 6iring and other controls /ust also 9e thoroughly in2estigated.
Excessi2e Ca9le Tension
.ei4ed &ulley (earing
&ulley too 5arge for Ca9le
Ca9le Mis,laced or )ncorrectly )nstalled Ty,es of &ulley 8ear Fig. 2
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1+ S/EET METAL ,OR5

8hile the /aBority of /etals can 9e rolled into sheet for/@ consideration is confined here solely to the 6or7ing 6ith sheets of the light alloys@ 6hich are encountered on aircraft and@ in ,articular@ those for/ed fro/ alu/iniu/ alloy ingots. .afe 6or7ing ,rocedures 6ere co2ered ade;uately@ in the 8or7sho, and $angar .afety .ection of the .1FETE &+EC1UT)-!. to,ic@ 9ut there are se2eral additional ,oints@ 6hich need highlighting@ 6ith regard to 6or7ing 6ith sheets of alu/iniu/ alloy. (y definition@ sheets of alu/iniu/ alloy are co/,arati2ely thin in cross%section and@ as such@ they not only ,ose a health ha4ard@ through cuts@ 6hen 9eing handled 9ut they are@ also@ ,rone to 9uc7ling and creasing if handled carelessly. 5arge sheets of alu/iniu/ alloys are@ usually stored u,right@ on their longest edge and su,,orted@ clear of the floor@ in a 6ooden fra/e6or7 so they are ,rotected fro/ da/age and corrosion. Care /ust 9e ta7en 6hen re/o2ing a large sheet fro/ its storage rac7 D a tas7 6hich nor/ally in2ol2es at least t6o ,ersons D and good co//unication 9et6een the carriers is i/,ortant so that the tas7 is co/,leted in a safe /anner and no da/age is done to the sheet /etal. .o/e sheets are co2ered@ on one or 9oth surfaces@ 6ith a thin ,rotecti2e ,lastic /e/9rane and@ if ,ossi9le@ it /ay 9e 9eneficial to lea2e at least the underneath ,rotection in ,lace 6hile the /ar7ing out is done@ to /ini/ise the ,ossi9ility of the surface sustaining undesira9le scratch /ar7s. )f no ,rotecti2e /e/9rane is a,,lied to the sheet@ then care /ust 9e ta7en o2er the condition of the surface of the ta9le@ or 6or79ench@ u,on 6hich the sheet is to 9e laid for the /ar7ing out ,rocedures. -ther factors@ 6hich should 9e considered =as 6ith all 6or7> concern the re;uire/ents to ensure thatF Material 6astage is 7e,t to a /ini/u/ The tas7 is done correctly@ first ti/e@ so that 2alua9le ti/e@ also@ is not 6asted.
The first ,oint is usually o92ious@ due to the cost of the /aterials in2ol2ed@ 9ut the second ,oint ;uite often gets forgotten@ 6hen 6or7 is 9eing done@ 9ut the actual la9our costs far out6eigh the /aterial costs on a high ,ercentage of tas7s. +e,air or /odification dra6ings /ust 9e studied 2ery carefully@ to ensure there is no dou9t a9out the data and di/ensions ,ro2ided@ so that the /ar7ing out is correctly done and the a,,ro2ed /etal is sha,ed in exactly the /anner that the designer of the dra6ing intended.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
1+#1 Ma&"in0 O!(
$a2ing carefully studied all the data and di/ensions on the rele2ant dra6ing@ the technician@ after confir/ing that the correct /etal =to the a,,ro,riate heat% treat/ent standard> is 9eing used@ can ,roceed 6ith /ar7ing out the ,attern for the ,art 6hich is 9eing for/ed. Firstly the o2erall di/ensions of the ,art /ust 9e co/,uted and@ 6here necessary@ a 9are outline dra6n on the large sheet@ so that the /etal can 9e cut and@ thus@ allo6 an easier@ s/aller ,iece u,on 6hich to 6or7. )t /ust 9e re/e/9ered that@ the /etal should 9e cut so that any identification /ar7ings re/ain on the larger ,iece@ for future users of the sheet and that scri9ers /ust only 9e used to /ar7 lines 6hich are going to 9e re/o2ed fro/ the surface. .cri9ed lines ,enetrate the alu/iniu/ cladding of 1lclad alloys@ 6hich can lead not only to su9se;uent corrosion@ 9ut also can create stress raisers and the initiation of crac7s in the /aterial. The dra6ing of the outline is achie2ed 9y esta9lishing a datu/ line or ,oint on the surface of the /etal and ta7ing all di/ensions fro/ the datu/ so that errors@ due to chaining of di/ensions@ are eli/inated. The dra6ing surface of the /etal should 9e cleaned of any ,rotecti2e oil =or ,lastic /e/9rane> 9efore /ar7ing out co//ences and the sheet should 9e laid flat on a clean@ fir/ 6or79ench or ta9le in good lighting conditions. )n so/e instances it /ay 9e ad2antageous to ru9 chal7 on the surface or to a,,ly a thin coat of 4inc chro/ate@ to /a7e it easier to distinguish the /ar7ing out lines@ 6hich =if they are not going to 9e re/o2ed> should 9e /ade 6ith a soft ,encil. -nce the outline is co/,leted@ the sheet /ay 9e =carefully> /o2ed to the s;uaring shears@ or guillotine and the outline cut fro/ the /ain sheet. The s;uare edge@ created 9y the s;uaring shears@ 6ill /a7e the use of such tools as engineers s;uares@ co/9ination sets and <ernier ,rotractors etc. easier@ to achie2e ,arallel and a,,ro,riately angled lines during co/,letion of the /ar7ing out. !oteF (efore any centre ,unch /ar7s are /ade =for the location of the centres of radii or holes> it /ust 9e confir/ed that they are in the re;uired location. The ,unch should 9e only lightly ta,,ed 6ith a ha//er =or a suita9ly adBusted auto/atic centre ,unch used>@ so that the ,unch /ar7s do not distort the thin /etal sheet.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1+#$ %-&min0 -1 Shee( Me(al Pa&(' -nce the /ar7ing out has 9een 2erified as 9eing correct@ the for/ing of the final sha,e of the sheet /etal co/,onent can 9e achie2ed 9y the use of a,,ro,riate cutting and@ if necessary@ 9ending tools. 13.2.1 Cutting 8hile /etal%cutting tools 6ere discussed in the earlier to,ic on T--5.@ /ention is /ade here of the /anner in 6hich the rele2ant tools should 9e used 6hen 6or7ing 6ith sheet alu/iniu/ alloys. The s;uaring shears has already 9een used to ,roduce a con2enient si4e u,on 6hich to 6or7 and@ of course@ to ,ro2ide an accurate straight edge fro/ 6hich to /a7e /easure/ents. !oteF The s;uaring shears /ust only 9e used to cut /etal of the a,,ro2ed thic7ness =reco//ended 9y its /anufacturer> and /ust ne2er 9e used on sheets =or stri,s> of /etal thic7er than those s,ecified. The align/ent of the 9lade 6ill 9e distorted and the accuracy of its cut 6ill 9e degraded if this caution is ignored. 8hen using shears =6hether s;uaring or the hand ty,e>@ then the cut /ust 9e /ade slightly a9o2e the line. This allo6s for filing do6n to the line@ 6hich 6ill eli/inate the ,ossi9ility of stress raisers 9eing for/ed at the edges of the /etal@ due to the shearing action of the 2arious ty,es of shears. Care /ust 9e ta7en 6hen drilling alu/iniu/ sheet@ due to the danger of cutting enlarged holes in the soft@ thin /etal and to the tendency to distortion@ caused 9y the a,,lication of too great a 6eight on unsu,,orted alu/iniu/ sections. T6ist drills /ust 9e of the correct ty,e and si4e@ 6ith accurately%ground ,oints@ and their ,assage@ through the /etal@ /ust 9e carefully controlled at all ti/es. -ff cuts of scra, 6ood should 9e ,laced 9ehind =or underneath> sheet /etal ,arts 6hile drilling is in ,rogress and 9oth the 9ac7ing ,iece and the ,art /ust 9e fir/ly held@ to ,re2ent /o2e/ent during the drilling ,rocedures. .i/ilarly@ scra, 6ood should 9e used@ as 9ac7ing@ 6hen hac7%sa6ing or filing sheet /etal and ,rotection /ust 9e gi2en@ against ,ossi9le da/age@ 6hen such co/,onents are held in the Ba6s of 2ices@ 9y the use of soft 2ice cla/,s. -92iously fine%toothed hac7sa6s =32 t,i> and second cut andAor s/ooth files =used 6ith long@ s/ooth stro7es>@ are the cutting tools@ used in the sha,ing of sheet /etal ,arts. Files@ as discussed in the T--5. to,ic@ /ust 9e regularly cleaned@ to ,re2ent the 9uild u, of ,innings@ and the use of file cards and chal7@ for this tas7@ has also 9een@ earlier@ /entioned.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
13.2.2 (ending and Calculation of (end 1llo6ance 1s ,re2iously stated@ the sheet /etal used for aircraft construction and re,air@ is generally for/ed fro/ an ingot of alu/inu/ alloy that has 9een ,rocessed through a series of rollers. This ,rocess reduces the thic7ness of the /aterial to a di/ension that /eets the re;uire/ents of the design dra6ing. 1s a result of this ,rocess@ the /etal assu/es a grain structure@ 6hich can easily 9e detected in a sa/,le of sheet alu/inu/ alloy. 8hen ,lanning any sheet /etal 6or7 ,rocess@ the orientation of the /etal is to 9e ta7en into account so that any 9ends for/ed 6ill@ 6here ,ractical and achie2a9le@ 9e /ade across the grain. 8here@ ho6e2er@ strength is re;uired along the length of a long@ channel section@ then@ regardless of any 9ends@ the grain should flo6 along the length of the channel. 'reat care /ust 9e ta7en@ 9efore 9ending alu/iniu/ alloy@ to ensure that it is of the correct designation and heat%treat/ent standard. The su9Bect of the heat% treat/ents of alu/iniu/ alloys 6as discussed fully in Module D Materials and $ard6are in the to,ic on 1)+C+1FT M1TE+)15. D !-!%FE++-U.. .o/e alloys /ust 9e su9Bected to either an annealing@ or to a solution treat/ent ,rocedure 9efore =and@ again@ after> 9ending 9ut@ as this is@ usually@ 9eyond the sco,e of /aintenance technicians@ /ention of it is /erely /ade here to dra6 attention to its re;uire/ent and for the need for 2igilance 6hen 9ending sheets of alu/iniu/ alloy. (ending of alu/iniu/ alloys is achie2ed either 9y the use ofF .,ecially%sha,ed 9ending 9arsF used for s/all ,ieces and larger angles and 9et6een 6hich@ the sheet is cla/,ed@ in a 2ice@ 6hile the /etal is 9ent@ 9y hitting 6ith a hide%faced or si/ilarly soft%headed ha//er 1 large@ free standing@ 9ending /achine =or 9ending 9ra7e>F in 6hich the /etal sheet is cla/,ed and the 9end /ade@ in one /o2e/ent@ 9y /eans of a hinged 9ending leaf.
Caution /ust also 9e exercised 6hen for/ing a 9end@ using the 9ending 9ars and soft%headed ha//er /ethod@ 9ecause too /any 9lo6s 6ith the ha//er 6ill cause 6or7%hardening of the /etal@ or the /etal@ in the 9end@ 6ill 9eco/e too thin and stretched. .u9se;uent crac7ing of the /etal 6ill result fro/ these faults For this reason the 9ending 9ra7e is ,referred 9ut@ in a si/ilar /anner to the s;uaring shears@ only the a,,ro2ed thic7nesses of /etals should 9e 9ent in these /achines@ as any distortion 6ill destroy the accuracy of the 9ends.
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
.;uare =or shar,> angles@ in alu/iniu/ alloys@ are only for/ed 9y adhesi2e@ casting@ extrusion or 6elding /ethods. 8hether it 9e the 9ending 9ars or the 9ending 9ra7e /ethod@ 6hich is used to 9end alu/iniu/ alloy sheet@ the 9end 6ill al6ays 9e for/ed around a radius@ as it is not ,ossi9le to create s;uare angles 9y 9ending 6ithout crac7ing the /etal. )t is reco//ended that the radii of 9ends@ in aircraft%grade@ alu/iniu/ alloy sheets@ 9e not less than three ti/es the thic7ness =3t> of the /etal@ in sheets thic7er than 22 .8' =3." //> and should@ ,refera9ly@ 9e greater if ,ossi9le. )t is@ therefore@ usual to create 9ends@ in sheets of 23 .8' =3.0 //>@ of not less than 3 // =3 x 3.0 // V 2." //> radius and 9ends in sheets of 1* .8' =1.2 //>@ of not less than # // =3 x 1.2 // V 3. //> radius. 1s an exa/,le@ if it 6ere re;uired to for/ a right angled cur2e =13 // radius> in an 1* .8' alu/iniu/ alloy sheet@ to ,ro2ide t6o legs@ effecti2ely " .2 // =3 in> in length =refer to Fig. 1>@ it can 9e seen that the actual length of /etal in2ol2ed is o92iously less than 2 x " .2 // = in>. The total length of the /etal@ re;uired for the cur2e@ is deduced 9y using the for/ulaF 5T V 51 W (1 W 52 8here 5T V Total 5ength of Metal +e;uired 51 V G D =r W t> 52 V E D =r W t> (1 V (end 1llo6ance G and E V Effecti2e 5engths of Un9ent .ections r V +adius of (end t V Thic7ness =.8'> of Metal
G V " .2 // 1 51 t V 1.2 //
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
E V " .2 / /
r V 13.3 //
52
Total 5ength of Metal in a Cur2e Fig. 1
&age 5
!"
engineering
The lengths of 9oth 51 and 52 can 9e found 9y su9tracting the su/ of the radius and the /etal thic7ness fro/ the effecti2e lengths of the un9ent sections. )n this instance@ therefore@ the lengths are 9oth " .2 D 11.2 V 5 //. To calculate the length of /etal in the 9end =(end 1llo6ance> it is necessary to consider the fact that@ 6hen /etal is 9ent@ the /etal on the inside of the 9end 6ill 9e co/,ressed 6hile that on the outside of the 9end 6ill 9e su9Bected to tension or stretching so that the length of /etal on the inside and outside of the 9end 6ill 9e different. )t /ay@ ho6e2er@ 9e considered that there is a neutral line =at a,,roxi/ately half thic7ness> 6here the co/,ression and tensile forces cancel out. )t is this line 6hich is ta7en@ to calculate the length of the arc of the circu/ference of the circle@ 6hich 6ould 9e descri9ed 9y the radius of the cur2e. The (end 1llo6ance is@ thus calculated@ using the for/ulaF (1 V 2[ =r W Ot> \ 3 3 8here r V +adius of (end t V Thic7ness of Metal \ V 1ngle of (end !oteF .o/e 9oo7s use the for/ulaF (1 V [ =? W t> \ 3 3 8here ? V The dia/eter of the circle $o6e2er@ as cur2es are nor/ally sho6n as radii@ in engineering dra6ings@ the ,re2iously gi2en for/ula is ,referred here. .u9stituting figures@ in the ,referred for/ula@ it 6ill 9e seen that the 9end allo6ance e;uates to 1 . 5 // =3. in>. 8hen this figure is added to lengths 51 and 52@ it can 9e seen that the total length of /etal@ re;uired to for/ the cur2e@ is only 1# . 5 // =5."" in> and not 152.# // = in>. )n a si/,le@ single cur2e@ this re,resents a sa2ing in /etal of only 5."5 // =3.23 in> 9ut@ in a /ulti,le 9end co/,onent@ and 6ith larger radii in2ol2ed@ considera9le sa2ings of /etal can 9e /ade 9y using these for/ulas to calculate the correct a/ount of /etal re;uired to for/s 9ends in sheet /etal. Ta9le 1 sho6s data relating to 9end allo6ances for for/ing 03] cur2es of 2arious radii in 9oth 23 .8' and 1* .8' /etals. Using the ,referred for/ula@ the student should 9e a9le to calculate the 9end allo6ances and enter the/ in the e/,ty s,aces in the ta9le.
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
Ta9le 1 (E!? 155-81!CE. =(1> F-+ 1 03M (E!? )nside (end +adius (1 % 23 .8' =3.0 //> 3 // # // 5 // )nside (end +adius (1 % 1* .8' =1.2 //> # // 5 // // 8hen the total length of sheet /etal@ re;uired to for/ a cur2e@ has 9een calculated@ it 6ill 9e necessary to dra6 the de2elo,/ent =refer to Fig. 2> of the intended sha,e@ so that the 9end lines can 9e seen.
Un9ent .ection 5 (end 1llo6ance 1 . 5 Un9ent .ection 5
(end 5ines
?e2elo,/ent of .ha,e Fig. 2 1n additional line /ust 9e dra6n on the de2elo,/ent dra6ing 9efore the /etal is ,laced in the 9ending 9ra7e. This line =refer to Fig. 3>@ is referred to as the sighting line or the 9ra7e reference line. )t is dra6n at a distance@ e;ual to the radius of the cur2e =in this instance@ using the figure of 13 // fro/ the ,re2ious exa/,le>@ ,arallel to@ 9ut a6ay fro/@ the 9end line@ 6hich is under the cla/,ing ni9 of the 9ending 9ra7e and to6ards the 9end line 6hich is free of the cla/,ing ni9. The sighting line@ as the na/e i/,lies@ is then used@ to align 6ith the front of the cla/,ing ni9 and@ in this 6ay@ allo6ance is /ade for the thic7ness of the /etal in the for/ation of the cur2e.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age "
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engineering
Cla/,ing !i9
.ighting 5ine
(end 5ines
Metal to 9e (ent
(ra7e (ed
$inge &oint
(end 5eaf (ends Counter%cloc76ise
Use of .ighting or (ra7e +eference 5ine Fig. 3 1+#+ In'.ec(i-n -1 Shee( Me(al ,-&" 1s far as aircraft /aintenance technicians are concerned@ the ins,ection of sheet /etal 6or7 is confine to 2isual or assisted 2isual /ethods. &ersonnel 6ho ha2e a,,ro2al /ay also ,erfor/ dye ,enetrant ,rocedures in the search for crac7s in sus,ect areas. .,ecially trained and a,,ro2ed !?T ,ersonnel /ay use Eddy Current@ Ultrasonic or +adiogra,hic ,rocedures to detect faults in alu/iniu/ alloy sheet /etal 6or7.
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"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
13 ,ELDING9 SOLDERING AND BONDING

8elding@ .oldering and (onding are /ethods of creating ,er/anent Boints 9et6een /aterials and use is /ade of all three /ethods in the aeros,ace industry@ ,ri/arily at the ,roduction stage and to a /ore li/ited degree during /aintenance and o2erhaul stages. 8ithin the aircraft industry 6elding is considered to 9e a s,ecialist s7ill and only suita9ly a,,ro2ed and authorised ,ersonnel can underta7e 6elding ,rocedures. 1,,ro2ed 6elders /ust satisfy the C11 of their co/,etency@ 9y su9/itting se2eral test ,ieces of their ty,ical 6or7 for testing and they are su9Bected to si/ilar re%tests e2ery 12 /onths in order to retain their a,,ro2als. Maintenance technicians /ay@ ho6e2er@ 9e called u,on to do so/e soldering and 9onding ,rocedures so@ 6ith these facts in /ind@ only the 9asic /ethods of 6elding 6ill 9e discussed in this to,ic@ 6hile greater e/,hasis is ,laced u,on ,rocedures in2ol2ing soldering and 9onding. 13#1 ,el)in0 8elding /ay 9e defined as the ,er/anent Boining@ 9y fusion@ of t6o ,ieces of /aterial =usually /etals>@ 9y the ,rogressi2e /elting and su9se;uent solidification of the /aterials at the site of the Boint. The 9asic ,rinci,le@ of fusion 6elding of /etals@ is the sa/e for all ,rocesses@ in that the surfaces@ or edges@ of the /etal to 9e Boined@ are 9rought to a /olten state and allo6ed@ or caused@ to inter/ix =6ith or 6ithout the addition of a filler /etal>@ so that the ,arent /etal and filler /etal =if used> for/ a ho/ogeneous /olten ,ool 6hich@ 6hen cooled@ for/s the co/,lete 6eld. 13#$ Me(h-)' -1 ,el)in0 8elds re;uire the a,,lication of sufficient heat energy to /elt the /etals in2ol2ed in the Boint and the high te/,eratures are achie2ed 9y 2arious /ethods. 1#.2.1 -xy%1cetylene Fla/e The cutting of steel sections and ,late /aterial /ay 9e done 9y /eans of a fla/e torch@ using a /ixture of oxygen@ 6ith one of the a,,ro,riate fuel gases =acetylene@ hydrogen@ natural gas or ,ro,ane>. For 6elding@ ho6e2er@ only an oxygen and acetylene /ixture 6ill ,ro2ide a sufficiently@ high heat in,ut@ needed for the 6elding ,rocess. The te/,erature of the oxy%acetylene fla/e is a,,roxi/ately 3153MC. The oxy%acetylene /ethod can 9e used for 6elding ferrous or non%ferrous /etals 9ut@ 6hen 6elding non%ferrous /etals@ it is necessary that an additional /aterial =a flux> 9e used@ usually 6ith a filler /etal@ to assist in the fusion ,rocess.
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engineering
1#.2.2 Manual Metal 1rc
The ,ur,ose of the flux is to ,re2ent oxidation of the Boint site so that the /olten /etals can fuse together /ore easily and@ thus@ eli/inate 9rittleness in the Boint.
This 6elding ,rocess uses an electric arc as the heat source. The arc is esta9lished 9et6een a flux%coated@ filler /etal rod and the 6or7,iece@ 6hich are connected to an electrical ,o6er source so that they are the anode and cathode electrodes of the circuit. 8hen the ,o6er is s6itched on@ the heat@ generated 9y the resulting arc@ /elts the flux%coated electrode and the edges of the ,arent /aterial to for/ a 6eld ,ool. The te/,erature of the arc is a,,roxi/ately #333MC to #533MC. 1#.2.3 Metal 1rc 'as%.hielded =M1'.> )n this se/i%auto/atic 6elding ,rocess the heat source is also an electric arc@ 9ut the electrode is a 9are 6ire@ 6hich is consu/a9le and is su,,lied@ fro/ a reel@ to the 6elding gun@ 9y a 6ire feed unit. 1 shielding gas is e/,loyedL in ,lace of a flux /aterial@ to ,rotect the 6eld ,ool. The ty,e of shielding gas@ used@ 6ill 2ary 6ith the a,,lication. .o/e of the gases and gas /ixtures used areF 1rgon Car9on dioxide 1rgonAcar9on dioxide 1rgonAoxygen 1rgonAnitrogen $eliu/.
!oteF This ,rocess /ay also 9e referred to according to the ty,e of shielding gas =or /ixture of gases> 6hich is 9eing used and 6hether those gases are inert or acti2e. The t6o ty,es of this ,rocess areF Metal )nert 'as =M)'> 6eldingF 6here the shielding is ,ro2ided 9y a shroud of inert gas. Metal 1cti2e 'as =M1'> 6eldingF 6here the shielding is ,ro2ided 9y a shroud of acti2e@ or non%inert@ gas or /ixture of gases.
1#.2.# Tungsten 1rc 'as%.hielded =T1'.> This ,rocess also uses an electric arc as the heat source@ 9ut here a tungsten non%consu/a9le electrode is used to for/ the arc 6ith the 6or7,iece. 1n inert shielding gas =argon> is re;uired to ,rotect 9oth the 6eld ,ool and the tungsten electrode fro/ the oxygen and /oisture in the at/os,here. For this reason the ,rocess is so/eti/es called argon arc 6elding and@ also@ Tungsten )nert 'as =T)'> 6elding. 1 filler rod is usually re;uired to gi2e reinforce/ent to the 6eld.
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engineering
1#.2.5 Flash (utt 8elding
The co/,onents to 9e Boined are set u, as o,,osite ,oles in an electric circuit and@ 6hen the current is s6itched on@ the co/,onents are /o2ed into and out of contact 6ith one another. This action causes an arc to 9e struc7 and@ 6hen 6elding te/,erature is reached@ a force is a,,lied to 9oth co/,onents@ so that their /olten surfaces are fused together. 1#.2. .,ot 8elding 1 /ethod used to Boin co/,arati2ely thin sheets of /etal@ s,ot 6elding is a for/ of resistance 6elding. The sheets of /etal are sand6iched 9et6een t6o@ ,ointed electrodes on 6hich force is exerted as the current is a,,lied. The heat is generated at a local s,ot 6here the resistance to the flo6 of the electricity is at its highest and the /etal fuses at these s,ots. The ,ointed electrodes are /ade fro/ co,,er alloy and are usually 6ater%cooled. 1#.2." .ea/ 8elding The ,rinci,le of sea/ 6elding is si/ilar to that of s,ot 6elding =na/ely resistance to the flo6 of electricity>. The /ain difference is that in ,lace of the ,ointed electrodes@ this /ethod uses discs or 6heels@ 6hich are /o2ed along the length of the 6eld. The su,,ly of current is inter/ittent@ so causing a s,ot 6eld to o2erla, its neigh9our and@ there9y@ for/ a continuous sea/ 6eld. 13#+ In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 ,el)' The 6ide use of 6elding in industry has resulted in an increasing de/and for standards relating to 6elded constructions in 2arious 9ranches of engineering. These standards generally include re;uire/ents for certain 6elding tests to 9e conducted@ ,ri/arily for the ;ualification of 6elding ,rocedures and o,erators. .o,histicated /ethods of non%destructi2e testing of 6elds include the use of +adiogra,hic@ Ultrasonic and Magnetic &article testing ,rocedures@ all of 6hich are done 9y s,ecially trained@ and a,,ro2ed@ ,ersonnel. .,eci/en 6elds are also destructi2ely tested@ 9y fracturing or sectioning@ to test the integrity of a s,ecific 6elding ,rocedure. These /ethods are 9eyond the sco,e of un;ualified ,ersonnel@ so that aircraft /aintenance technicians are@ usually@ constrained solely to the 2isual ins,ection of 6elds =follo6ing thorough cleaning of the rele2ant areas>. )t /ay@ ho6e2er@ 9e ,ossi9le that@ after suita9le training@ so/e technicians can 9e granted a,,ro2al to conduct li/ited ?ye &enetrant ins,ection ,rocedures on certain 6elds@ 6hich 6ill 9e s,ecified in the a,,ro,riate ser2icing /anual.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
13#3 S-l)e&in0
.oldering differs fro/ 6elding in that it is done at considera9ly lo6er te/,eratures so that the ,arent /etals do not /elt and fuse together. )nstead@ a fusi9le and@ usually@ non%ferrous alloy =6ith a lo6er /elting ,oint> is a,,lied 9et6een the heated /etals of the Boint@ such that the fusi9le alloy for/s a /etallic 9ond 6ith the ,arent /etals and@ on cooling@ creates a solid Boint. The 6ord solder does@ in fact@ co/e fro/ the sa/e ste/ as the 6ord solid =as does the 1/erican ter/@ 6hich is ,ronounced sodder@ for the sa/e ,rocess>. 13#* Me(h-)' -1 S-l)e&in0 .oldering can 9e di2ided into t6o 9asic /ethods@ one of 6hich uses higher te/,erature ranges than the other@ 9ut 9oth of 6hich are conducted at te/,eratures 9elo6 the /elting ,oints of the ,arent /etals of the intended Boint. The t6o 9asic /ethods of soldering areF $ard .olderingF done at te/,eratures in excess of 533MC and 6hich include the ,rocesses of (ra4ing and .il2er .oldering .oft .olderingF done at te/,eratures 6ithin the range of 1*3MC to 333MC@ 6hich@ conse;uently@ create Boints of lo6er strength =9ut less ex,ense> than those achie2ed 9y the hard soldering /ethods. !oteF The hard soldering ,rocesses are@ nor/ally@ 9eyond the re/it of the aircraft ser2icing technician@ so only 9rief consideration is gi2en to the/ here@ 6ith /ore attention 9eing gi2en to the soft soldering /ethod. 1#.5.1 $ard .oldering =(ra4ing and .il2er .oldering> (ra4ing@ as the na/e i/,lies@ uses a Co,,erAQinc =(rass> alloy@ as the filler /etal =s,elter> 9et6een the ,arent /etals of the Boint. The degree of alloying 6ill dictate the te/,erature at 6hich the ,rocess is done 9ut the /elting ,oint of the 9ra4ing alloys can 9e as high as **3MC. (ra4ing is a ,rocess of Boining in 6hich@ during@ or after heating@ the /olten filler /etal is dra6n into@ or retained in@ the s,ace 9et6een closely adBacent surfaces of the ,arts to 9e Boined@ 9y ca,illary attraction. )n general a,,lications@ 6or7sho,s and s/all factories@ a fla/e@ directed onto the Boint area@ is the source of heat. $o6e2er@ in the /ore so,histicated a,,lications@ used in industry@ heating for hard soldering /ay 9e ,ro2ided 9y aF 'as@ oil or electrically heated@ closed furnace $igh%fre;uency =$F> induction coil.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age #
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engineering
1s 6ith 6elding@ it is necessary to e/,loy the use of a flux /aterial to assist the fusion of the filler 6ith the ,arent /etals and to ,re2ent oxidation of the Boint. The flux /ostly used for 9ra4ing ,rocesses is 9orax@ 6hich is 9ased on .odiu/ (orate ,o6der@ /ixed 6ith 6ater@ to a thin ,aste 9efore 9eing a,,lied@ 9y 9rush or s6a9@ to the site of the Boint. -ther fluxes are also a2aila9le 6here re;uired. .il2er .oldering entails the use of a Co,,erAQincA.il2er or !ic7elA.il2er alloy as the Boining /etal and =again de,ending on the alloy e/,loyed>@ can 9e done at te/,eratures of 9et6een 53MC to "33MC. (rass@ co,,er@ /onel /etal and stainless steel are ty,ical /etals on 6hich sil2er soldering ,rocesses can 9e used. 1#.5.2 .oft .oldering .oft .oldering in2ol2es the use of a 5eadATin alloy =6ith traces of (is/uth and 1nti/ony added 6hen re;uired> as the filler /etal@ 6hich /elts at te/,eratures 9et6een a,,roxi/ately 1*3MC to 333MC@ de,ending on the co/,osition of the alloy. The lo6er te/,erature re;uire/ent@ of the soft soldering ,rocess@ allo6s the use of indirect heat. )n earlier ti/es@ the heat 6as ,ro2ided 9y the a,,lication of an i/,le/ent 6ith a 6ooden handle and a s/ooth@ flat@ 9ase or 9it =originally /ade of iron>. The iron 6as directly heated in a fla/e@ then ;uic7ly cleaned@ 9efore 9eing a,,lied to the solder Boint@ 6here the transference of its heat 6ould facilitate the /elting of the filler /etal. This ,rocess ,ossi9ly needed re,eating se2eral ti/es =as the iron tended to lose its heat fairly ;uic7ly> 9efore a large tas7 could 9e co/,leted. )t 6as found that co,,er is a 9etter heat conductor than iron@ is less ,rone to corrosion and is@ therefore@ easier to 7ee, clean. Co,,er@ conse;uently@ 9eca/e the /etal /ost ,referred for use as the soldering 9it@ though the i/,le/ent retained its na/e of the soldering iron. 8hile needing re%heating less fre;uently@ it re/ains necessary to regularly reheat the co,,er 9it of the directly heated soldering irons. The ad2ent of electrically heated =and ther/ostatically controlled> soldering irons has o2erco/e the re%heating ,ro9le/@ associated 6ith directly heated irons@ and consideration is gi2en here only to the /ethod of soft soldering 6ith the use of electrically =or indirectly> heated soldering irons. 8hile the /ethod descri9ed is the /ost co//only used in s/all 6or7sho,s =or in ?)E a,,lications>@ there are@ ho6e2er@ three further /ethods 6hich are used in industrial a,,lications. Those /ethods in2ol2eF 1,,lying a na7ed fla/e to the Boint ?i, soldering $eating 9y non%contact techni;ues.
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engineering
1#.5.3 Using )ndirectly $eated =Electric> .oldering )rons Electric soldering irons are a2aila9le in a 2ariety of si4es and 6eights 6ith 9its sha,ed to suit the ,articular a,,lication. Ty,ically@ the 25 6att@ electric soldering iron =refer to Fig. 1>@ is 6idely used for /a7ing Boints in electric circuitry. The heating ele/ent contained in the 9arrel of the iron is su,,lied directly fro/ the /ains electrical su,,ly. 5arger@ #3 6att =or as large as 125 6att> irons@ 6ith ,ro,ortionately larger 9its@ /ay 9e used 6hen it is re;uired to create o2erla,,ing Boints =la, Boints> of sheet /etals =though this is a tas7@ not nor/ally done 9y aircraft /aintenance technicians>.
+u99er 'ri,
&rotecti2e .hroud
Electric &o6er 5ead
.oldering )ron (ody
Co,,er (it
Ty,ical 25 8att Electric .oldering )ron Fig. 1 (efore any soldering o,eration is atte/,ted@ the Boint surfaces =and the soldering iron> /ust 9e ,ro,erly ,re,ared. )t is of ,ara/ount i/,ortance that the Boint surfaces 9e a9solutely free of dirt and grease =and surface oxides>@ so that the solder 6ill 9e a9le to satisfactorily for/ inter/etallic co/,ounds and@ thus@ 9ond co/,letely 6ith the ,arent /etals. To ensure this@ the a,,ro2ed cleaning /ethods /ust 9e used for the rele2ant /etals =a9rasi2es@ etchants de%greasants etc.> and@ finally@ an a,,ro,riate flux is a,,lied to the cleaned surfaces@ to ,re2ent oxidation at the Boint and to assist in the flo6 and fusion of the solder. !oteF .o/e solders ha2e a flux included in their hollo6 core@ 6hile others@ re;uire the a,,lication of a se,arate flux /aterial. 1fter the surfaces ha2e 9een carefully ,re,ared@ the electric soldering iron can 9e s6itched on and allo6ed to reach its o,erating te/,erature. This is@ usually@ indicated 9y a s/all@ integral 6arning la/, 9ut /ay 9e deduced 9y a,,lying a ,iece of solder to the 9it and seeing the solder /elt 6hen the te/,erature is ade;uate.
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
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engineering
The heated 9it of the soldering iron /ust@ next@ 9e tinned. This is achie2ed 9y@ firstly@ ensuring that the 9it is thoroughly cleaned then di,,ing the 9it in flux =if a se,arate flux is 9eing used> and a,,lying solder to the 9it until a thin fil/ of solder co/,letely co2ers the 6or7ing area of the soldering 9it. )t is i/,ortant that the tinning of the 9it is done correctly@ other6ise ,ro9le/s 6ill 9e ex,erienced 6ith the soldering o,eration. Each surface of the ,re,ared Boint /ust also 9e carefully tinned =refer to Fig. 2> in a si/ilar /anner@ so that a thin fil/ of solder co2ers the total area of the Boint surfaces.
?irection of .oldering
.older .tic7
Co,,er (it
'
&arent Metal
1 ( C ? E F '
oxide fil/ on ,arent /etal flux solution a9o2e oxidised /etal surface 9oiling flux solution re/o2ing oxide fil/ 9are /etal in contact 6ith fused flux li;uid solder tin reacting 6ith 9ase /etal to for/ )nter%/etallic co/,ound solidifying solder
Tinning the Coint .urface Fig. 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age "
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engineering
Care /ust 9e ta7en@ 6hen a,,lying solder to the Boint surfaces@ to ensure that it is as thin and as s/ooth as ,ossi9le and that the heat is /aintained@ to allo6 the inter%/etallic co/,ound 9et6een the ,arent /etal and the layer of solder to for/. This co/,ound is an i/,ortant factor and contri9utes greatly to the strength of the Boint@ as it is@ actually@ stronger than the solder. 8hen the t6o surfaces of the Boint are correctly tinned@ they are ,laced together and the hot iron is a,,lied to an outer surface of the Boint. The heat is trans/itted through the /etal and /elts the solder interfaces so that they fuse together and a ty,ical soldered la, Boint =refer to Fig. 3> of the /etals is co/,leted.
)nter/etallic Co/,ound
.older &arent Metal
.oldered 5a, Coint Fig. 3
!oteF E2en 6hen /a7ing electrical connections@ using soft solder@ a ty,e of la, Boint /ust 9e /ade@ since an end%to%end Boint in 6ire 6ould 9e i/,ractica9le. 1#.5.# 1cti2e and &assi2e Fluxes Metal surfaces 9eco/e /ore reacti2e to oxygen 6hen they are heated and@ as ,re2iously discussed@ to ,re2ent this oxidation@ during the soldering ,rocess@ a suita9le flux is a,,lied to the surfaces 9eing Boined. The flux should ,ossess certain characteristics in that itF For/s a li;uid fil/ o2er the Boint and excludes the gases in the at/os,here &re2ents any further oxidation during the heating cycle 1ssists in dissol2ing the oxide fil/ on the /etal surface and the solder )s dis,laced fro/ the Boint 9y li;uid filler /etal.
&age *
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering

Fluxes for soft soldering are often classified into t6o grou,s@ 6hich are theF 1cti2e grou,F 6hich are corrosi2e or acid fluxes &assi2e grou,F 6hich are non%corrosi2e fluxes.
The flux can 9e a,,lied se,arately@ or as a constituent 6ithin the solder. Fluxes /ay ta7e the for/ of a li;uid@ ,aste or solid@ and the a,,lication@ for 6hich they are 9eing used@ 6ill go2ern the ty,e selected. 1cti2e =corrosi2e> fluxes are used 6here conditions re;uire a ra,idly 6or7ing and highly acti2e flux. The co//on acti2e fluxes are listed 9elo6. 81+!)!'F T$E.E F5UGE. C1! C1U.E (U+!. T- F5E.$ 1!? C5-T$)!'. &+-TECT T$E EEE. 8)T$ '-''5E. 1!? 8E1+ +U((E+ '5-<E. 1!? 1&+-! 8$E! U.)!' 1 C-++-.)<E F5UG. Qinc Chloride =QnCl>F co//only called 7illed s,irits. This used on general sheet%/etal 6or7 and /ay 9e o9tained co//ercially under its trade na/e of (a7ers .oldering Fluid 1//oniu/ Chloride =!$#Cl>F co//only called sal a//oniac. This used@ in 9loc7 for/@ for cleaning the face of the soldering 9it 9efore tinning@ or in ,o6dered for/@ 6ith Qinc Chloride@ for tinning cast iron $ydrochloric 1cid =$C)>F used in the ra6 state for ,ic7ling the surfaces of the /etal and rendering the/ clean. 1s a flux it is extre/ely acti2e and is suita9le for soldering 4inc and gal2anised /ild steel &hos,horic 1cidF used@ ,ri/arily@ on stainless steels. !oteF Flux residues of acid fluxes re/ain acti2e after soldering and 6ill cause corrosion unless re/o2ed 9y thorough cleansing@ % first in a 6ea7 solution of caustic soda % and then in 6ater. &assi2e =!on%Corrosi2e> fluxes are di2ided into three ty,es@ 6hich areF !atural resinF dissol2ed in suita9le organic sol2ents@ it is the closest a,,roxi/ation to a non%corrosi2e flux and is ,articularly suita9le for use in the electrical industry Tallo6F used 9y ,lu/9ers@ for the Bointing of lead sheet and ,i,es. .i/ilar to resin@ it is only slightly acti2e 6hen heated to the te/,erature of the soldering ,rocess -li2e -ilF used for soldering ,e6ter ite/s.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 0
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engineering
1#.5.5 Flux +e/o2al
)t is essential that all flux residues 9e re/o2ed@ since they can ,resent a corrosion ha4ard. The /ethod of re/o2al 6ill 9e deter/ined 9y the ty,e of flux used@ 9ut 6ill entail the use of one@ or a co/9ination of@ the follo6ingF 1 solution of caustic soda 1 solution of sul,huric acid 1 su,,ly of 6ar/ 6ater &hysical a9rasion.
13#6 In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 S-l)e&e) J-in(' The ins,ection of soldered Boints is done /ainly 9y 2isual /eans@ though@ in so/e a,,lications@ tensile testing is reco//ended. Electrical contacts@ using soft soldering /ethods@ /ay 9e tested 9y gently ,ulling on the 6ires to confir/ the security of the Boint. These Boints /ay also 9e tested for electrical continuity and resistance@ using a,,ro,riate instru/ents. 13#7 B-n)in0 (onding@ 9y the use of adhesi2es@ is the third /ethod of achie2ing ,er/anent Boints 9et6een surfaces@ to 9e considered in this ,art of the course. Co/,rehensi2e co2erage of adhesi2es and sealants is ,ro2ided in Module % =Materials and $ard6are>@ along 6ith details of co/,osite /aterials@ the detection of ty,ical defects and the /ethods used in their re,air@ therefore consideration here 6ill 9e li/ited /erely to a su//ary ofF (onding ter/inologies Methods of 9onding The ins,ection and testing of 9onded Boints.
(onding@ in the aeros,ace industry@ is e/,loyed to for/ ,er/anent Boints 9et6een /aterials ranging fro/ co/,osites@ fa9rics@ /etals and /etal alloys@ to ,lastics@ % all of 6hich are referred to as adherends. The surface texture of a ,articular adherend@ the ty,e of Boint re;uired@ and the /anner in 6hich loads are a,,lied to the Boint 6ill dictate the ty,e of adhesi2e to 9e used@ and the /ethod to 9e e/,loyed@ in effecting the Boint. .ynthetic resins =and so/e elasto/ers> are /ainly used as adhesi2es in the 9onding of aircraft structures and associated co/,onents and@ 6hile /ost of the/ are used at the /anufacturing stages@ so/e /ay 6ell 9e used@ 9y aircraft ser2icing technicians@ during routine /aintenance tas7s.
!"
engineering
81+!)!'F C-!T+-55E? <E!T)51T)-!@ &+-TECT)<E C5-T$)!'@ 1!? 1!T)%F)+EAEG&5-.)-! &+1CT)CE.@ 1+E 1(.-5UTE5E E..E!T)15@ 8$E! 8-+:)!' 8)T$ 1?$E.)<E. 1!? .E151!T.. 15T$-U'$ M1!E -F T$E 1?$E.)<E. )! CU++E!T U.E 1+E .U&&5)E? )! F)5M F-+M@ .-ME 1+E 5)KU)?. -+ &1.TE.@ F+-M 8$)C$@ T-G)C 1!? F51MM1(5E <1&-U+. 1+E EM)TTE?@ &+)-+ T- CU+)!'. M1!E -F T$E !ECE..1+E@ .U+F1CE &+E&1+1T)-! .-5<E!T.@ 15.')<E -FF T-G)CAF51MM1(5E <1&-U+.. The 6arning is re,roduced fro/ Module D =Materials and $ard6are>@ 6here it also states that the t6o /aBor grou,s of adhesi2es@ areF Flexi9le adhesi2esF used 6here so/e flexing or slight relati2e /o2e/ent@ of the Boint is re;uired@ and 6here high load%carrying ,ro,erties are not ,ara/ount. These adhesi2es are@ generally@ 9ased on flexi9le ,lastics or elasto/ers .tructural adhesi2esF used in a,,lications 6here high loads /ust 9e carried 6ithout excessi2e cree, and 6hich are relati2ely rigid 6ithout 9eing excessi2ely hard or 9rittle. These adhesi2es are 9ased on resins =co//only of the e,oxy or of the ,olyester ty,es>.
!oteF 1nother grou, of adhesi2es is the t6o%,oly/er ty,e@ 6hich has a reasona9ly e2en 9alance of resin and elasto/er. This results in a flexi9le@ yet fairly strong@ adhesi2e. 13#A Me(h-)' -1 B-n)in0 8hile the t6o /aBor grou,s of adhesi2es are designated as flexi9le or structural@ they are further classified as 9eing of the ther/o,lastic or of the ther/osetting ty,es. Each ty,es characteristics 6ill influence the /ethod e/,loyed in its use as a 9onding agent. 1#.*.1 Ther/o,lastic 1dhesi2es Ther/o,lastic /aterials are those 6hich soften on heating and harden 6hen cooled 9ut 6ill@ again soften and harden as often as the heatAcool cycle is re,eated. Ther/o,lastic adhesi2es consist of ther/o,lastic /aterials =6hich /ay 9e either acrylic%@ cellulose%@ e,oxy%@ ru99er% or 2inyl%9ased>@ in solution 6ith a 2olatile sol2ent and 6hich /ay 9e a,,lied to the surface of adherends in the for/ ofF ?irect a,,lication adhesi2es Contact =or i/,act> adhesi2es.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 11
!"
engineering
?irect a,,lication adhesi2es@ are s,read o2er the area of 9oth surfaces of the Boint 9efore the Boint is closed and the sol2ent continues to e2a,orate. This /ethod can create ,ro9le/s if the Boint area is large@ as all of the sol2ent /ay not e2a,orate and a 6ea7 Boint 6ill result. Contact adhesi2es are also a,,lied to 9oth surfaces to 9e Boined 9ut@ 6ith these adhesi2es@ the sol2ent is allo6ed to e2a,orate until the adhesi2e feels tac7y@ 6hen the surfaces are@ then@ 9rought into contact and a co/,lete Boint is achie2ed. 1#.*.2 Ther/osetting 1dhesi2es Ther/osetting /aterials =ther/osets>@ once set@ cannot 9e refor/ed 9y the a,,lication of heat and they create ,er/anent heat%resisting 9onds. Ther/osetting adhesi2es consist of e,oxy% and ,henolic%9ased /aterials in addition to ,olyesters@ ,olyurethanes@ and silicones. Ther/osets re;uire a curing ,rocess =6hich is achie2ed 9y the a,,lication of heat>@ to cause the/ to harden. The heat can 9e o9tained 9y ,lacing the co/,onents 9eing Boined into an o2en or into an autocla2e =a ,ressurised o2en>. 1lternati2ely@ the adhesi2e in the Boint can 9e heated 9y the che/ical =exother/ic> reaction of a hardening agent@ 6hich is added to the adhesi2e@ ,rior to the Boint 9eing /ade. Ther/osetting adhesi2es are the ty,es /ost 6idely used in the aeros,ace industry. 13#= In'.ec(i-n an) Te'(in0 -1 B-n)e) J-in(' The ins,ection of 9onded Boints /ay 9e done =as discussed in Module > 2isually@ usually in good lighting conditions and@ ,ossi9ly@ 6ith the aid of /agnifying glasses or s/all /icrosco,es. ?ela/ination and de%9onding of aircraft honeyco/9 ,anels and control surfaces /ay 9e detected 9y ,ercussion =ring> testing or coin ta,,ing@ 6hile /ore so,histicated /ethods@ such as ultrasonic and radiogra,hic ,rocedures@ /ay 9e used 9y suita9ly trained and a,,ro2ed ,ersonnel. 8here re,airs are done to co/,osite structures@ then sa/,les of the adhesi2es used are 7e,t for testing@ 6hile ,eel tests are done on adhesi2es 6hich are used to attach de%icing or anti%icing ele/ents to the leading edges of ,ro,ellers or flying control surfaces.
&age 12
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1* AIRCRA%T MASS AND BALANCE

The /ain ,ur,oses@ of /onitoring the /ass and 9alance of aircraft@ are to /aintain safety and to achie2e efficiency in flight. The ,osition of loads such as ,assengers@ fuel@ cargo and e;ui,/ent 6ill alter the ,osition of the Centre of 'ra2ity =C'> of the aircraft. )ncorrect loading 6ill affect the aircraft rate of cli/9@ /anoeu2ra9ility@ ceiling@ s,eed and fuel consu/,tion. )f the C' 6ere too far for6ard@ it 6ould result in a nose%hea2y condition@ 6hich could 9e ,otentially dangerous on ta7e%off and landing. )f the C' is too far aft@ the tail%hea2y condition 6ill increase the tendency of the aircraft to stall and /a7e landing /ore difficult. .ta9ility of the aircraft 6ill also 9e affected 6ith the C' outside the nor/al o,erational li/its. &ro2ided the C' lies 6ithin s,ecified li/its@ the aircraft should 9e safe to fly. The unit of /easure/ent for /ass and 9alance are nor/ally dictated 9y the aircraft /anufacturer and can 9e either Metric or )/,erial ter/s. .,ecific definitions for /ass and 9alance ensure they are correctly inter,reted. 1*#1 De1ini(i-n' ?atu/F The datu/ is an i/aginary 2ertical ,lane fro/ 6hich hori4ontal /easure/ents are ta7en. The locations of ite/s such as 9aggage co/,art/ents@ fuel tan7s@ seats and engines are rele2ant to the datu/. There is no fixed rule for the location of the datu/. The /anufacturer 6ill nor/ally s,ecify the nose of the aircraft@ 9ut it could 9e at the front /ain 9ul7head or e2en for6ard of the aircraft nose 1r/F The hori4ontal distance fro/ an ite/ or ,iece of e;ui,/ent to the datu/. The ar/^s distance is usually /easured in inches =or /illi/etres> and /ay 9e ,receded 9y a ,lus =W> or a /inus =%> sign. The ,lus sign indicates that the distance is aft of the datu/ and the /inus sign indicates distance is for6ard of the datu/ Mo/entF The ,roduct of a force /ulti,lied 9y the distance a9out 6hich the force acts. )n the case of /ass and 9alance@ the force is the /ass =7gAl9> and the distance is the ar/ =/Ain>. Therefore@ a /ass of #3 7ilogra/s@ at 3 /etres aft of the datu/ 6ill ha2e a /o/ent of #3 x 3 V 123 7gA/. )t is i/,ortant to consider 6hether a 2alue is ,ositi2e =W2e> or negati2e =%2e> 6hen /o/ents are calculated and the follo6ing con2entions are usedF ?istances hori4ontalF 8eightF aft of the datu/ =W>@ for6ard of the datu/ =%>. added =W>@ re/o2ed =%>.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering

Centre of 'ra2ity =C'>F This is the ,oint a9out 6hich all of the /ass of the aircraft or o9Bect is concentrated. 1n aircraft could 9e sus,ended fro/ this ,oint and it 6ould not ado,t a nose%do6n nor a tail%do6n attitude. Centre of 'ra2ity (alance 5i/itsF For nor/al o,eration of the aircraft@ the C' should 9e 9et6een the For6ard and 1ft li/its as s,ecified 9y the /anufacturer. )f the C' is outside these li/its@ the aircraft ,erfor/ance 6ill 9e affected and the aircraft /ay 9e unsafe. ?ry -,erating MassF The total /ass of the aero,lane@ ready for a s,ecific ty,e of o,eration@ excluding all usa9le fuel and traffic load. This /ass includes cre6 and cre6 9aggage@ catering and re/o2a9le ,assenger ser2ice e;ui,/ent@ ,ota9le 6ater and la2atory che/icals. Maxi/u/ Qero Fuel MassF The /axi/u/ ,er/issi9le /ass of an aircraft 6ith no usa9le fuel. Fuel contained in certain tan7s /ust 9e included if this is ex,licitly /entioned in the aircrafts Flight Manual li/itations. Maxi/u/ .tructural Ta7e%-ff Mass =MT-M>F The /axi/u/ ,er/issi9le total aero,lane /ass at the start of the ta7e%off run. Maxi/u/ .tructural 5anding MassF The /axi/u/ ,er/issi9le aero,lane /ass u,on landing under nor/al circu/stances. total
Traffic 5oadF This includes the total /ass of ,assengers@ 9aggage and cargo@ including any non%re2enue load.
1*#$ Ma'' an) Balance The docu/ent that co2ers the legal re;uire/ents of an aircrafts /ass and 9alance is C1+%-&. 1 .u9,art C. 1n aircraft o,erator /ust s,ecify in the -,erations Manual the ,rinci,les and /ethods in2ol2ed in the loading and /ass 9alance syste/ used. This syste/ /ust /eet the legal re;uire/ents of C1+% -&.@ and include all ty,es of intended o,erations@ such as charter@ cargo and scheduled flights. The o,erator has to ensure that@ during any ,hase of o,eration@ the loading@ /ass and C' of the aero,lane co/,ly 6ith the li/itations s,ecified in the a,,ro2ed Flight Manual or the -,erations Manual if this is /ore restricti2e. The o,erator /ust esta9lish the /ass and C' of an aircraft 9y actual 6eighing ,rior to entry into ser2ice and at s,ecified inter2als thereafter. The accu/ulated effects of /odifications and re,air on the /ass and 9alance /ust 9e accounted for and docu/ented. )f the effect of these changes cannot 9e esta9lished the aircraft /ust 9e re%6eighed.
&age 2
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
The ?ry -,erating Mass /ust 9e esta9lished 9y 6eighing or using standard /asses. The influence ite/s included in the ?ry -,erating Mass and their ,osition on the aircraft /ust also 9e esta9lished@ as are other /ass ite/s such as the traffic load@ fuel load and 9allast. Methods for calculating cre6 and ,assenger /ass 2alues are laid do6n in C1+% -&. and include either 6eighing the indi2idual cre6 and their 9aggage or ta7ing standard /ass 2alues. 8hiche2er /ethod is used /ust 9e acce,ta9le to the rele2ant 1uthority. 15.2.1 Mass and (alance ?ocu/entation The Mass and (alance docu/entation used 9y an o,erator /ust include certain 9asic infor/ation@ 6hich is listed 9elo6. .u9Bect to the a,,ro2al of the authority@ so/e of this infor/ation /ay 9e o/itted. 1. (. C. ?. E. F. '. $. ). C. :. 5. 1ero,lane registration and ty,e Flight identification nu/9er and date )dentity of the co//ander )dentity of the ,erson 6ho ,re,ared the docu/ent ?ry o,erating /ass and the corres,onding C' of the aero,lane Mass of the fuel at ta7e%off and the /ass of tri, fuel Mass of consu/a9les other than fuel 5oad co/,onents that include ,assengers@ 9aggage@ freight and 9allast Ta7e%off Mass@ 5anding Mass and Qero Fuel /ass. The load distri9ution 1ero,lane C' ,ositions 5i/iting /ass and C' 2alues
1ny last /inute changes that occur after the /ass and 9alance docu/entation has 9een co/,leted should 9e 9rought to the attention of the co//ander and entered on the /ass and 9alance docu/entation. The -,erations Manual should s,ecify the /axi/u/ allo6a9le changes to ,assenger nu/9ers or hold load. )f this is exceeded a ne6 /ass and 9alance docu/entation should 9e ,re,ared. Co/,uterised syste/s are co//only used to generate the /ass and 9alance docu/entation. These syste/s can only 9e used once they ha2e gained a,,ro2al fro/ the authorities. The integrity of co/,uterised syste/ /ust 9e continually 2erified 9y the o,erator@ at inter2als not exceeding six /onths. -n9oard /ass and 9alance and ?atalin7 syste/s can also 9e used@ 9ut again if the o,erator 6ishes to use these syste/s as the ,ri/ary source of /ass and 9alance docu/entation@ he /ust o9tain a,,ro2al.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 3
!"
engineering
1*#+ %&e7!enc2 -1 ,ei0hin0
1ircraft /ust 9e 6eighed 9efore entering ser2ice@ to deter/ine the indi2idual /ass and C' ,osition. This should 9e done once all /anufacturing ,rocesses ha2e 9een co/,leted. The aircraft /ust also 9e re%6eighed 6ithin four years fro/ the date of /anufacture@ if indi2idual /ass is used@ or 6ithin nine years fro/ the date of /anufacture@ if fleet /asses are used. The /ass and C' ,osition of an aircraft /ust 9e ,eriodically re%esta9lished. The /axi/u/ inter2al 9et6een one aircraft 6eigh and the next@ /ust 9e defined 9y the o,erator@ 9ut not exceed the fourAnine year li/its. )n addition the /ass and C' ,osition should 9e re%esta9lished either 9y 6eighing or calculation 6hen the cu/ulati2e changes in theF ?ry -,erating Mass exceed _ 3.5J C' ,osition exceeds _ 3.5J of the M1C.
1n aircraft /ay 9e transferred fro/ one C11 o,erator to another 6ithout re% 6eighing ,ro2ided 9oth ha2e an a,,ro2ed /ass control ,rogra//e. 15.3.1 Fleet Mass and C' &osition 8hen an o,erator has a nu/9er of aircraft of the sa/e ty,e and configuration@ he /ay 6ish to use the a2erage ?ry -,erating Mass and C' ,osition of this grou, of aircraft. The use of fleet /ass and C' ,osition is controlled 9y strict rules to ensure that all aircraft in the fleet stay 6ithin the s,ecified li/its. )f one aircraft exceeds these s,ecified li/its@ it /ust 9e re/o2ed fro/ the fleet calculations and indi2idual /ass restrictions 6ill a,,ly. 1*#3 ,ei0hin0 Re7!i&emen(' 8eighing of an aircraft can only 9y done 9y the /anufacturer or an a,,ro2ed /aintenance organisation@ and /ust 9e done inside a hanger. The aircraft /ust 9e clean and co/,lete@ 6ith the correct ty,e of e;ui,/ent fitted in its ,ro,er ,osition and the re;uired fluids ,ro,erly accounted for. The e;ui,/ent used to 6eigh an aircraft /ust 9e ca,a9le of accurately esta9lishing its /ass@ and used in accordance 6ith the /anufacturers instructions. 8eighing scales should 9e 4eroed 9efore use and cali9rated at least e2ery t6o years or /ore often if s,ecified 9y the either the e;ui,/ent /anufacturer or the a,,ro2ed /aintenance organisation.
&age #
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1*#* Cen(&e -1 G&a@i(2 Limi(' (CG En@el-.e The certified C' ,osition of an aircraft 6ill ha2e o,erating /argins 9uilt into the calculations@ and is 7no6n as the C' en2elo,e. This allo6s for any /o2e/ent of the C' that /ay 9e ex,erienced during flight 9y ,assengers and cre6 /o2ing a9out the ca9in@ fuel consu/,tion@ landing gear and fla,s /o2ing ,osition and any ,ossi9le 6eighing errors or unaccounted /odifications. The o,erator /ust sho6 that his ,rocedures account for@ the ,ossi9ility of an extre/e C' 2ariation at any ti/e during the o,eration of the aircraft. 1*#6 Rec-&)' 1ll records of 6eighing@ including the calculations in2ol2ed@ /ust 9e a2aila9le to the authority. The aircraft /anufacturer@ /aintainer or o,erator /ust retain 6eighing records@ and 6hen the aircraft is 6eighed again@ the ,re2ious records /ust not 9e destroyed@ 9ut /ust 9e retained 6ith the aircraft records. -,erators /ust retain all 7no6n 6eight and C' changes that occur after the aircraft has 9een 6eighed. These records are 7e,t for the life of the aircraft. 1*#7 Calc!la(i-n -1 Ma'' an) CG -1 an2 S2'(em The ,osition of the C' of any syste/ =refer to Fig. 1> /ay 9e found using the follo6ing ,rocessF Total Mass is calculated@ 9y adding the /ass of each load =,lus the /ass of the 9ea/> The /o/ent of each load is calculated@ 9y /ulti,lying the /ass 9y the ar/ =distance fro/ the reference datu/> 155 the /o/ents are added together@ to ,ro2ide the Total Mo/ent Total Mo/ent is di2ided 9y the Total Mass to gi2e C' ,osition.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 5
!"
engineering
2.# / 2.3 / 1.2 / 3.25 / ?atu/ 1 (
(ea/ Mass 253 7g Mass 1 133 7g Mass ( 233 7g
Calculating the Mass and C' of a .yste/ Fig. 1 )n the exa/,le@ sho6n in Fig. 1@ the reference datu/ is to the left of the 9ea/. 1 /ass of 133 7g is 3.25 /etres fro/ the datu/ and another /ass of 233 7g is 2 /etres fro/ the datu/. The /ass of the 9ea/ is 253 7g and the length of the 9ea/ is 2.# /etres. Using the data@ in Ta9le 1@ the ,osition of the C' can 9e calculated thusF Centre of 'ra2ity ,osition V Total Mo/ent A Total Mass V "25 A 553 V 1.32 / .o the ,osition of the Centre of 'ra2ity is 1.32 /etres to the right of the datu/. Ta9le 1 C15CU51T)-! -F &-.)T)-! -F C' Mass =7g> 1r/ =/> Mo/ent =Mass x 1r/> 133 3.25 25 233 253 553 2.3 1.2 #33 333 "25 7g /
)TEM Mass 1 Mass 2 (ea/ Total
&age
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1*#A P&inci.le' -1 ,ei0h( an) Balance -1 Ai&c&a1( 1ircraft /ass and 9alance is concerned 6ith the force ,roduced 9y the /asses on the aircraft acting at a distance fro/ a s,ecific datu/ ,oint on the aircraft. The su/ of all /o/ents a9out any ,oint can 9e sho6n to 9e e;ual to the /o/ent of the resultant force a9out that datu/ ,oint =refer to Fig. 2>. 1s the entire /ass of the aircraft /ay 9e considered to 9e concentrated at the C'@ the total /o/ent of the aircraft a9out the datu/ is the aircraft /ass ti/es the hori4ontal distance 9et6een the C' and the datu/.
1r/ 5i/its 1r/ F6d

1ft
5oad 5oad ?atu/
C' =12erage 1r/>
Mass and (alance ?atu/@ 1r/s and C.'. 5i/its Fig. 2 1*#= Calc!la(i-n -1 Ma'' an) CG -1 Ai&c&a1( The /ass and C' ,osition of an aircraft is calculated in /uch the sa/e 6ay as that for any syste/. The ?ry -,erating Mass of the aircraft corres,onds to the /ass of the 9ea/@ and is usually found out 9y 6eighing the aircraft. The 2aria9le and dis,osa9le loads or Traffic 5oads@ such as fuel@ cre6@ ,assengers and cargo corres,ond to the 9ea/ loads. (efore each flight@ the /ass and /o/ent of these ite/s should 9e deter/ined so that the aircraft /ass and ,osition of the C' can 9e deter/ined@ ,rior to flight@ to see if they are 6ithin the a,,ro2ed li/its.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age "
!"
engineering
1*#1;
Ai&c&a1( ,ei0hin0 Me(h-)'
1ircraft 6eighing e;ui,/ent consist of 6eigh9ridge scales@ hydrostatic 6eighing units or electricalAelectronic strain gauge ty,e 6eighing e;ui,/ent. The ca,acity of the e;ui,/ent /ust 9e co/,ati9le 6ith the load@ so that accurate /easure/ents /ay 9e o9tained. 1ll 6eighing e;ui,/ent should 9e cali9rated and 4eroed 9efore any 6eighing co//ences@ 6ith the accuracy of the scale or load cell used de,ending on its ca,acity. .cale or 5oad Cell ca,acity H 2333 7g 2333 7g to 23333 7g I 23333 7g 8eigh9ridge .cales 1ccuracy _ 1J _ 23 7g _ 3.1J
These consist of a se,arate 6eighing ,latfor/ for each 6heel or 9ogey@ the /ass at each reaction ,oint 9eing indicated directly on the 9alance ar/ or on a dial indicator. 5arge aircraft /ay 9e 6eighed in a hangar@ using ,orta9le 6eigh9ridge scales@ or on 6eigh9ridges set ,er/anently into the floor. $ydrostatic 8eighing Units
These are 9ased u,on the ,rinci,le that fluid ,ressure in a cylinder@ in 6hich a ,iston is 6or7ing@ de,ends on the area of the ,iston and the load a,,lied to it. The units are ,laced 9et6een the lifting Bac7s and the aircraft Bac7ing ,oints and the 6eight at each ,osition recorded on a gauge. The gauge /ay 9e cali9rated directly into 6eight units or a con2ersion /ay 9e re;uired to o9tain the correct units. )t is i/,ortant that the Bac7s used 6ith these units are 2ertical and the units correctly ,ositioned@ other6ise side loads /ay 9e i/,osed on the units and inaccurate readings o9tained Electrical or Electronic 8eighing E;ui,/ent
These ty,e incor,orate three or /ore 6eighing cells@ using /etallic resistance ele/ents or strain gauges@ the resistance of 6hich 2aries 6ith change in length@ due to elastic strain. These strain gauges are either incor,orated into cells 9et6een the aircraft and the Bac7s@ or they are used in ,orta9le 6eigh9ridge ,latfor/s ,laced 9eneath the aircraft 6heels. The out,ut /ay 9e /easured 6ith a gal2ano/eter@ or sent to an instru/entation unit@ 6hich adds all of the ,latfor/ 2alues and digitally dis,lays the aircraft load.
&age *
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
15.13.1 &re,aration for 8eighing (efore 6eighing the aircraft should 9e in a condition that /eets the re;uire/ents of C1+%-&.. )t is reco//ended that the aircraft 9e ,ositioned se2eral hours 9efore 6eighing@ so that an e2en te/,erature can 9e assu/ed and the aircraft is free fro/ /oisture. The aircraft should 9e ,laced into the +igging &osition@ so that consistent results are o9tained and se2eral readings should 9e ta7en at each reaction ,oint to o9tain relia9le a2erage readings. .o/e light aircraft 6ith tail 6heels@ ha2e a negati2e load on the tail 6hen in the rigging ,osition@ as a result of the C' 9eing for6ard of the /ain 6heel centres. )n such instances@ it /ay 9e ,ossi9le to use a Bac7 at the nose or a s,ring 9alance /ay 9e anchored to the ground and attached to the tail 6heel. The reaction thus o9tained 6ill 9e a negati2e reaction and its 2alue deducted fro/ the aircraft 6eight and treated as a /inus ;uantity 6hen calculating the C' ,osition. 15.13.2 8eighing on 1ircraft Cac7s Cac7ing should 9e done in accordance 6ith the Maintenance Manual ,rocedures and suita9le Bac7ing ada,ters should 9e ,laced at the Bac7ing ,oints. 8eighing units of sufficient ca,acity should 9e attached to the Bac7s and the Bac7s ,ositioned at each Bac7ing ,oint. Qero indication of each 6eighing unit should 9e 2erified@ 9efore the aircraft is raised e2enly@ until clear of the ground 6hen the aircraft should 9e le2elled. +eadings should 9e /ade at each 6eighing ,oint@ and to ensure re,resentati2e readings are o9tained@ a second reading should 9e /ade. The ?ry -,erating Mass of the aircraft /ay 9e deduced 9y adding all of the readings fro/ each 6eighing ,oint. 8ith the aircraft 6eight correctly esta9lished@ it re/ains only to calculate the C'.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 0
!"
engineering
15.13.3 Calculation of 1ircrafts C' 8hile the C' of a nose%6heeled aircraft /ust@ o92iously@ 9e so/e6here near the /ain 6heels@ its location /ay 9e found@ using the ,re2iously descri9ed /ethods. Ta7ing@ as an exa/,le =refer to Fig. 3>@ a nose%6heeled aircraft@ 6hich has 9een 6eighed and its ?ry -,erating ass has 9een calculated to 9e 1015 7g. The C' is for6ard of the /ain undercarriage and@ using the /ain 6heel centre%line ,osition as a reference datu/@ the C' can 9e found 9y /eans of the for/ulaF 1x(`C 8here 1 V Mass at the nose 6heel ( V ?istance 9et6een the front and rear reactions C V (asic Mass =the su/ of all the reactions> 1 x ( V 133 x V 33 7g /
ThusF
and@ as C V 1015 7g then@ the C' V 33 =7g /> ` 1015 =7g> V 3.3133 / or 313.3 //. The C' is@ therefore@ calculated =to 3 significant figures> to 9e 313 // for6ard of the /ain 6heel centre%line.
+eference ?atu/
!ose 8heel +eaction 013 7g 133 7g Main 8heel +eactions / 035 7g
Calculation of 1ircrafts C' =Main 8heel Centre%5ine as +eference ?atu/> Fig. 3 The /ain 6heel centre%line is not@ ho6e2er@ al6ays ta7en as the reference datu/ and@ as another exa/,le =refer to Fig. #>@ the reference datu/ could 9e ta7en to 9e so/e6here 9et6een the nose 6heel and the /ain 6heel ,ositions.
&age 13
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
!ose 8heel +eaction
013 7g 133 7g #/ 2/
+eference ?atu/
Main 8heel +eactions 035 7g
Calculation of 1ircrafts C' =+eference ?atu/ 1ft of !ose6heel> Fig. #
)n this instance it is necessary to use the for/ulaF C' V Total Mo/ent ` Total Mass )t is also necessary to re/e/9er that Mo/ents@ 6hich are 1FT of a reference datu/ are considered to 9e ,ositi2e or additi2e =W2e>@ 6hile Mo/ents@ 6hich are F-+81+? of the datu/ are considered to 9e negati2e or su9tracti2e =%2e>. Using the data@ dis,layed in Ta9le 2@ ena9les the aircrafts C' to 9e calculated. Ta9le 2 C15CU51T)-! -F 1)+C+1FT. C' &osition Mass =7g> 1r/ =/> Mo/ent =7g /> 5eft Main 8heel 035 W# 3 23 +ight Main 8heel 013 W# 3 #3 !ose 8heel 133 %2 %233 T-T15. 1015 W"3 3 Thus Total Mo/ent =W"3 3 7g /> ` Total Mass =1015 7g> V W3. *" / =to three deci/al ,laces>. Therefore the C' is located 3. *" /etres 1FT of the reference datu/ =6hich@ 9y o9ser2ation@ re/ains at 313 /illi/etres inches for6ard of the /ain 6heel centre% line@ as ,re2iously calculated>.
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engineering
15.13.# C' as &ercentage .tandard Mean Chord =.MC> .ince the ,osition of the C' is an aerodyna/ic consideration@ its ,osition is so/eti/es s,ecified as a ,ercentage of the .MC of the 6ing@ /easured 1FT fro/ the leading edge =refer to Fig. 5>. The ,ercentage .MC /ay 9e calculated using the for/ulaF =1 % (> ` C x 133 8here 1 V ?istance of the C' fro/ the +eference ?atu/ ( V ?istance of the .MC leading edge fro/ the +eference ?atu/ C V 5ength of the .MC. V * D " x 133 #.5 V 1 x 133 V 22.2J. #.5
1 D ( x 133 C
The C' is@ therefore@ located@ 22.2J aft of the leading edge of the .MC.
(V"/ +eference ?atu/
C V #.5 /
1V*/
Calculation of C.'. as a &ercentage .MC Fig. 5 1*#11 Chan0e' in Ba'ic ,ei0h(
8hen an ite/ of (asic E;ui,/ent is added@ re/o2ed or re%,ositioned in an aircraft@ calculations /ust 9e /ade to deter/ine the effect on 9oth ?ry -,erating Mass and C'. )n the e2ent of /odifications@ 6here the Total Mass and Mo/ent@ for additional ,arts is not ;uoted in the a,,ro,riate /odification leaflet@ the additional ,arts /ust 9e accurately 6eighed and their /o/ents calculated@ relati2e to the reference datu/.
&age 12
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering

)n order to find the ne6 ?ry -,erating Mass and Mo/ent of the aircraft@ the /ass and /o/ent of the e;ui,/ent added or re/o2ed /ust 9e considered as follo6sF 8hen e;ui,/ent has 9een added@ the /ass /ust 9e added to the original ?ry -,erating Mass and@ if the ar/ of the ne6 e;ui,/ent is W2e =aft of the C' reference datu/>@ then the /o/ent /ust 9e added to the original /o/ent )f the ar/ is %2e =for6ard of the C' datu/>@ then the /o/ent /ust 9e su9tracted 8hen e;ui,/ent has 9een re/o2ed@ the /ass /ust 9e deducted fro/ the original /ass. )f the ar/ is ,ositi2e the /o/ent /ust 9e deducted fro/ the original /o/ent and 2ice 2ersa The re2ised C' ,osition is calculated 9y di2iding the re2ised Total Mo/ent 9y the re2ised ?ry -,erating Mass.
15.11.1 Exa/,les of 1lterations to ?ry -,erating Mass To consolidate the infor/ation@ discussed in this to,ic@ the follo6ing exa/,les are ,ro2ided@ and are ty,ical of an aero,lane 6ith aF ?ry -,erating Mass of "333 7g. C' +eference ?atu/ at Fuselage .tation #333 =i.e. #333 /illi/etres aft of Fuselage .tation Qero> C' located at .tation # 33 =i.e. W 33 /illi/etres aft of the +eference ?atu/>
Ta9le 3 sho6s the rele2ant data 6hen@ in the first exa/,le@ the co/,onents of a +adar .yste/ are installed at se2eral locations in the aircraft. The co/,onents of the +adar .yste/ =their /ass and locations> co/,rise of aF Trans/itter =/ass 13 7g.>@ at Fuselage .tation #"33 Controller =/ass 2 7g.>@ at Fuselage .tation 1*33 .canner =/ass 0 7g>@ at Fuselage .tation #33 Ta9le 3 +E<).)-! T- (1.)C M1.. 1!? M-ME!T Mass =7g> 1r/ =/> -riginal 1ircraft "333 W 3. Trans/itter 13 W 3." Controller 2 % 2.* .canner 0 % 3. +e2ised (asic Mass and Mo/ent "32#
Mo/ent =7g /> W #233 W 0.1 % 5. % 32.# W #1"1.1
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 13
!"
engineering
C' C' V V V
8ith the re2ised ?ry -,erating Mass and Mo/ent@ the re2ised C' can 9e calculated using the for/ulaF Total Mo/ent ` Total Mass #1"1.1 ` "32# 3.50# /
The re2ised Mass and C' &osition 6ill@ therefore@ stateF ?ry -,erating Mass Centre of 'ra2ity F "32# 7g. F 50# // aft of the +eference ?atu/.
Ta9le # sho6s the rele2ant data 6hen@ in the second exa/,le@ a $eating Unit =/ass 7g.> is re/o2ed fro/ Fuselage .tation 1 33 and re%installed at .tation 333 in the sa/e aircraft as that in the first exa/,le. Ta9le # +E<).)-! T- (1.)C 8E)'$T 1!? M-ME!T Mass =7g> 1r/ =/> Mo/ent =7g /> -riginal 1ircraft "333 W 3. W #233 )te/ +e/o2ed % % 2.# W 15*.# )te/ +e,laced W W 2.3 W 132 +e2ised (asic Mass and Mo/ent "333 W ##03.# 8ith the ?ry -,erating Mass unchanged@ the re2ised C' ,osition 6ill =to t6o deci/al ,laces>@ again@ 9e found 6ith the for/ulaF C' C' V V V Total Mo/ent ` Total Mass ##03.# 7g. / ` "333 7g. 3. #1.#0 /.
)n this instance@ the re2ised Mass and C' &osition 6ill stateF ?ry -,erating Mass Centre of 'ra2ity F F "333 7g. #1.#0 // aft of the +eference ?atu/.
Therefore the datu/ has /o2ed aft 9y nearly #1.5 //.
&age 1#
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
1*#1$
L-a)in0 -1 Ai&c&a1( (T2.ical Ai&c&a1( L-a) Shee(
The Ca,tain =or Co//ander> of an aircraft@ /ust 9e satisfied that the load@ carried 9y the aircraft@ is of such a 6eight and is distri9uted and secured in such a 6ay that it /ay 9e safely carried in flight. To ensure this@ the Traffic 5oads /ust 9e added to the ?ry -,erating Mass of the aircraft and the Total Mass and C' ,osition calculated. 5oading of an aircraft /ust 9e co/,leted under the su,er2ision of ;ualified ,ersonnel@ and ensure that the loading of freight is consistent 6ith the data used to calculate the aircraft /ass and 9alance. 1dditional structural li/itations such as the /axi/u/ load ,er unit area@ /axi/u/ /ass ,er cargo co/,art/ent and the /axi/u/ seating li/its /ust also 9e considered 6hen loading the aircraft. 8ith large ,assenger carrying and cargo aircraft@ the /o/ent of ite/s such as fuel@ ,assengers and cargo are considera9le and the calculation of C' can 9e co/,licated. )n addition to longitudinal C' calculation@ it /ay also 9e necessary to distri9ute fuel and cargo in a trans2erse direction. Most o,erators utilise s,ecialists 6ho deal 6ith loading calculations@ and ,roduce a 5oad .heet for each flight. 1 ty,ical aircraft 5oad .heet is re,roduced in Ta9le 5.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
&age 15
!"
engineering
Ta9le 5 TE&)C15 1)+C+1FT 5-1? .$EET

8eight =l9> (asic 8eight <aria9le 5oad &ilot !a2igator Engineer .te6ard Cre6 (aggage &assenger .eats 53 (usiness 133 Econo/y ?rin7ing 8ater 5ife%+aft E/ergency Trans/itter .er2ice E;ui,/ent =food etc.> -,erating 8eight ?is,osa9le 5oad &assengers 1st class =35> Tourist =*3> Cargo !o 1 hold !o 2 hold !o 3 hold !o # hold Qero Fuel 8eight Fuel !os 2 and # tan7s !os 1 and 3 +eser2e tan7s Ta7e -ff 8eight 133 333 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 133 #53 33 253 333 33 233 132 503 5 ""5 13 05 533 #53 533 #33 123013 13333 13333 5333 1#*013 1r/ =in> 213 133 133 123 333 113 1"3 2*3 133 #13 123 #33 211 1 3 2"3 133 233 2*3 353 215 153 233 2#3 213 Mo/ent =l9 inA1333> 21333.33 1 .53 1 .53 10.53 #0.53 11.33 " .53 1 *.33 32.53 123.33 3. 3 *3.33 21 50 . 3 02#.33 3 0". 5 53.33 03.33 1#3.33 1#3.33 2 3*.55 1533.33 2333.33 1233.33 3133*.55 C' =.MC> 20.2
33.3
33.3
20.2
&age 1
"1*111"5.doc )ssued ?ece/9er 2332
!"
engineering
16 AIRCRA%T /ANDLING AND STORAGE

1ircraft need to 9e /o2ed on the ground@ 9et6een flights@ for a 2ariety of reasons@ 6hich can includeF Mo2ing aircraft into@ or 6ithin hangars for /aintenance +e%,ositioning aircraft for ground running or stor/ ,rotection E/ergency re/o2al of aircraft fro/ a taxi%6ay.
)t is i/,ortant that the aircraft 9e /o2ed safely@ using the correct e;ui,/ent@ to a2oid inBury to ,ersonnel or da/age to aircraft. ./all aircraft@ generally re;uire little ,re,aration 9ut@ 6ith larger aircraft@ so/e or all of the follo6ing ,oints /ay 9e rele2antF &re,aration for the rece,tion of the aircraft should 9e /ade in ad2ance of its arri2al. There should 9e ade;uate s,ace a2aila9le for the aircraft@ 6ith consideration gi2en@ as a,,ro,riate@ to clearances for Bac7ing@ access for cranes etc. 1ll e;ui,/ent re;uired for ser2icing should 9e a2aila9le and ser2icea9le. The aircraft should 9e in a satisfactory condition to /o2e. The 9ra7es should 9e ser2icea9le and electrical ,o6er should 9e a2aila9le@ if re;uired@ for lights and indications in dar7 or ,oor light. The route of the ,ro,osed /o2e should 9e free fro/ o9structions@ such as ser2icing ,latfor/s@ ,assenger ste,s@ 2ehicles and any other ser2icing e;ui,/ent. Consideration should also 9e gi2en to sources of F.-.?. along the route. The /e/9ers of the /o2ing tea/ should 9e fully con2ersant 6ith their assigned tas7s. The ,erson controlling the /o2e should ade;uately 9rief the/ all@ as to their indi2idual res,onsi9ilities. This a,,lies e;ually to the re%,ositioning a light aircraft in a hangar or to the /o2ing of a giant airliner around a large@ international air,ort. The e;ui,/ent and /ethod of /o2e should 9e as stated in the rele2ant aircraft /aintenance /anual. 1ll to6ing li/itations should 9e o9ser2ed. These should 9e stated in the /aintenance /anual under S'round $andlingS. Exa/,les of li/itations include /ini/u/ turning radii and disconnection of nose%6heel steering syste/ on certain aircraft. Clearance fro/ the local 1ir Traffic Control /ay 9e re;uired for the /o2e.
"1*111"5.doc )ssued March 2332
&age 1
!"
engineering
16#1 M-@in0 Me(h-)'
!or/al /o2ing /ethods of /o2ing aircraft on the ground are 9y /eans ofF $andF 9y ,ushing and using a steering ar/ TractorF using a 9ridle and steering ar/ or 6ith a ,ur,ose%/ade to6ing ar/ TaxiingF /o2ing the aircraft@ using its o6n ,o6er.
8hen an aircraft has to 9e /o2ed fro/ one ,lace to another@ either 9y /an% handling@ 9y the use of a tractor =also called a to6ing tug> or 9y taxiing@ there are a nu/9er of safety ,recautions 6hich ha2e to 9e a,,lied e2ery ti/e. 1 .1.1 Mo2ing 9y $and and .teering 1r/ This /ethod is generally used for /o2ing light aircraft s/all distances. Care should 9e exercised@ during the /o2e@ to a2oid da/age to the structure@ ,articularly on aircraft constructed fro/ 6ood and fa9ric. -n aircraft@ 6hich ha2e a nose%6heel@ a steering ar/ is attached to the 6heel axle@ in order to guide the aircraft@ 6hile the /o2ing force is a,,lied to strong ,arts of the aircraft. )t is generally 9etter to ,ush the aircraft 9ac76ards@ since the leading edges are stronger than the trailing edges. )t is also ,er/itted to ,ush at the undercarriage struts and 6ing su,,ort struts. 1reas to a2oid includeF Flying Control .urfaces &ro,ellers 8ing and Tail%,lane trailing edges. -n aircraft 6ith steera9le nose 6heels@ 6hich are connected to the rudder ,edals@ care should 9e ta7en not to exceed the to6ing li/it@ 6hich /ay 9e /ar7ed on the undercarriage leg. -n this ty,e of aircraft the rudder controls should not 9e loc7ed during to6ing. )f the aircraft has a tail s7id@ in ,lace of a 6heel@ it is custo/ary to lift the tail clear of the ground@ ensuring first that the ,ro,eller is ,ositioned hori4ontally@ so that it does not stri7e the ground. 1 .1.2 Using a (ridle and .teering 1r/ This /ethod is so/eti/es used@ 6hen the aircraft is to 9e /o2ed o2er une2en or 9oggy ground@ 9ecause@ if nor/al to6ing ,rocedures 6ere used@ they 6ould 9e li7ely to cause an unnecessary strain on the nose undercarriage. Using this alternati2e /ethod@ a s,ecial 9ridle =consisting of ca9les and attaching shac7les> is attached to s,ecific ,oints on each /ain undercarriage leg and a steering ar/ is attached to the nose undercarriage for directional control.
&age 2
!"
engineering
The aircraft is nor/ally to6ed 9ac76ards@ using a tractor attached to the 9ridle. )t is nor/al to to6 the aircraft 9ac76ards as this reduces the stress on the 6ea7er nose undercarriage. )f to6ing ,oints are not a2aila9le@ then ro,es /ay 9e ,assed round the legs@ as near to the to, as ,ossi9le@ ta7ing care not to foul on adBacent ,i,es or structure. 1 se,arate tractor should then 9e connected to each /ain undercarriage and steering control achie2ed 9y using the steering ar/. 1 .1.3 Using a &ur,ose%Made To6ing 1r/ This is the nor/al /ethod used on large aircraft. The aircraft is nor/ally to6ed 6ith a suita9le tractor =or tug> and using the correct@ ,ur,ose%/ade to6ing ar/ for the s,ecific aircraft. 1 ,erson fa/iliar 6ith@ and authorised to o,erate@ the aircraft 9ra7e syste/ should 9e seated in the coc7,it =or on the flight dec7> to a,,ly the 9ra7es in an e/ergency. The 9ra7es should not nor/ally 9e a,,lied unless the aircraft is stationary. The rele2ant /aintenance /anual 6ill nor/ally s,ecify details of the to6ing ar/ and any li/itations on the to6ing ,rocedure. -n /any aircraft 6ith nose%6heel steering@ it is nor/al ,ractice to disconnect or de,ressurise the aircraft steering syste/ 9efore to6ing. 1 .1.# &recautions 6hen To6ing 1ircraft To6ing s,eed should 9e 7e,t to a safe le2el at all ti/es =6al7ing ,ace is a safe li/it>. 1 steering li/it is often i/,osed@ so that the radii of turns are 7e,t 6ithin s,ecified li/its@ thus /ini/ising tyre scru99ing and reducing the t6isting loads on the undercarriage. )t is usual to to6 the aircraft for6ards in a straight line after executing a turn@ in order to relie2e stresses 9uilt u, in the turn. The steering li/it is often sho6n 9y /ar7s ,ainted on the fixed ,art of the nose leg@ 9ut /ay@ so/eti/es@ 9e o2erco/e 9y the disconnection of a ,in@ Boining the tor;ue lin7s. .uita9ly 9riefed ,ersonnel should 9e ,ositioned at the 6ing ti,s and tail 6hen /anoeu2ring in or around confined s,aces@ so that o9structions /ay 9e a2oided. -ne ,erson shall 9e su,er2ising the aircraft /o2e/ent =!-T the tractor dri2er> and should 9e ,ositioned so that all /e/9ers of the tea/ can 9e o9ser2ed. &articular care should 9e gi2en@ 6hen to6ing s6e,t 6ing aircraft@ to S6ing ti, gro6thS. This is the tendency of the s6e,t 6ing to Sgro6S in a turn and 6as discussed in Flight%5ine .afety@ 6hich is contained in the early to,ic concerning .afety &recautions.
&age 3
!"
engineering
(efore co//encing the to6ing o,eration@ the 9ra7e syste/ should 9e chec7ed and the 9ra7e accu/ulator charged as necessary. (ra7e ,ressure should 9e carefully /onitored during the /o2e. 5arge@ /ulti%engined aircraft 6ill usually 9e to6ed 6ith s,ecial%,ur,ose tug and a suita9le to6ing ar/ that includes a shear ,in@ designed to shear if a ,re% deter/ined to6ing load is exceeded. )n an e/ergency it /ay 9e necessary to /o2e an aircraft fro/ the run6ay if it has one or /ore deflated tyres. &ro2ided there is one sound tyre on the axle the aircraft /ay 9e to6ed to the /aintenance area@ 9ut shar, turns /ust 9e a2oided and to6ing s,eed 7e,t to a /ini/u/. )f there are no sound tyres on an axle@ the aircraft should only 9e /o2ed the shortest distance in order to clear an acti2e run6ay and ser2icea9le 6heels should 9e ,ro2ided 9efore to6ing. 1fter any tyre failure@ the associated 6heel and other 6heels on the sa/e axle should 9e ins,ected for signs of da/age. 1 .1.5 Taxiing 1ircraft 8hen aircraft are to 9e /o2ed under their o6n ,o6er@ 6hether for ground /o2e/ents or ,rior to flight@ a fully certified flight cre6 /ust 9e on the flight dec7 and in co//and of the aircraft. )t is usual for the aircraft to ha2e recei2ed a daily ins,ection 9efore the taxi o,eration@ 6hich ensures ite/s such the oil and fuel le2els and 9ra7e ,ressures are sufficient for the tas7. )t 6ill 9e necessary for a .tarter Cre6 to 9e ,resent 9efore engine starting. This cre6 should include a su,er2isor =6ho 6ill 9e in 2isual andAor 2er9al co//unication 6ith the aircraft cre6>@ a fire/an 6ith a suita9le extinguisher and a tractor dri2er to ,ull any ground ,o6er unit clear after engine starting. -nce the aircraft is /o2ing under its o6n ,o6er@ the flight cre6 has res,onsi9ility for the safety of the aircraft. The ground tea/ should gi2e assistance to the cre6@ 2ia the interco/ andAor standard /arshalling hand signals =refer again to the Flight%5ine .afety section of the earlier .afety &recautions to,ic>@ until the flight cre6 no longer re;uire their ser2ices. 8hen a,,roaching its ,ar7ing s,ot@ ,ro2iding it is not using the auto/atic ,ar7ing indicating syste/@ found on /any ,ar7ing stands@ the ,ilot /ay 9e de,endent u,on the ground tea/ for clearance indications and sto,,ing cues. -nce sto,,ed@ the aircraft 6heels /ust 9e choc7ed@ gi2en ground ,o6er@ if re;uired@ and generally ta7en control of@ 9y the engineers@ ,rior to its next /aintenance ,rocedure.
&age #
!"
engineering
16#$ Ai&c&a1( Jac"in0
1ircraft /ay need to 9e Bac7ed for a 2ariety of ,ur,oses. These /ay include co/,onent changes@ retraction tests@ 6eighing of the aircraft and aircraft rigging chec7s. Care needs to 9e ta7en 6hen Bac7ing@ to a2oid da/age to aircraft or e;ui,/ent. Cac7ing ,oints are ,ro2ided in the 6ings and fuselage@ at strong ,oints@ to ena9le the 6hole aircraft to 9e lifted@ and there are@ usually@ other ,oints@ at the nose and /ain undercarriages@ to ena9le indi2idual 6heels to 9e changed =refer to Fig. 1>. .o/e aircraft re;uire a Bac7ing ,ad to 9e fitted to each Bac7ing ,oint@ 6hile in so/e@ the Bac7ing ,ads are 9uilt into the structure. .,ecial Bac7ing ada,ters and 9ea/s /ay 9e a2aila9le to lift indi2idual axles. )n all instances@ the Maintenance Manual should 9e consulted@ so that the correct e;ui,/ent and ,rocedures /ay 9e used. !ose Cac7ing &oint =-ffset>
Main Cac7ing &oints
!ose Cac7ing &oint =-ffset> Ty,ical Cac7ing &oints Fig.1 1 .2.1 .,ecial Considerations (ecause of the ,osition of the Bac7ing ,oints@ the C.'. of so/e aircraft /ay 9e 6ell 9ehind@ or in front of@ the /ain Bac7ing ,oints. )t /ay 9e necessary to add 9allast for6ard or rear of the Bac7ing ,oints or to chec7 the fuel load of the aircraft@ to 9ring the centre of gra2ity 6ithin safe li/its as s,ecified in the Maintenance Manual.
&age 5
!"
engineering
Each Bac7ing ,oint /ay ha2e a load li/it 6hich@ if exceeded@ could result in structural da/age. To a2oid exceeding this li/it it /ay 9e necessary to install hydraulic or electric load cells. 1ny s,ecial re;uire/ents should 9e listed in the Maintenance Manual. Micro%s6itches@ attached to the undercarriage legs@ and o,erated 9y the extension of the shoc7 a9sor9ers =6eight%on s6itches>@ are used to o,erate 2arious electrical circuits@ This o,eration /ay not 9e desira9le@ so circuits should 9e isolated@ 9y tri,,ing circuit 9rea7ers or re/o2ing fuses as necessary. 1ircraft should al6ays 9e as structurally co/,lete as ,ossi9le 9efore Bac7ing@ )t is essential that any stressed ,anels 6hich ha2e 9een re/o2ed are re%installed. Failure to do this /ay result in distortion or failure of the structure. 1 .2.2 1ircraft Cac7s 1ircraft Bac7s are intended for raising and lo6ering loads and should not 9e used for su,,orting the loads for long ,eriods. 8here a load /ust re/ain raised for a long ,eriod@ it should 9e su,,orted on 9loc7s or trestles after it has 9een Bac7ed to the re;uired height. The /ost co//on ty,es of aircraft Bac7s are the ,illar@ trolley@ 9i,od@ tri,od and the ;uadru,od hydraulic Bac7s. There are se2eral si4es of Bac7s@ 6ith ca,acities ranging fro/ #333 7g and greater. The &illar hydraulic Bac7 consists of a cylinder asse/9ly@ a fluid container and a hydraulic ,u/, 6hich@ 6hen o,erated@ forces fluid fro/ the container into the cylinder and raises the ra/. 1 release 2al2e is ,ro2ided 6hich@ 6hen o,ened@ causes the fluid in the cylinder to return to the container and the ra/ to descend. (ecause of ,ossi9le hydraulic failure@ so/e Bac7s are ,ro2ided 6ith a /echanical loc7ing collar 6hich@ 6hen 6ound do6n@ 6ill ,re2ent the Bac7 fro/ lo6ering. 1n airAfiller 2al2e@ 6hich 2ents the return side to at/os,here@ /ay also 9e ,ro2ided. This should al6ays 9e o,en 6hen the Bac7 is o,erated. (i,od@ Tri,od and Kuadru,od Bac7s are used@ to raise an aircraft for 2arious ser2icing o,erations. Their /ethods of o,eration and hydraulic /echanis/s are si/ilar to the ,illar Bac7. They consist of a hydraulic unit@ su,,orted 9y the rele2ant nu/9er of legs =t6o@ three or four>. (ecause of the ,ro9le/s in2ol2ed in raising an aircraft and to a2oid inBury to ,ersonnel or da/age to the aircraft@ care should 9e ta7en to use the correct ty,e of Bac7 as stated in the Maintenance Manual. Each Bac7 should 9e used 6ith the correct ada,ter head.
&age
!"
engineering
The tri,od Bac7 co/,rises a hydraulic unit 6ith three e;ually s,aced legs. The Bac7 is designed for a 2ertical lift only and not for a lift in2ol2ing lateral /o2e/ent of the Bac7 =such as 6hen raising one side of the aircraft for a 6heel change>. The resulting side thrust /ay cause any one of the follo6ingF .erious da/age to the ra/@ due to the 9ending load ?istortion of the Bac7 legs ?a/age to the aircraft@ due to the .Bac7 head sli,,ing out of the Bac7ing ,ad .hearing of the Bac7ing ,ad fastener ?ragging side6ays of the ser2icea9le tyre.
To change a single 6heel@ a ,illar Bac7 /ay 9e used@ 6hile t6o tri,od Bac7s /ay 9e used to raise the co/,lete aircraft =or a 9i,od Bac7 /ay 9e used>. The 9i,od arrange/ent o2erco/es the li/itations of the tri,od Bac7 for an ^arc^ lift. -n this ty,e of Bac7@ t6o fixed legs ,ro2ide the su,,ort and a third@ trailing leg@ follo6s the lift and steadies the load during the lift. The /axi/u/ angle of arc should not 9e /ore than ]. The ;uadru,ed Bac7 is used /ore co//only as it ,ossesses the ad2antages of 9oth ty,es of Bac7. T6o legs are fixed and t6o are adBusta9le. This Bac7 /ay 9e used as a 9i,od Bac7@ 9y re/o2ing the adBusta9le legs@ or as an adBusta9le@ sta9le Bac7 6ith one extra leg added. 1ll four legs /ay 9e loc7ed solid@ 9y slight adBust/ent of 9oth adBusta9le legs. Trans,ortation 6heels are often ,er/anently attached to so/e Bac7s 6hile they /ay 9e ,ro2ided as detacha9le units on other Bac7s. The 6heels facilitate easy /o2e/ent of the Bac7s that 6ould other6ise need to 9e dragged around the hangar. Cac7s@ alternati2ely@ can 9e dis/antled for easier trans,ortation. 1 .2.3 Cac7 Maintenance and 'eneral !otes 1ircraft Bac7s should al6ays 9e ,ositioned correctly and the load raised and lo6ered gradually. 1ll Bac7s should 9e stored in the fully retracted ,osition@ 7e,t clean and free fro/ corrosion. Mo2ing ,arts should 9e lu9ricated regularly and the Bac7 should 9e exercised if it is not used fre;uently. Cac7 re,lenish/ent is usually through the air 2al2e@ u, to the le2el of the 9otto/ of the air 2al2e. 5o6 oil le2el is indicated 9y ina9ility to lift to /axi/u/ height@ 6hilst o2er%filling is indicated 9y lea7age of oil 6hen the Bac7 is fully extended.
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engineering
1 .2.# Cac7ing &recautions
1s a safety ,recaution@ s/all aircraft should nor/ally 9e Bac7ed inside a hangar. 5arger aircraft /ay 9e Bac7ed outside@ ,ro2ided they are ,ositioned nose into 6indL the Bac7ing surface is le2el and strong enough to su,,ort the 6eight@ and that any s,ecial instructions@ stated in the Maintenance Manual@ are o9ser2ed. 1 /axi/u/ 6ind s,eed@ stated for Bac7ing outside@ can also 9e found 6ithin the Maintenance Manual. The aircraft to 9e Bac7ed should 9e choc7ed fore and aft and the 9ra7es ,ositioned to -FF =9ra7es released>. )f the 9ra7es are inad2ertently left in the -! ,osition =9ra7es a,,lied> stress could 9e introduced to the landing gear or to the aircraft structure@ due to 6eight re%distri9ution as the aircraft is raised. 1 .2.5 Cac7ing &rocedures 8hile the follo6ing ,rocedures 6ill@ generally@ ensure safe and satisfactory Bac7ing of /ost aircraft@ ,recedence /ust al6ays 9e gi2en to the ,rocedures and ,recautions s,ecified in the rele2ant Maintenance Manual. -ne ,erson should co%ordinate the o,eration and one ,erson should control each Bac7ing ,oint. -n larger aircraft a le2elling station 6ill also need to 9e /onitored and all /e/9ers of the tea/ /ay need to 9e in radio or tele,hone co//unication 6ith the co%ordinator. Chec7s should 9e /ade on the aircraft 6eight@ its fuel state@ and centre of gra2ity@ to ensure they are 6ithin the s,ecified li/its as detailed in the Maintenance Manual. The aircraft should 9e headed into 6ind =if it is in the o,en>@ the /ain 6heels choc7ed fore and aft@ the 9ra7es released and the undercarriage ground loc7s installed. )t is 2ital that the earth ca9le 9e connect to the earth ,oint on the aircraft and it /ust 9e ensured that there is ade;uate clearance a9o2e e2ery ,art of the aircraft and that there is clearance for lifting cranes or other e;ui,/ent@ 6hich /ay 9e re;uired. Cac7ing ,ads should 9e attached to the Bac7ing ,oints and ada,ters ,ro2ided for the Bac7s as re;uired. 5oad cells /ay also 9e included if needed. The Bac7s should 9e ,ositioned at each Bac7ing ,oint and chec7s /ade@ to confir/ that the Bac7s are adBusted correctly =i.e. release 2al2e closed@ Bac7 9ody 2ertical@ 6eight e2enly distri9uted a9out the legs 6hen the ada,ters are located centrally in the Bac7ing ,ads@ and the 6eight of the aircraft is Bust 9eing ta7en 9y the Bac7s>.
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engineering
(efore Bac7ing co//ences@ the choc7s /ust 9e re/o2ed and then the aircraft should 9e raised slo6ly and as e2enly as ,ossi9le. 8hilst Bac7ing is in ,rogress@ the loc7ing collars should 9e continually 6ound do6n@ 7ee,ing the/ close to the 9ody of the Bac7. 8hen the aircraft is raised to the correct height@ the loc7ing collar should 9e fully tightened do6n. 8hen Bac7ing is co/,lete@ then su,,orts /ay 9e ,laced under the 6ings and fuselage as indicated in the Maintenance /anual. !oteF 1s ,re2iously stated@ a ,illar =9ottle> Bac7 and an ada,ter are often used for raising a single undercarriage for changing a single 6heel. 1lternati2ely a trolley Bac7 or stirru, Bac7 /ay 9e used. The re/aining 6heels should 9e chec7ed to ,re2ent aircraft /o2e/ent@ and it /ay 9e s,ecified that a tail su,,ort 9e located 6hen raising a nose undercarriage. The Bac7 should 9e raised only enough to lift the unser2icea9le 6heel clear of the ground. 1 .2. Trestles These are ,ro2ided to su,,ort to aircraft structures =/ain ,lanes@ fuselages etc.> and /ay also 9e used to su,,ort the co/,lete aircraft. <arious ty,es are a2aila9le including ,lain 6ooden trestles that are ,ur,ose%9uilt and not adBusta9le. Trestles should only 9e used at designated strong ,arts of the structure. )t 6ill nor/ally 9e sho6n in the Maintenance Manual 6here they should 9e ,ositioned. 5ines are often ,ainted on the aircraft to sho6 6here the trestle 9ea/ is ,ositioned The Uni2ersal trestle is /ade u, fro/ lengths of angle iron@ 9olts and nuts@ and has t6o Bac7ing heads. (y using different lengths of angle iron@ trestles of 2arious si4es can 9e ,roduced. The 6ooden 9ea/ across the Bac7ing heads /ay 9e re,laced 9y a 6ooden for/er@ 6hich is cut to the cur2ature of the co/,onent it su,,orts. &adding is nor/ally attached to the for/er@ to ,re2ent da/age to the aircraft finish. The t6o Bac7ing heads@ 6hich are hand%o,erated scre6 Bac7s@ ena9le the 9ea/ to 9e adBusted to suit the angle of the co/,onent. 1lthough the trestles ha2e Bac7ing heads@ they should only 9e used for su,,orting a load@ and not for atte/,ting to raise ,arts of the aircraft. ?a/age /ay 9e caused to the aircraft if atte/,ts are /ade to do any /ore than su,,ort the structure. The Tail trestle is not suita9le for hea2y loads and /ust only 9e used for su,,orting a load 2ertically. 1dBust/ent in height is /ade 9y a scre6 thread. )n the sa/e /anner as a uni2ersal trestle@ the 9ea/ can 9e /ade in the sa/e sha,e as the contour of the aircraft.
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engineering
1 .2." 5o6ering 1ircraft off Cac7s (efore lo6ering the aircraft to the ground@ all e;ui,/ent@ trestles@ 6or7 stands etc. should 9e /o2ed clear of the aircraft@ to ,re2ent collision or contact 6ith the aircraft structure. The 6heels should 9e rotated 9y hand@ to ensure the 9ra7es are off. The Bac7s should 9e lo6ered together@ 9y o,ening their res,ecti2e release 2al2es@ and the loc7ing collars =if used> unscre6ed =9ut 7e,t close to the Bac7 9ody>@ 6hilst the Bac7s are lo6ered. The Bac7s should 9e fully lo6ered after the aircraft is resting on its 6heels and the release 2al2es then closed. -n no account should the to, of the Bac7s 9e handled until the Bac7 is clear of the aircraft. )t is co//on for the aircraft shoc7 a9sor9ers to stic7 and to suddenly colla,se@ resulting in da/age to e;ui,/ent or serious inBury to ,arts that /ight 9e 9et6een the aircraft and Bac7. 1fter the aircraft is lo6ered and the Bac7s re/o2ed@ the Bac7ing ,ads and ada,ters should 9e re/o2ed and the choc7s ,laced in ,osition. 1ny fuses or circuit 9rea7ers should 9e re%set in their correct ,osition. 16#+ Slin0in0 .lings /ay 9e re;uired for lifting 2arious ,arts of an aircraft during /aintenance@ re,air@ dis/antling and asse/9ly. .o/eti/es a co/,lete aircraft /ay need to 9e lifted for trans,ortation or to clear a run6ay ;uic7ly. The use of the correct e;ui,/ent for lifting aircraft ,arts 6ill /ini/ise the ris7 of da/age to the aircraft and ,ersonnel. 1 list of s,ecial e;ui,/ent is usually in the front of the Maintenance Manual. This list 6ill usually include s,ecial slings to 9e used on the aircraft and any other s,ecial e;ui,/ent or tools re;uired. .lings /ay 9e of the three%,oint ty,e@ as used for lifting%/ain ,lanes@ 6hile other ty,es@ used for lifting engines@ fuselages or other large ite/s /ay 9e ,ro2ided 6ith s,reader 9ars or struts. (efore re/o2ing a /ain ,lane@ the o,,osite /ain ,lane /ust 9e su,,orted 6ith trestles. To attach a sling@ so/e aircraft ha2e s,ecial slinging ,oints 6ith threaded holes in the airfra/e@ 6hich are used to acco//odate the eye or for7% end 9olts of the sling. These holes are nor/ally sealed@ 6ith re/o2a9le ,lugs@ 6hen not in use. 1s an alternati2e to scre6%in de2ices@ so/e slings are used in conBunction 6ith strong stra,s that ,ass under the co/,onent to 9e lifted.
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engineering
1 .3.1 5ifting Tac7le
The follo6ing is a list of safety ,recautions that /ust 9e used 6hen using lifting tac7leF ?o not exceed the safe 6or7ing load of the lifting de2ices ?o not lea2e a sus,ended load unattended at any ti/e ?o not 6al7 or 6or7 under a sus,ended load ?o not to6 the hoist at greater than 6al7ing ,ace ?o not to6 the hoist@ other than 9y hand@ 6hen a load is sus,ended fro/ the lifting hoo7 ?o not allo6 the load to s6ing@ es,ecially 6hen it is 9eing hand%to6ed ?o not using a hoist or crane on soft ground ?o not use a crane or hoist if the lifting tac7le sho6s signs of da/age.
8ire ro,e@ chain or fi9re ro,e /ay 9e used for lifting ,ur,oses. (efore use@ the tac7le should 9e ins,ected to ensure that it is ser2icea9le@ is of the correct ty,e and@ 6hen used@ that the .afe 8or7ing 5oad =.85> is not exceeded. The .85 should 9e stated on an identification ,late@ attached to the lifting sling@ and should ne2er 9e re/o2ed fro/ the sling. 8ire +o,e is used 6ith cranes@ hoists@ gantries and 2arious slings. (efore use@ the 6ire ro,e@ s,lices and attach/ents should 9e ins,ected for da/age such as 6ear@ corrosion and 9ro7en 6ires. )n use@ care should 9e ta7en that the ro,e does not 7in7 under load. (efore /ulti,le leg 6ire ro,e slings are used@ they should 9e laid out on the floor to ensure shac7les are correctly attached and the fittings are not t6isted. :notting of ro,es@ to shorten the/@ is ,rohi9ited. 8ire ro,e slings /ay 9e treated against corrosion 9y i//ersion in oil and the sur,lus oil 6i,ed off@ 9ut this treat/ent /ust not 9e a,,lied to slings used for oxygen cylinders. They /ust al6ays 9e free fro/ oil or grease. Chains are used 6ith cranes and 2arious ty,es of sling. (efore use@ all chains /ust 9e ins,ected for da/age such as crac7s@ distortion@ excessi2e 6ear and soc7eting. .oc7eting is the na/e gi2en to the groo2es@ ,roduced in the ends of lin7s@ 6hen the lin7s 6ear against each other. 1ny reduction in dia/eter 6ill render the chain unser2icea9le. Fi9re ro,e slings /ay 9e used for lifting lighter co/,onents@ and are /ade fro/ natural fi9res such as sisal@ he/, or nylon fi9res. They /ust 9e ins,ected for frayed strands@ ,ulled s,lices@ excessi2e 6ear and deterioration.
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engineering
8hen not in use@ fi9re ro,e slings should 9e hung on ,egs@ in a sheltered ,osition@ and free fro/ da/,ness. )//ediately 9efore use@ the ro,e should 9e o,ened u,@ 9y slightly unt6isting the strands@ to ensure they are not da/aged or /ilde6ed internally. 1 da/aged or /ilde6ed fi9re ro,e sling should not 9e used@ and it /ust 9e destroyed@ 9y cutting into s/all@ unusa9le sections@ 9efore final dis,osal. )n addition to 9efore%use chec7s on the ro,e@ all loaded co/,onents such as ,ulley 9loc7s@ shac7les@ ,ins@ s,reader 9ars and hoo7s are to 9e ins,ected for excessi2e 6ear@ crac7s and fla6s. Mo2ing ,arts /ust 9e lu9ricated ,eriodically. 16#3 Pa&"in0 an) M--&in0 Ai&c&a1( 8hen an aircraft is out of ser2ice and in the o,en it should 9e secured against inad2ertent /o2e/ent and ,rotected against ad2erse 6eather conditions. The o,erations reco//ended in the rele2ant Maintenance Manual de,end on the ty,e of aircraft@ the length of ti/e it 6ill 9e out of ser2ice and the ,re2ailing or forecast 6eather conditions. 1 .#.1 &ar7ing (et6een flights it is usually sufficient to a,,ly the ,ar7ing 9ra7es@ loc7 the control surfaces and choc7 the 6heels 9ut@ in a strong 6ind@ light aircraft should 9e headed into the 6ind. 5ight aircraft 6ithout 6heel 9ra7es should 9e headed into 6ind and their 6heels choc7ed front and rear. Flying controls@ on /any aircraft@ are loc7ed 9y /o2e/ent of a le2er in the coc7,itAca9in. The le2er is connected to loc7ing ,ins at con2enient ,ositions in the control runs or at the control surfaces. 8hen this ty,e of control loc7 is not ,ro2ided@ loc7ing attach/ents /ay ha2e to 9e fitted to the control colu/n and rudder ,edals. 1 /ore ,ositi2e /ethod entails the use of external control surface loc7s@ that ,re2ent control surface /o2e/ent and@ thus@ ,re2ent strain on the control syste/. 1ll external loc7s should ha2e suita9le strea/ers attached@ to /a7e the/ /ore 2isi9le. )f an aircraft is to 9e ,ar7ed o2ernight or for longer ,eriods in the o,en@ then additional ,recautions should 9e ta7en@ to guard against the effects of ad2erse 6eather. The undercarriage ground loc7s should 9e fitted@ and all o,enings@ such as static 2ents@ engine and cooling air inta7es@ should 9e 9lan7ed@ to ,re2ent ingress of dirt@ 9irds@ insects and /oisture. )te/s such as ,itot head and incidence indicators should also 9e co2ered.
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engineering
8hen se2ere 6eather is antici,ated it is reco//ended that co2ers for coc7,it@ cano,y and 6heel are fitted if a2aila9le. (lan7s and co2ers should not 9e left in ,osition 6hen the aircraft is ,re,ared for ser2ice. .er2icing instructions should include a ,re%flight chec7 to ensure that all co2ers etc@ are re/o2ed. 1 .#.2 Mooring =&ic7eting> )n certain 6eather conditions@ ,articular in high 6inds@ it 6ould 9e reco//ended that the aircraft 9e ,ar7ed in a hangar. )f they /ust 9e left outside@ then s/aller aircraft /ay need to 9e tied do6n. The aircraft /ay 9e ,ro2ided 6ith ,ic7eting rings or attach/ent ,oints at the 6ings and tail or adBacent to the undercarriage legs =refer to Fig. 2>.
<ie6 1
<ie6 ( 1ircraft &ic7eting &oints Fig. 2
<ie6 C
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)f outside@ the aircraft should al6ays 9e ,ar7ed nose into 6ind and secured@ fro/ the ,ic7eting ,oints to suita9le ground anchor ,oints such as hea2y concrete 9loc7s or s,ecialised scre6 ,ic7ets. Ca9le or nylon ro,e of ade;uate strength should 9e used 6here ,ossi9le 9ut@ if a natural fi9re ro,e is used =sisal or he/,>@ then sufficient slac7 /ust 9e left to allo6 for shrin7age in da/, conditions. 1dditional ,ic7eting fro/ the undercarriage legs /ay 9e reco//ended in strong 6inds and@ if so@ care should 9e ta7en not to da/age any ,i,elines or e;ui,/ent attached to the legs or 6heels. 1 .#.3 Ty,ical ./all 1ircraft &rocedures 8hen /ooring s/all aircraft in the o,en@ the aircraft@ if ,ossi9le@ should 9e ,ar7ed head into the 6ind. The control surfaces should 9e secured 6ith the internal control loc7 and the 9ra7es a,,lied. Care /ust@ ho6e2er@ 9e exercised in extre/ely cold 6eather and ,ar7ing 9ra7es /ust not 9e set if there is a danger that accu/ulated /oisture /ay free4e the 9ra7es. 1nother danger@ in cold 6eather@ exists 6hen the 9ra7es are o2erheated@ 9ecause@ if they are set in this condition@ serious distortion and crac7ing of the 9ra7e =and 6heel> co/,onents can occur as they cool do6n. +o,es@ ca9les@ or chains should 9e attached to the 6ing /ooring =tie%do6n> ,oints@ and their o,,osite ends secured to ground anchors. 1 tie do6n ro,e =no chains or ca9les> should 9e fastened to the ex,osed ,ortion of the engine /ount and the o,,osite end of the ro,e also secured to a ground anchor. The /iddle of a ro,e should 9e attached to the tail tie%do6n ring and each end of the ro,e ,ulled@ at a #5] angle@ and secured to a ground tie%do6n ,oint either side of the tail. 1 control loc7 should 9e a,,lied to the ,ilots control colu/n. )f a control loc7 is not a2aila9le@ then the control /ay 9e tied 9ac7 6ith a front seat 9elt. These aircraft are usually e;ui,,ed 6ith a s,ring%loaded steering syste/ that affords ,rotection against nor/al 6ind gusts. $o6e2er@ if extre/ely high 6inds are antici,ated@ additional external loc7s /ay 9e installed. 1 .#.# 5arge 1ircraft &rocedures These /ay only re;uire ,ic7eting in 2ery strong 6ind conditions. The /axi/u/ 6ind%s,eed 6ill nor/ally 9e stated in the Maintenance Manual =including gusting 6inds>. The aircraft should 9e headed into 6ind and the ,ar7ing 9ra7es a,,lied.
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engineering
Ca9les or chains should 9e attached fro/ the aircraft ,ic7eting ,oints to ,re,ared anchorages. )n so/e instances the ,ic7eting ca9les are s,ecial co/,onents and include a tension /eter that is used to a,,ly a ,re%load to the ca9le. )f an aircraft is to 9e ,ar7ed for a longer ,eriod@ then additional ,recautions /ust 9e ta7en. 5anding gear do6n%loc7s /ust 9e installed =if so e;ui,,ed> and all o,enings such as static 2ents and engine inta7es should 9e co2ered or 9lan7ed off =refer to Fig. 3> to ,re2ent the ingress of dirt@ 9irds@ insects and all for/s of ,reci,itation.
)nta7e (lan7 &itot%.tatic (lan7s
Exhaust (lan7 !ose 8heel Co2ers Main 8heel Co2ers Ty,ical 1ircraft (lan7s Fig. 3
1 .#.5 Choc7ing of 1ircraft 8hen aircraft are ,ar7ed@ it is nor/al to ,lace a choc7 ahead and 9ehind at least one 6heel set. The ,ar7ing 9ra7es are usually left in the off ,osition once choc7s are in ,osition@ to allo6 the heat@ generated 9y the 9ra7es@ to dissi,ate e2enly. 1t high 6ind s,eeds@ it is nor/al to choc7 all the 6heels and a,,ly the 9ra7es =if they ha2e cooled>. .o/e aircraft choc7s can 9e chained together@ to gi2e a /ore secure hold. ?uring ground runs =and es,ecially those in2ol2ing high ,o6er>@ it is co//on sense to ,lace choc7s at the front of all /ain 6heel sets@ to reinforce the ,ar7ing 9ra7e.
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engineering
16#* Ai&c&a1( S(-&a0e
)f an aircraft is de%acti2ated for an extended ti/e it 6ill need to 9e ,rotected against corrosion@ deterioration and en2iron/ental conditions during its ,eriod of storage. The follo6ing notes are 9ased on the storage ,rocedures a,,lica9le to (1e 1# aircraft that ha2e 9een de%acti2ated for ,eriods in excess of 33 days and u, to a /axi/u/ of 2 years. )t is not intended for the infor/ation gi2en here to 9e co/,lete@ 9ut /erely to gi2e the student exa/,les of so/e of the acti2ities ,erfor/ed. .,ecific details of an aircrafts storage ,rocedures can 9e found in Cha,ter 13 of the rele2ant Maintenance Manual. 1 list of e;ui,/ent and /aterials is nor/ally gi2en. This 6ill@ ty,ically@ includeF $ydraulic fluid and lu9ricating oils and greases .,ecialised 6ater%dis,lacing fluids and corrosion%,re2entati2e co/,ounds 1ircraft co2ers and 9lan7s &lastic sheeting and adhesi2e ta,e.
&rior to the storage ,eriod certain tas7s are co/,leted. These /ay include re,lacing the tyres 6ith du//y tyres =those not suita9le for flight>@ or the raising of the ,ressures of the nor/al ones. The 2arious tan7s are either filled =6ater>@ drained =toilet>@ or ,art%filled =fuel>. )f the aircraft has ,ro,ellers@ they /ust 9e feathered@ to ,re2ent the/ rotating in the 6ind. =they /ay also 9e restrained 9y stra,s>. 'enerally there 6ould 9e an initial ,rocedure@ this 9eing re,eated at s,ecified inter2als@ as sho6n in Ta9les 1 =a> and 1 =9>. )f no re,eat inter2al is gi2en@ then the ite/ is only done initially. -nce the aircraft has 9een ,re,ared@ there are routine@ 6ee7ly chec7s to 7ee, it in good condition.
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engineering
)TEM
Ta9le 1 =a> TE&)C15 1)+C+1FT .T-+1'E T1.:.

+e,eat )nter2als =days>
Lan)in0 Gea&
Clean and dry /ain and landing gear 9ays Chec7 landing gear for hydraulic lea7age 5u9ricate /ain a nose landing gear CleanAChec7 .hoc7 struts for lea7s. 8i,e sliding tu9e 6ith hydraulic fluid Clean 'ear a ?oor U,loc7 Mechanis/s. &rotect 6ith grease Clean and a,,ly thin coat of hydraulic fluid to actuator and ,iston rods .,ray /icro%s6itches and ,roxi/ity s6itches 6ith 6ater dis,ersion fluid Chec7 tyre ,ressures and /ar7 ,osition of tyres 6ith date +otate 6heels one ;uarter of a ter/ and /ar7 tyre 6ith date .hould aircraft 9e stored in a hangar@ deflate the shoc7 a9sor9ers. The aircraft /ay 9e /anoeu2red in the hangar 6ith deflated shoc7 a9sor9ers " 33 3 " 15
%li0h( C-n(&-l'
Fully extend fla,s -,en and tag fla, 2al2es and air9ra7e circuit 9rea7ers Fully extend lift s,oilers and install safety slee2es to all s,oiler Bac7s ?e,ressurise hydraulic syste/ 5u9ricate the flight controls &rotect fla, carriages@ u,,er surfaces of fla, trac7s 6ith grease &rotect all control ca9les accessi9le 6ith oil Chec7 for corrosion and 6here found re,air affected areas " " " 33 33 03 1*3
P-8e& Plan('
Carry out s,ecial long ter/ storage ,rocedure for engines !oteF +ene6al of engine long ter/ storage is ,receded 9y engine run
O<20en S2'(em
Chec7 test date of oxygen cylinders. ?isconnect distri9ution lines fro/ oxygen cylinders@ 9lan7 off ,i,elines and cylinder outlet connection Chec7 cylinder ,ressure is a9o2e 53 ,.s.i. +e/o2e cre6 /as7s for storage
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engineering
)TEM
Ta9le 1 =9> TE&)C15 1)+C+1FT .T-+1'E T1.:.

+e,eat )nter2als =days> ,a(e& ,a'(e ?rain ,ota9le 6ater syste/ &urge ,ota9le 6ater syste/ 6ith dry air or nitrogen %!el S2'(em +efuel aircraft 6ith fuel treated 6ith an a,,ro2ed 9iocidal agent Chec7 fuel tan7s for 6ater accu/ulation Ai& C-n)i(i-nin0 S2'(em )nstall 9lan7s in the EC. ra/ air inlet@ exhaust@ 1&U inta7e@ 1&U oil cooler@ front and rear discharge 2al2es /2)&a!lic S2'(em Chec7 syste/ for lea7s +e,lenish syste/ Coat all un,ainted hydraulic ,i,e%6or7 6ith ,reser2ati2e co/,ound Ai&c&a1( E<(e&i-& 8ash aircraft Coat all un,ainted /etal surfaces 6ith ,reser2ati2e co/,ound Ai&c&a1( In(e&i-& +e/o2e ,assenger seats and car,ets for 9ay storage +e/o2e@ ser2ice and store all galley ,orta9le e;ui,/ent +e/o2e@ chec7 and store 6indshield 6i,er ar/s co/,lete 6ith 9lades +e/o2e rain re,ellent cannisters Elec(&icalBElec(&-nic S2'(em +e/o2e and ser2ice 9atteries +e/o2e for 9ay ser2ice@ all rac7 /ounted electronic e;ui,/ent 1,,ly ,o6er to and function installed electronic e;ui,/ent " "
" "
" 1*3
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!"
engineering
To allo6 the circulation of air around the inside of the aircraft@ all the doors and curtains are fixed o,en@ 6hilst all the external doors and ,anels are shut. The 9attery 6ill 9e re/o2ed fro/ the aircraft and 7e,t in the 9attery 9ay. More acti2e chec7s /ight 9e done on the t6o%6ee7ly chec7s. These chec7s 6ill ,ro9a9ly in2ol2e re%installing the 9attery@ running the engines for a ,eriod and functionally testing a nu/9er of the aircrafts syste/s that re;uire the engines o,erating. The flight controls /ight re;uire cycling throughout their ranges and@ if du//y tyres are not fitted@ the aircraft /ust 9e /o2ed slightly to ,re2ent flat s,ots for/ing on the tyres. )n addition@ 6hen ,o6er ,lants are stored se,arately@ their fuel and oil syste/s /ust 9e inhi9ited and all their external /echanis/s ,rotected 6ith grease or other suita9le ,reser2ati2e. They /ust 9e stored in a clean@ 6ar/@ dry at/os,here 6ith ins,ections at inter2als to chec7 for deterioration. .o/e engines are stored in an airtight 9ag@ 6hich has /oisture%a9sor9ent crystals =a desiccant> inside. 1fter the storage ,eriod all of the co2ers@ 9lan7s and ,reser2ati2e co/,ounds 6ill need to 9e re/o2ed. 1ll of the syste/s 6ill need to 9e restored to their original condition ,rior to aircraft use. 1 further set of ,rocedures 6ill 9e follo6ed@ si/ilar to those ,re2iously discussed. 8hen the aircraft is to 9e returned to ser2ice@ it is si/,ly a case of initially re/o2ing all co2ers@ 9lan7s and tie%do6ns. -nce access to the inside of the aircraft is o9tained and the 9attery re%installed@ all of the syste/s /ust 9e chec7ed and tested. 1ll the tan7s /ust 9e re,lenished to their correct le2els and all ,ressure 2essels 6ill re;uire their gases charging to their nor/al o,erating ,ressures. )f the ca9in furnishings@ such as seats@ car,ets and galleys ha2e 9een re/o2ed@ they are to 9e ins,ected and@ 6hen ser2icea9le@ re%installed in the ca9in. 1s already stated@ the foregoing su//aries are only exa/,les of the for/ that a 9asic aircraft storage ,rocedure /ight ta7e. )f the aircraft is s/aller or larger and /ore co/,lex it 6ill re;uire a different for/ of ins,ection and routine chec7ing. The correct storage ,rocedures 6ill 9e found in Cha,ter 13 of the rele2ant aircrafts Maintenance Manual.
&age 10
!"
engineering
16#6 Ai&c&a1( %!ellin0 P&-ce)!&e' The use of the ter/ fuelling can include 9oth refuelling and defuelling ,rocedures and these notes contain exa/,les of the essential ,oints to 9e considered 6hen refuelling and defuelling aircraft. There /ay@ ho6e2er@ 9e so/e further@ local instructions@ regarding the res,onsi9ilities of the 2arious ,ersonnel in2ol2ed in fuelling ,rocedures and these 6ill al6ays ta7e ,recedence in conBunction 6ith the rele2ant Maintenance Manual. 1 . .1 Fuelling .afety &recautions &articular care /ust 9e ta7en 6hen fuelling aircraft@ so that the o,eration /ay 9e acco/,lished in the safest ,ossi9le /anner. 8hene2er ,ossi9le@ aircraft should 9e fuelled in the o,en@ and not in a hangar =although this is@ so/eti/es@ necessary as ,art of a /aintenance ,rogra//e>. This 6ill /ini/ise the fire ris7 fro/ high concentrations of fla//a9le 2a,ours. Fire a,,liances should 9e readily a2aila9le during all fuelling o,erations. Car9on dioxide@ or foa/@ extinguishers are reco//ended 9ut@ if there is a ,ercei2ed increased fire ris7@ then fire%fighting 2ehicles should 9e standing 9y. 8ithin the s,ecified danger area@ around an aircraft 9eing fuelled@ no sources of ignition or s,ar7s should 9e allo6ed and no electrical ,o6er should 9e s6itched on or off during the fuelling o,eration. )t is 2ital that the correct ty,e and grade of fuel is used for the fuelling o,eration. Use of a tur9ine fuel in a ,iston aircraft 6ill certainly cause an engine /alfunction@ or failure@ that could lead to loss of an aircraft. The correct ty,e and grade of fuel is al6ays detailed in the Maintenance Manual and /ar7ed adBacent to the aircrafts fuelling ,oint=s>. Care should also 9e exercised so as to a2oid conta/ination of the fuel syste/ 6ith 6ater or other conta/inants. The fuel su,,ly should 9e regularly chec7ed for 6ater conta/ination and a sa/,le of fuel drained off after refuelling@ so that a 6ater chec7 /ay 9e done. )t 6ill so/eti/es 9e necessary to filter the fuel during o2er%6ing refuelling@ ,articularly in dusty cli/ates.
&age 23
!"
engineering
Electrical 9onding of the fuel syste/ is 2ital during fuelling o,erations@ as 6hen fuel flo6s through the refuelling hose@ static electricity /ay 9e generated. This /ay lead to ,otential differences at adBacent /etal ,arts and initiate a s,ar7@ fire or ex,losion. To /ini/ise this ris7 the follo6ing actions should 9e co/,leted 9efore fuelling o,erations co//ence The aircraft should 9e earthed The refuelling tan7er should 9e earthed The no44le of the fuel hose should 9e electrically 9onded to the fuelling ,oint.
1 . .2 +efuelling 8hen refuelling the 1MM should al6ays 9e consulted so that the ,ositions and ca,acities of the fuel tan7s and also the ty,e of fuel@ ,osition of the refuelling ,oint=s> and refuelling ,rocedures are 7no6n. There are t6o general re%fuelling /ethodsF 'ra2ity or o2er%6ing refuellingF 6hich is@ essentially@ the sa/e /ethod as used to refuel a /otor car =auto/o9ile>@ 6ith a si/ilar ty,e of refuelling hose 9eing used. 1s the na/e suggests@ the filler ,oints are@ generally@ on the u,,er surface of the 6ing and the tan7 is o,en 6hen refuelling is done &ressure refuellingF in 6hich the fuel /ay 9e ,u/,ed into the aircraft 2ia a ,ressure refuelling cou,ling at 2ery high rates. The refuelling ,ressures and the rates of fuel deli2ery /ay 9e ;uite different for indi2idual aircraft ty,es@ so great care /ust 9e ta7en@ to ensure no da/age occurs to an aircraft through incorrect refuelling settings.
1 . .3 Chec7ing Fuel Contents This is nor/ally done@ using the aircraft fuel gauges@ 6hich /ay 9e cali9rated in 7ilogra/s =7g>@ gallons =)/,erial or U.> or ,ounds =l9>. )f a dou9le chec7 is re;uired@ then the contents /ay 9e deter/ined@ on the ground@ 9y using di, stic7s =installed into the to, of the tan7s> or 9y dri, stic7s =or /agnetic dro, stic7s> 6hich are installed in the 9otto/ of so/e aircraft tan7s. The aircraft fuel gauges 6ill nor/ally 9e ,ositioned on the flight dec7@ 9ut they can@ on so/e aircraft@ 9e du,licated at a fuelling ,anel@ adBacent to the ,ressure refuel cou,ling.
&age 21
!"
engineering
The +elati2e ?ensity =+?> of fuel 6ill 2ary 6ith te/,erature and so the 6eight of a certain ;uantity of fuel 6ill also 2ary. For exa/,le@ ten gallons =)/,erial> of fuel@ 6ith an +? of 3.*@ 6ill ha2e a 6eight of *3 l9@ 6hile ten gallons =)/,erial> of fuel@ 6ith an +? of 3."*@ 6ill 6eigh "* l9. )t is crucial@ for 9alance ,ur,oses@ that the 6eight of fuel is 7no6n and this is the reason 6hy /any aircraft fuel gauges are cali9rated in units of 6eight rather than in 2olu/e. 8hen fuelling aircraft@ it is essential that the technician is a6are of the +? of the fuel@ so that the necessary 6eight calculation /ay 9e done@ if necessary. 1 . .# ?efuelling. -ccasionally@ it is necessary to re/o2e fuel fro/ an aircraft@ to facilitate fuel tan7 /aintenance@ or 9ecause the aircraft is too hea2ily loaded for the next flight. +e/o2ing fuel fro/ an aircraft can 9e acco/,lished 9y either the gra2ity or 9y the ,ressure defuelling /ethod. The gra2ity /ethod entails draining the fuel into a suita9ly earthed container@ and this is ty,ical of light aircraft@ 6hich are nor/ally gra2ity refuelled. The fuel re/o2ed /ust 9e dis,osed of in the correct /anner@ 6ith regard to local instructions and to the en2iron/ent. 1ircraft that are nor/ally ,ressure refuelled are nor/ally e;ui,,ed 6ith a ,ressure defuelling facility. &ressure defuelling is achie2ed 9y utilising a s/all negati2e ,ressure =suction>@ 6hich effecti2ely dra6s the fuel out of the tan7 and returns it into the fuel tan7er =9o6ser>. Current rules 6ill nor/ally only allo6 the fuel@ re/o2ed fro/ an aircraft@ to 9e ,laced into a dedicated defueller 2ehicle and the fuel 6ill not 9e ,er/itted to 9e used in another aircraft. This ensures that any conta/ination such as 6ater or de9ris 6ill not 9e transferred to other aircraft.
&age 22
!"
engineering
1 .".1 )ce Ty,es
16#7 G&-!n) De4Icin0BAn(i4Icin0 -1 Ai&c&a1(
There are three /ain ty,es of iceAfrost that can effect an aircrafts ,erfor/ance@ $oar Frost@ +i/e )ce and 'la4e )ce. The te/,erature and 6eather conditions 6ill deter/ine the ty,e of ice that for/s@ 9ut all three ty,es can ha2e a detri/ental effect. The ?e6 &oint is the te/,erature at 6hich /oist air 9eco/es saturated and de,osits de6 if in contact 6ith a colder surface or the ground. 19o2e ground@ condensation into 6ater dro,lets ta7es ,lace. $oar Frost is a de,osit of ice crystals that for/ on an o9Bect 6hen the de6 ,oint is 9elo6 free4ing ,oint. $igh hu/idity 6ill nor/ally ,roduce hoar frost@ as these are si/ilar to conditions that ,roduce de6. $oar frost can for/ 6hen the air te/,erature is greater than 3MC@ 9ut the aircraft s7in te/,erature is less than 3MC. This ty,e of frost ,roduces a 2ery rough surface 6hich leads to tur9ulent airflo6. +i/e )ce is a light coloured o,a;ue rough de,osit that has a ,orous ;uality. 1t ground le2el it for/s in free4ing fog fro/ 6ater dro,lets 6ith 2ery little s,reading. )t adds 2ery little 6eight 9ut it can disru,t the s/ooth flo6 of air o2er the 6ing@ and 9loc7 ,itot and static 2ents. 'la4e )ce can 9e either trans,arent or o,a;ue and can for/ into a glassy surface due to li;uid 6ater flo6ing o2er a surface 9efore free4ing. )t is the /ost dangerous ty,e of ice found on an aircraft and is dense@ hea2y and tough. )t adheres fir/ly to a surface@ is difficult to sha7e off@ and if it does 9rea7a6ay@ it does so in large chun7s. ?uring cold 6eather o,erations@ it /ay 9e necessary to re/o2e ice and sno6 fro/ the aircraft@ 6hile it is on the ground@ and to 7ee, it clear long enough@ to allo6 the aircrafts syste/s to co,e 6ith sno6 or ice re/o2al. This /ay not occur until the aircraft is flying.
&age 23
!"
engineering
-n the ground@ the aircraft /ust 9e cleared of all sno6 and ice fro/ its 6ings@ tail@ control surfaces@ engine inlets and other critical areas =refer to Fig. #> 9efore the aircraft can ta7e%off.
+udder <$F 1ntenna 1ilerons
TC1. 1ntenna &itot and .tatic $eads Fla,s
Ele2ator
.lats Engine !acelle Critical .urfaces for ?e%icing and 1nti%icing Fig. # )ce for/ation on an aircraft on the ground /ay result fro/ a nu/9er of causesF ?irect ,reci,itation fro/ rain@ sno6 and frost Condensation free4ing on external surfaces of integral tan7s follo6ing ,rolonged flight at high altitude 1fter taxing through sno6 or slush@ ice /ay accu/ulate on landing gear@ for6ard facing surfaces and under%surfaces.
&age 2#
!"
engineering

The for/ation of ice on aircraft structures can ,roduce /any ad2erse effects@ and if allo6ed to re/ain /ay result in so/e or all of the follo6ingF ?ecreased aerofoil lift )ncreased aerofoil drag )ncreased 6eight ?ecreased engine thrust Free4ing of /oisture in control hinges Free4ing of /icro%s6itches that affect syste/s such as the landing gear retraction )ngestion of ice into the engine.
1 .".2 ?efinitions The ter/s de%icing and anti%icing ha2e s,ecific definitions@ and it is essential to 7no6 the differences. ?e%icing is the re/o2al of ice that has already for/ed 1nti%icing is the ,re2ention of initial ice for/ation.
1 .".3 ?e%)cing and 1nti%)cing Methods The de%icing ,rocedure for re/o2al of ice@ frost and sno6 fro/ an aircrafts surface can 9e achie2ed 9y /echanical or che/ical /ethods. Mechanical /ethods use 9lo6ers@ 9rushes and ru99er scra,ers 6hilst che/ical /ethods utilise de%icing fluids. The anti%icing ,rocedure ,ro2ides ,rotection against the for/ation of ice@ frost and sno6 on aircraft surfaces for a short ,eriod 7no6n as the $oldo2er Ti/e. This is achie2ed 9y a,,lying an anti%icing fluid@ 9ut the aircraft /ust 9e either clean or de%iced ,rior to this anti%icing fluid a,,lication. There are t6o 6ays of aircraft de%icing and anti%icingF -ne .te, Method T6o .te, Method.
&age 25
!"
engineering
The -ne .te, /ethod utilises hot fluid to de%ice the aircraft@ and this fluid re/ains on the aircraft surfaces to gi2e a li/ited anti%icing ca,a9ility. The T6o .te, /ethod consists of t6o se,arate fluid a,,lication ,rocedures. The first ste, is the de%icing ,art and the second ste, the anti%icing. This second ste, /ust 9e done 6ithin three /inutes of starting the first ste,@ surface 9y surface if necessary. The second anti%icing ste, ,rotects the aircraft surfaces for a holdo2er ,eriod. 8hilst the 1MM 6ill detail the exact areas for de%icing and anti%icing@ ,articular attention should 9e ,aid to areas around ,ro9es@ antennas@ and ,itotAstatic ,orts as 6ell as control surfaces@ landing gear and inlets and exhausts. 1 .".# Che/ical ?e%)cing Free4ing &oint ?e,ressant =F&?> co/,ounds are often used in conBunction 6ith /echanical /ethods@ and there are t6o /ain ty,es of F&? co/,oundsF Ty,e 1 =unthic7ened>
These fluids ha2e a high glycol content and a lo6 2iscosity. They ,ro2ide good de%icing ,erfor/ance 9ut only a li/ited ,rotection against re%free4ing. Ty,e 2 =thic7ened>
These fluids ha2e a /ini/u/ glycol content of a,,roxi/ately 53J@ and due to a thic7ening agent@ are a9le to re/ain on the aircraft surfaces for longer ,eriods. The de%icing ,erfor/ance is good and ,ro2ides ,rotection against re%free4ing andAor 9uild u, of further accretion@ 6hen ex,osed to free4ing ,reci,itation. 1 .".5 Treat/ent of Frost ?e,osits Frost de,osits are 9est re/o2ed 9y the use of a de%icing fluid such as :ilfrost 1(C =1ircraft (arrier Co/,ound>. These fluids usually contain eitherF ethylene glycol and iso,ro,yl alcohol di%ethylene glycol and iso,ro,yl alcohol ,ro,ylene glycol and iso,ro,yl alcohol.
This ,rocess is not lengthy and one a,,lication is usually sufficient ,ro2ided it is a,,lied 6ithin t6o hours of flight. -nly fluids reco//ended 9y the /anufacturer should 9e used and any instructions for their use should 9e strictly o9ser2ed. Use of incorrect de%icing fluids /ay ad2ersely affect gla4ed ,anels or ,aint finish.
&age 2
!"
engineering
1lcohol 9ased de%icing fluids@ /ay cause dilution or co/,lete re/o2al of oils and greases fro/ Boints or 9earings. This /ay allo6 6ater ingress@ 6hich can su9se;uently free4e and Ba/ controls. ?e%icing s,ray no44les should not 9e directed at lu9rication ,oints or sealed 9earings. $ot air 9lo6ers /ay 9e used to re/o2e sno6@ ice or frost@ and the li;uid residue should 9e dried and not allo6ed to accu/ulate in ,laces such as hinges or /icro% s6itches as any re%free4ing /ay cause da/age. 1 .". +e/o2al of )ce and .no6 ?e,osits There are se2eral /ethods of re/o2ing sno6 and ice fro/ an aircraft@ ,rior to a,,lying li;uids if re;uired. +e/o2al 9y hand can 9e acco/,lished 9y the use of soft 9roo/s@ hand 9rushes or ru99er scra,ers. The aircraft can 9e de%iced using cold air fro/ a ,ressure su,,ly unit@ or 9y using hot air fro/ a hot air 9lo6er designed for the ,ur,ose. ?ee, 6et sno6 should 9e re/o2ed 6ith a 9rush or ru99er scra,er@ ta7ing care not to da/age co/,onents such as aerials and ,itot ,ro9es@ 6hich /ay 9e co2ered in sno6. The sno6 should also 9e cleared fro/ ite/s li7e 2ents and control hinges. 5ight dry sno6 should 9e 9lo6n off using a cold air 9lo6er. $ot air is not reco//ended as it /ay /elt the sno6 6hich /ay accu/ulate and free4e re;uiring further treat/ent. Moderate to hea2y ice de,osits or residual sno6 should 9e cleared 6ith de%icing fluid a,,lied 9y s,raying. The t6o /ethods of fluid s,raying in2ol2e theF Cold Fluid .,ray $ot Fluid .,ray.
8hen using these s,rays@ it is necessary to o9ser2e certain ,recautions@ 9ecause of the ris7 of da/age to the aircraft structure and associated co/,onents. 8ith this in /ind it is i/,ortant to 7no6 thatF $igh%,ressure s,rays /ay cause da/age to ,itot%static ,ro9es and other sensing de2ices Co2ers and 9ungs should 9e fitted during de%icing o,erations to ,re2ent ingress of fluid into inta7es and exhausts $igh%,ressure s,rays /ay cause erosion of the aircraft s7in. Consult the 1MM for reco//ended /axi/u/ i/,inge/ent ,ressure !o atte/,t should 9e /ade to re/o2e ice 9y using an i/,act force to 9rea7 the 9ond
&age 2"
!"
engineering
?e%icing should ,roceed sy//etrically@ to ,re2ent excess 6eight on one side of the aircraft.
The Cold Fluid .,ray /ethod is the si/,lest /ethod of a,,lying de%icing fluid@ 9ut in se2ere conditions one a,,lication /ay not 9e sufficient to re/o2e all de,osits. (rushing follo6ed 9y a second or third a,,lication /ay 9e re;uired. The $ot Fluid .,ray /ethod has 9een ado,ted s,ecifically to reduce turn%round ti/e. The F&? fluid is /ixed 6ith 6ater in ,ro,ortion to suit ,re2ailing 6eather conditions@ and heated to 9et6een of 3]C =/ini/u/> and *5]C =/axi/u/>. The fluid is nor/ally s,rayed onto the aircraft at a ,ressure of 133 ,si = *0.5 7!A/2> 9y use of s,ray lances. The no44le of the lance is held close to the aircraft s7in@ to ,re2ent heat losses. The heat transfers to the s7in of the aircraft@ 9rea7ing the ice 9ond@ and large areas of ice /ay 9e flushed a6ay 9y turning the no44le side6ays. The fluid fil/ re/aining on the s7in@ has only 9een slightly diluted 9eyond its original dilution and is effecti2e in ,re2enting further ice for/ation. $ot 6ater de%icing is a /ethod that /ust not 9e used 9elo6 %"3C and /ay need to 9e ,erfor/ed in t6o ste,s. .te, 1F .no6 and ice are nor/ally re/o2ed initially 6ith a Bet of hot 6ater not exceeding 05C .te, 2F )f necessary a light coating of de%icing fluid is then s,rayed on i//ediately =6ithin 3 /inutes> to ,re2ent re%free4ing.
-n so/e aircraft@ not e;ui,,ed 6ith aerofoil or ,ro,eller de%icing syste/s@ the use of a de%icing ,aste /ay 9e s,ecified. The ,aste is s,read e2enly@ 9y hand@ o2er 6ing@ tail and ,ro,eller leading edges. )t ,ro2ides a che/ically acti2e surface on 6hich ice /ay for/ 9ut not ,roduce a 9ond. 1ny ice@ 6hich for/s@ is 9lo6n a6ay 9y the airflo6. The ,aste should 9e re%a,,lied 9efore each flight in accordance 6ith the 1MM.
&age 2*
!"
engineering
1 ."." $old -2er Ti/es
8hen used for anti%icing@ the F&? fluid should 9e s,rayed onto the aircraft cold and undiluted@ 9efore the onset of icing or after any hot de%icing. The fluid fil/ 6ill ,re2ent ice and sno6 fro/ stic7ing to the aircraft s7in and@ gi2en ti/e@ 6ill /elt any fresh ,reci,itation. Ty,ical ti/es for 6hich the fluid re/ains effecti2e are 7no6n as the $old -2er ti/e =refer Ta9le 2>. Ta9le 2 TE&)C15 $-5? -<E+ T)ME.
1/9ient Te/, C Frost 8eather Conditions Free4ing .teady Free4ing fog .no6 +ain +ain on cold soa7ed 6ing 1nti% )cing 133J Cold .ee !ote 1 * hrs 3 hrs 1 hr 23 /in * hr 1O hr #5 /in 23 /in * hr 1O hr #5 /in * hr 1O hr #5 /in * hr 1O hr #5 /in Ty,e )) =1E1> fluids ?e%)cing "5A25 =hot> 5 hrs 2 hrs #5 /in 13 /in 5 hr 1 hr 33 /in 13 /in 5 hr 1 hr 33 /in 5 hr 1 hr 33 /in 3A#3 =hot> # hrs 1R hr 35 /in " /in # hr 53 /in 23 /in 5 /in # hr 53 /in 23 /in 53A53 =hot> 3 hr 1O hr 33 /in 5 /in 3 hr #5 /in 15 /in 3 /in #5 /in 33 /in 15 /in 5 /in 33 /ins 15 /ins 15 /ins 3 /ins 33 /ins 15 /ins 15 /ins 33 /ins 15 /ins 15 /ins 33 /ins 15 /ins 15 /in Ty,e ) Fluids =.ee note 2>
19o2e 3
b b b b b
3 to D"
b b b b
%* to %13
b b b
%11 to %1#
b b b
%15 to %25
b b b
Under extre/e cold conditions it /ay 9e necessary to heat the fluid = 3 C /ax> to gi2e it s,raya9ility. !o significant increase in hold o2er ti/e is achie2ed 9y strengthening the /ix of ty,e ) =1E1> fluids. .tations using :ilfrost 6ill nor/ally ,ro2ide a /ix of 53A53 or 3A#3. )t /ay 9e difficult to get stronger /ixes at short notice unless the te/,erature conditions at the stations in2ol2ed are 9elo6 li/its for that /ix.
&age 20
!"
engineering

Certain ,recautions should 9e o9ser2ed 6hen a,,lying che/ical anti%icing fluids@ and these areF 1nti%icing fluid /ust !-T 9e a,,lied on to, of a si/ilar@ earlier coat )f ,ossi9le@ the engines or the 1&U should not 9e o,erated during sno6Aice re/o2al The fluid should not 9e s,rayed directly onto 6indscreens@ 6indo6s@ 2anes@ ,itot heads or ,ro9es The /ini/u/ ;uantity of fluid should 9e used in the air conditioning inta7e areas )f ,ossi9le the fluid should not 9e s,rayed onto lu9ricated ,arts@ such as landing gear legs
1 .".* )ns,ection after ?e%)cingA1nti%)cing &rocedures The follo6ing ins,ections should 9e done on co/,letion of a de%icing ,rocedureF External surfaces@ for signs of residual sno6 or ice@ ,articularly in the 2icinity of control surface ga,s and hinges 1ll ,rotrusions and 2ents@ for signs of da/age Control surfaces for full and free /o2e/ent 9y hand. 8here this is not ,ossi9le the ,ilot^s controls should 9e used@ 9earing in /ind that ,o6er% o,erated controls exert large forces and could cause da/age if any ,art of the control surface is fro4en 5anding gear /echanis/s@ doors@ 9ays and 6heel 9ra7es@ for sno6 and ice de,osits U,%loc7s and /icro%s6itches@ for correct o,eration Tyres to ensure that they are not fro4en to the ground. They should 9e freed 9y the a,,lication of hot air to the ice =not the tyre> and the aircraft /o2ed to a dry area Engine air inta7es for ice and sno6 de,osits 'as tur9ine engines for freedo/ of rotation 9y hand. +estriction /ay indicate icing in the co/,ressor region and the engine should 9e 9lo6n through 6ith hot air i//ediately 9efore starting until the rotating ,arts are free .hoc7 a9sor9er struts and hydraulic Bac7s for lea7s caused 9y contraction of seals and /etal ,arts Tyre ,ressures and shoc7 a9sor9er ,ressure and extension
Follo6ing the ins,ections an entry should 9e /ade in the Tech. 5og@ indicating that the ?e%)cingA1nti%)cing ,rocedure has 9een co/,leted.
&age 33
!"
engineering
16#A G&-!n) Elec(&ical S!..lie' 'round electrical su,,lies are nor/ally li/ited to either 2* 2olts dc or 115 2olts ac@ de,ending u,on the syste/s of the aircraft. Most /odern aircraft ha2e at least one 115 2olt ac syste/ =as 6ell as a 2* 2olt dc one>@ so they 6ill nor/ally 9e su,,lied 6ith 115 2olts ac fro/ an external ,o6er su,,ly. 1irfields nor/ally su,,ly electricity to aircraft through external generators called 'round &o6er Units ='&Us>@ or ha2e underground su,,lies@ 6hich are connected to the aircraft 2ia the air%9ridge@ or fro/ 9eneath the ra/, surface. 8hen an external electric su,,ly is re;uired inside the hangar@ its generation 6ill nor/ally 9e through transfor/er rectifier units. 1n external ,o6er control 9ox /ay 9e installed on the hangar 6all and the re;uired out,ut for a ,articular aircraft can 9e selected. To ,re2ent accidentally connecting%u, of incorrect su,,lies@ all aircraft ha2e se,arately%sha,ed ,lugs and soc7ets. The 2* 2olt dc su,,ly usually has a three% ,in connection 6hilst the 115 2olt ac utilises a /uch larger@ six%,in ,lug and soc7et =refer to Fig. 5>. The 2* 2olt dc connection has t6o ,ins 6hich are longer than the third. The longer ,ins are the su,,ly connections 6hilst the shorter ,in acts as a safety interloc7@ to ensure that the ,o6er is cut%off@ if the ca9le is inad2ertently ,ulled out 6ithout the ,o6er 9eing s6itched off first. The 115 2olt ac connection has six ,ins@ 6ith four ,ins 9eing longer than the other t6o. The four longer ,ins ,ro2ide the three ,hases and the neutral connection 6hilst the short ,ins ,ro2ide the safety interloc7.
&age 31
!"
engineering
+ PIN EETERNAL PO,ER RECEPTACLE

EART/
EETERNAL SUPPLY SOC5ET

POSITI?E D#C# + PIN PLUG POSITI?E D#C# ACCESS DOOR
dc &o6er .oc7et and +ece,tacle
EETERNAL PO,ER READY LIG/T
SER?ICE INTERP/ONE CONNECTION
NOSE ,/EEL ,ELL LIG/TS
A#C# P/ASE GAH A#C# P/ASE GBH
A#C# P/ASE GCH
A#C# NEUTRAL D#C#
ac &o6er +ece,tacle
'round Electrical .u,,lies Fig. 5

&age 32 "1*111"5.doc )ssued March 2332
!"
engineering
16#= G&-!n) /2)&a!lic S!..lie' $ydraulic test rigs are a2aila9le@ to su,,ly aircraft 6ith a source of hydraulic ,o6er 6ithout the need for running the engines or 1&U. These test rigs are nor/ally ,o6ered either 9y internal co/9ustion@ or 9y electric@ /otors. They /ust use the sa/e ty,e of hydraulic ,u/, and fluid as the aircraft under test@ to allo6 testing of ite/s such as the ti/ing of syste/ o,erations. The aircraft has an access ,anel@ 9ehind 6hich are a set of ;uic7%connect cou,lings@ allo6ing the rig hoses to 9e easily connected to the aircrafts syste/ 6ithout the need for 9leeding the syste/ of air. This is achie2ed 9y use of non% return 2al2es@ 6hich only o,en 6hen the cou,lings are fully tightened. (efore connecting a hydraulic testing rig to an aircraft@ it /ust 9e ensured that all of the lines and cou,lings are thoroughly clean@ so that no dirt can get into the aircrafts syste/. 1 .0.1 .afety@ $ealth and .er2icing &recautions &hos,hate ester%9ased hydraulic fluids constitute a /aBor health ris7. Extre/e care should 9e ta7en 6hen handling this fluid and the follo6ing ,recautions should 9e ta7enF 1 /as7 /ust 9e 6orn 6hen the ,ossi9ility of inhaling the fluid in an ato/ised for/ exists. The fluid irritates the res,iratory ,assages and can cause snee4ing and coughing Eye ,rotection is essential 6hen the ,ossi9ility of ato/ised s,ray exists. )f fluid contacts the eyes@ they should 9e flushed 6ith large ;uantities of cleanAsterile 6ater and /edical ad2ice sought ,ro/,tly $ands /ust 9e 6ashed thoroughly after 6or7ing 6ith these fluids and ,articularly 9efore eating or s/o7ing $ydraulic fluid /ust not 9e allo6ed to contact the s7in for excessi2e ,eriods. (arrier crea/ and ,rotecti2e glo2es /ust 9e ,ut on 9efore starting 6or7 Conta/inated o2eralls should 9e changed as soon as ,ossi9le after contact 6ith the fluid.
1 ty,ical hydraulic test rig /ight ha2e a "578 =133 h,> electric /otor@ dri2ing the ,u/, through a gear9ox@ clutch and a flexi9le cou,ling. The out,ut could 9e in the region of 1"5 litres ,er /inute =3* gallons ,er /inute> at 233 7&a =3333 ,si>. The oil 6ould 9e filtered to the standard re;uired 9y the aircraft syste/@ ty,ically@ 3 /icrons.
&age 33
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engineering
Most hydraulic rigs ha2e a s/all header tan7 of syste/ oil. )t 6ould utilise the aircrafts oil for the /aBority of o,erations@ 6ith the header tan7 7ee,ing the syste/ ,ri/ed during cou,ling and uncou,ling o,erations. The flo6 2al2es@ 6hich are often integral ,arts the rigs@ /ust 9e 7e,t closed until all the hoses ha2e 9een connected and the rig is ready to run. The /otor is started and once the o,erating ,ressure is indicated on the rig gauges@ the 2al2es can 9e o,ened and the rig then for/s ,art of the aircraft syste/. This 6ill ena9le the functional testing of the aircrafts hydraulic syste/s using the aircrafts selector 2al2es. The rigs /ay also 9e ,ro2ided 6ith s,ecial gauges@ such as flo6 /eters@ 6hich 6ill allo6 the testing for internal syste/ lea7ages. 1 .0.2 +ig Maintenance The rigs /ust ha2e an e;ual or 9etter filtration le2el than the aircraft 9eing ser2iced. -il sa/,les of the rig are ta7en on a regular 9asis@ and the follo6ing chec7s /ust 9e co/,leted on a regular 9asisF

The rig /ust 9e 7e,t clean and all hoses 9lan7ed 6hen not in use The filters /ust 9e changed or cleaned 1ll the gauges should 9e cali9rated 1ny electrical e;ui,/ent on the rigs should 9e chec7ed. G&-!n) Pne!ma(ic S!..lie'
16#1;
&ressurised aircraft usually re;uire an ade;uate su,,ly of lo6%,ressure air@ for such tas7s as engine starting@ 2entilation@ heating and cooling@ anti%icing and ,ressurisation testing. This air su,,ly is@ nor/ally@ ,ro2ided 9y the aircrafts engineAs or 1&U 9ut@ 6hen these are una2aila9le@ a ground su,,ly unit can 9e used. &neu/atic units can su,,ly air at the re;uired ,ressure and flo6 rate and are ,o6ered 9y tur9ine engines@ diesel engines or electrically ,o6ered units. The co/,ressors used 9y these units are nor/ally axial flo6@ centrifugal flo6@ or of the scre6 or lo9e ty,e. ?e,ending on the si4e of the aircraft 9eing ser2iced and the air re;uire/ents@ the co/,ressor can 9e /ounted on a trailer chassis or on a self%,ro,elled 2ehicle. To ensure the air ,roduced is of a suita9le ;uality@ it is nor/ally filtered and cleaned 9efore 9eing fed to the external air su,,ly connection@ 6hich is located on the outside of the airfra/e.
&age 3#
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engineering
.o/e aircraft ha2e t6o se,arate connections for air su,,lies at different ,oints on the airfra/e. The for6ard connection /ay 9e for lo6%,ressure air@ 6hich is then fed directly to the conditioning syste/@ allo6ing testing of the air conditioning syste/ and also of the ,ressure hull. The aft connection /ay 9e for a higher% ,ressure 9leed air su,,ly that is ,ri/arily used to start the engines if the 1&U is unser2icea9le. 8hilst so/e units are dedicated air starter rigs@ so/e can 9e used 9oth for starting and also for functional testing of the air conditioning and de%icing syste/s. 1s 6ith the electric and hydraulic ground ,o6er su,,ly rigs@ the out,ut of a ,neu/atic unit /ust /atch the aircrafts syste/ for ,ressure and flo6. 16#11 E11ec(' -1 En@i&-nmen(al C-n)i(i-n' -n /an)lin0
&re2ious notes ha2e /entioned a range of ,recautions that need to 9e a,,lied 6hen the 6eather is anything less than ,erfect. This section 6ill co2er actions that the technician 6ill need to ta7e for ,re2ailing situations 6hen 2arious 6eather conditions exist. 1 .11.1 Cold and 8et 8hen the ra/, is cold and 6et@ the friction 9et6een the aircrafts tyres and the ra/, can 9e reduced. This also a,,lies to all self%,ro,elled 2ehicles and@ hence@ all /o2e/ents on the ra/, should 9e at a slo6er s,eed than nor/al@ 6ith ;uic7 access to choc7s@ in the e2ent of an e/ergency. ?uring engine ground running@ it is ,ossi9le that there /ay 9e a /axi/u/ ,o6er li/itation if the ra/, is 2ery 6et or flooded. This 6ill 9e co2ered in either the 1irfield -,erations Manual or the 'round $andling &rocedures Manual =as 6ill /ost other ,recautions and ,rocedures>. )f large a/ounts of ,rotecti2e clothing are 6orn on the ra/,@ it is the technicians res,onsi9ility to ensure that nothing can get suc7ed into a running engine. 1lso@ during ground running@ it is i/,ortant that extra choc7s are ,laced at the 6heels of the aircraft to ,re2ent sli,,age at the higher ,o6er settings. Falling rain =and fog> 6ill de/and that /ore care 9e ta7en@ due to the reduced 2isi9ility@ es,ecially 6hen to6ing is in ,rogress. The use of all nor/al lights@ day or night@ 6hen /o2ing 2ehicles in rain@ is /ost i/,ortant. 8here there is a ris7 of rain and the aircraft is to 9e ,ar7ed@ then the a,,ro,riate aircraft 9lan7s and co2ers /ust 9e used. )t is also inad2isa9le to re%fuel aircraft 9y the o,en line =o2er 6ing> /ethod in rain@ due to the high ris7 of 6ater getting into the tan7 6hilst the filler ca, is re/o2ed. 'reat care /ust 9e ta7en@ to ,rotect the filler nec7 orifice@ so that 2ery little 6ater enters the tan7.
&age 35
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engineering
)f a tas7 needs to 9e co/,leted on the u,,er surface of a 6et 6ing@ it 6ould 9e ad2isa9le to use a safety raiser or cherry ,ic7er. This /o9ile craning de2ice 6ill allo6 safe access to the u,,er surfaces of a high 6ing and also ,ro2ide the technician 6ith a safety de2ice@ to hoo7 onto@ should the need arise. 1 .11.2 .no6 and )ce Many of the ,recautions@ already /entioned@ also a,,ly in conditions of sno6 and ice. 1ircraft to6ing and taxiing /ay 9e restricted until all standing ,reci,itation has 9een cleared fro/ the area to 9e used. The loss of 2isi9ility during falling sno6 can 9e se2ere@ es,ecially at ti/es of lo6 light@ so great care /ust 9e sho6n if it is considered essential that an aircraft /o2e/ent /ust ta7e ,lace. This /ay re;uire a larger than nor/al to6ing tea/ and the use of extra lights. Most airfields that o,erate continuously ha2e a ,lan to deal 6ith excessi2e a/ounts of sno6. This ,lan /ight include the a,,lication of heater units or allo6ing 1&Us to run for extended ,eriods to 7ee, the inside of the aircraft 6ar/. For aircraft@ 6hich are to 9e left out on the ra/,@ in su9%4ero te/,eratures@ it /ay 9e necessary to drain the ,ota9le 6ater tan7s@ to ,re2ent the/ free4ing o2ernight. This 6ill in2ol2e so/e care@ as they should not 9e drained onto the ra/,@ due to the ris7 of ,ersonnel sli,,ing on the ice. -ther ite/s of e;ui,/ent that use 6ater@ such as heaters and ,i,e%6or7@ /ay also need ,rotection in cold te/,eratures. 1 .11.3 $igh 8inds $igh 6inds can cause loose o9Bects to /o2e across the ra/, and stri7e the aircraft. These can 9e light ite/s such as t6igs and 9ranches 9ut@ on occasions@ hea2y ,ieces of ground e;ui,/ent@ that ha2e not 9een secured correctly@ ha2e 9een ,ushed into aircraft@ causing /aBor da/age. ?uring 2ery high 6ind conditions@ the s/allest o9Bects can 9e lethal@ due to the energy they contain. )n certain en2iron/ents@ such as desert cli/ates =or at airfields near seashores>@ sand and dust@ dri2en 9y the 6ind@ can enter s/all cre2ices@ causing ,ro9le/s 6ith aircraft syste/s and /ay also 9loc7 filters. 8here extre/e conditions exist@ such as during a sand stor/@ then the 9lan7ing of all orifices /ay ha2e to 9e aug/ented 6ith ta,e or other /ethods@ to ,re2ent the ingress of dust and sand. 'reat care /ust 9e ta7en@ to ensure suita9le entries are /ade in the Technical 5og@ for the co/,lete re/o2al of all 9lan7ing /aterial@ after the stor/ has a9ated.
&age 3
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engineering
1 .11.# $igh Te/,erature
Certain ite/s of e;ui,/ent are te/,erature%sensiti2e and@ 6hen aircraft are o,erated in en2iron/ents of extre/e high te/,erature =W55C>@ then se2eral extra ,recautions ha2e to 9e ta7en. .o/e for/ of cooling /ust 9e ,ro2ided to ensue that the cre6 does not suffer fro/ heat exhaustion@ and reduce their efficiency. The o,erating te/,erature electronic e;ui,/ent /ust also 9e 7e,t 9elo6 a critical le2el@ to ensure its continued ser2icea9ility. Most of the larger aircraft ha2e an auxiliary ,o6er unit =1&U>@ 6hich can ,ro2ide a su,,ly of 9leed air to allo6 the air conditioning syste/ of the aircraft to o,erate on the ground. )f an 1&U is not a2aila9le@ then external air conditioning units can 9e connected to the aircraft to 7ee, the inside cool. These cooling rigs should ha2e an air conditioning unit of suita9le ca,acity for the si4e of the aircraft that re;uires cooling. .o/e tur9o%,ro,eller ,assenger aircraft ha2e the facility to run an engine@ 6ithout the ,ro,eller turning@ to ,ro2ide air conditioning on the ground. This facility is 7no6n as the $otel Mode and@ effecti2ely@ ena9les an engine to o,erate in a si/ilar /anner to an 1&U@ 6ithout the need to carry extra 6eight.
&age 3"
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engineering
&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:
&age 3*
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engineering
17 PRE?ENTATI?E MAINTENANCE TEC/NICUES

&re2entati2e /aintenance is concerned 6ith the early detection of defects =using 6hate2er ins,ection techni;ues are s,ecified 9y the aircraft or co/,onent /anufacturers> and the re,air or /odification of the defecti2e ,arts. The ins,ection techni;ues /ay call for the disasse/9ly of co/,onents =9efore or after cleaning> so that /ore detailed ins,ections can 9e done. 1ssess/ent@ of the effect of the defect on the continued integrity of the ,art@ 6ill also 9e re;uired and@ follo6ing the re,air@ /odification or reBection of the ,art@ re% asse/9ly techni;ues 6ill 9e used to restore the aircraft to the a,,ro,riate le2el of ser2icea9ility. Trou9leshooting techni;ues are used in the ,rocess of identifying the cause of a fault@ eli/inating the fault and returning the aircraft to ser2ice. 17#1 T2.e' -1 De1ec(' 1n o,erational aircraft can suffer fro/ /any defects and these can 9e defined as any e2ent or occurrence@ 6hich reduces the ser2icea9ility of the aircraft 9elo6 133J. The /anufacturer should s,ecify the ins,ection areas and the faults@ 6hich are ex,ected to 9e found. )n /ost instances the ins,ector is loo7ing for indications of a9nor/ality in the ite/ 9eing ins,ected. Ty,ical exa/,les areF Metal &artsF as a,,lica9le to all /etal ,arts@ 9odies or casings of units in syste/s and in electrical@ instru/ent and radio installations@ /etal ,i,es@ ducting@ tu9es@ rods and le2ers. These 6ould 9e ins,ected forF Cleanliness and external e2idence of da/age 5ea7s and discharge -2erheating Fluid ingress -9struction of drainage or 2ent holes or o2erflo6 ,i,e orifices Correct seating of ,anels and fairings and ser2icea9ility of fasteners ?istortion@ dents@ scores@ and chafing &ulled or /issing fasteners@ ri2ets@ 9olts or scre6s E2idence of crac7s or 6ear .e,aration of adhesi2e 9onding Failures of 6elds or s,ot 6elds ?eterioration of ,rotecti2e treat/ent and corrosion .ecurity of attach/ents@ fasteners@ connections@ loc7ing and 9onding.
&age 1
!"
engineering
+u99er@ Fa9ric@ 'lass Fi9re and &lastic &artsF such as co2erings@ ducting@ flexi9le /ountings@ seals@ insulation of electrical ca9les@ 6indo6s. These ,arts 6ould@ ty,ically@ 9e ins,ected forF Cleanliness Crac7s@ cuts@ chafing@ 7in7ing@ t6isting@ crushing@ contraction D sufficient free length ?eterioration@ cra4ing@ loss of flexi9ility -2erheating Fluid soa7age .ecurity of attach/ent@ correct connections and loc7ing.
Control .yste/ Co/,onentsF ca9les@ chains@ ,ulleys@ rods and tu9es 6ould 9e ins,ected forF Correct align/ent D no fouling Free /o2e/ent@ distortion@ e2idence of 9o6ing .cores@ chafing@ fraying@ 7in7ing E2idence of 6ear@ flattening Crac7s@ loose ri2ets@ deterioration of ,rotecti2e treat/ent and corrosion Electrical 9onding correctly ,ositioned@ unda/aged and secure 1ttach/ents@ end connections and loc7ing secure.
Electrical Co/,onentsF actuators@ alternators and generators@ /otors@ relays@ solenoids and contactors. .uch ite/s 6ould 9e ins,ected forF Cleanliness@ o92ious da/age E2idence of o2erheating Corrosion and security of attach/ents and connections Cleanliness@ scoring and 6orn 9rushes@ ade;uate s,ring tension after re/o2al of ,rotecti2e co2ers -2erheating and fluid ingress Cleanliness@ 9urning and ,itting of contacts E2idence of o2erheating and security of contacts after re/o2al of ,rotecti2e co2ers
1".1.1 External ?a/age ?a/age to the outside of the airfra/e can occur 9y interference 9et6een /o2ing ,arts such as flying controls and fla,s@ although this is ;uite rare. The /ost co//on reasons for airfra/e da/age is 9y 9eing struc7 9y ground e;ui,/ent or se2ere hail in flight.
&age 2
!"
engineering
?uring ground ser2icing /any 2ehicles need to 9e /anoeu2red close to the airfra/e and so/e ha2e to 9e in light contact 6ith it to 6or7 ,ro,erly. Contact 6ith the airfra/e 9y any of these 2ehicles can cause dents or ,uncturing of the ,ressure hull@ resulting in a ti/e%consu/ing re,air. 1".1.2 )nlets and Exhausts 1ny inlet or exhaust can 9e a ,otential nest site for 6ildlife. The da/age done 9y these 9irds@ rodents and insects can 9e 2ery ex,ensi2e to rectify. -ther ite/s that ha2e 9een 7no6n to 9loc7 access holes include 9ranches@ lea2es and ,olythene 9ags. 1 careful chec7 of all inlets and exhausts@ during ins,ections@ /ust 9e /ade@ to ensure that there is nothing 9loc7ing the/. 1 9loc7ed duct can result in the o2erheating of e;ui,/ent@ or /aBor da/age to the internal 6or7ing ,arts of the engine. 1".1.3 5i;uid .yste/s 5i;uid syste/s usually ha2e gauges to ascertain the ;uantity in that ,articular syste/. 1 ,hysical ;uantity chec7 is often done in addition to using the gauges@ as the gauges are not al6ays relia9le. These syste/s usually include oil tan7s for the engine@ 1&U and )ntegrated ?ri2e 'enerators =)?'>@ and also the hydraulics@ fuel and ,ota9le 6ater tan7s. The cause of a lo6er%than%ex,ected le2el should 9e i//ediately in2estigated@ 9earing in /ind@ that so/e syste/s consu/e s,ecific a/ounts of fluids during nor/al o,eration. The consu/,tion rate /ust 9e calculated 9efore instigating any trou9le%shooting. 1 lo6 hydraulic syste/ should not 9e re,lenished 6ithout first in2estigating the cause of the lea7. External lea7s of oil and fuel syste/s are nor/ally easy to locate. The rectification of an external lea7 is usually achie2ed 9y si/,ly re,lacing the co/,onent@ seal or ,i,e 6or7 at fault@ and co/,leting any tests re;uired 9y the 1MM. )f the lea7 is internal@ then a /uch /ore thorough ins,ection of the co/,onent /ust 9e /ade@ as the ,ro9le/ is /ore difficult to find. The sy/,to/s are usually signalled 9y a slo6er /o2e/ent of the ser2ices or 9y the erratic o,eration of ser2ices@ due to the return line 9eing ,ressurised. .o/e hydraulic oils@ es,ecially the ,hos,hate ester 9ased fluids@ are 2ery toxic and re;uire ,ersonnel ,rotection 6hen 6or7ing on and re,lenishing their syste/s. .o/e oils used are slightly toxic so care /ust 9e ta7en if there is a large lea7. &age 3
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engineering
&ota9le 6ater tan7s are often ,er/anently ,ressurised@ so that a lea7 that starts so/e6here 9et6een the tan7 and the ser2ices 6ill continue@ e2en if the aircraft is not flying. -nce the ,ressure is re/o2ed@ the lea7 can 9e in2estigated@ cured and the tan7 re%filled. The ,hysical signs of 6ater inside the aircraft or dri,,ing fro/ the hull should 9e the signs of a lea7 that re;uires in2estigation. The un,redicta9le ,assenger consu/,tion of 6ater /eans that the tan7 le2el is no indication of a lea7 in the syste/. 8indscreen de%icers are usually in the for/ of a ,ressurised container@ 6hich su,,lies fluid on de/and to the s,ray no44les. )f the fluid lea7s onto the flight dec7 it 6ill gi2e off a distincti2e odour in the enclosed s,ace. 1s the containers are re,laced 6hen lo6@ it is /ore li7ely that the ,i,e 6or7 6ill 9e the li7ely cause of the lea7. 1".1.# 'aseous .yste/s These include gases such as oxygen@ nitrogen and air. )f the gas is to 9e used fro/ a syste/ during flight@ a lea7 6ill 9e 2ery hard to confir/ unless a ,hysical chec7 is carried out using a lea7 detector such as .noo, or .herloc7. 1 lea7 fro/ an oxygen syste/ is extre/ely dangerous@ due to the chances of an ex,losion@ if it co/es into contact 6ith oil or grease. -nce the lea7 has 9een cured@ the syste/ can 9e re%charged and lea7 tested. !itrogen@ used in hydraulic accu/ulators@ can lea7 into the li;uid ,art of the hydraulic syste/. This 6ill /a7e the hydraulic syste/ feel s,ongy and reduce the res,onse of the o,erating actuators. )f the gas lea7s into the at/os,here@ the syste/ 6ill not function correctly and the efficiency of the syste/ /ay 9e reduced. The /ain cause of accu/ulators lea7ing externally is due to faulty seals or gauges. 1ccu/ulators assist the hydraulic syste/ as an e/ergency 9ac7u,@ 6hich only 6or7s correctly if it is charged to the correct ,ressure. &neu/atic syste/s contain high%,ressure air of a stated ,ressure@ and should ha2e the sa/e ,ressure at the end of the flight as at the start. )f the ,ressure is lo6 at the end of the flight@ then the co/,ressor could 9e sus,ected. )f the ,ressure falls 9et6een flights@ it is ,ro9a9ly due to a slo6 lea7 in the storage syste/@ and this can 9e in2estigated using lea7%detecting fluids.
&age #
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engineering
1".1.5 ?i/ensions
There are a nu/9er of ,laces 6here chec7ing the /easure/ent of a co/,onent can esta9lish its ser2icea9ility. 5anding gear oleo shoc7 struts can 9e chec7ed for correct inflation@ 9y /easuring their extension. )f the di/ension is less than ;uoted in the /anual@ then it /ay 9e lo6 on ,ressure and further chec7s 6ill 9e re;uired. These chec7s are usually only done during line /aintenance@ 6ith chec7ing of the ,ressure 9eing re;uired for trou9le shooting or hangar /aintenance. Co/9ined hydraulic and s,ring da/,ers@ fitted to so/e landing gears@ often ha2e one or /ore engra2ed lines on the sliding ,ortion of the unit. This can indicate 6hether the hydraulic ,re%charge is correct or re;uires re,lenish/ent. 1".1. Tyres Tyres ha2e their ser2icea9ility indicated 9y the de,th of the groo2e in the tyre tread. The 1MM gi2es infor/ation of 6hat constitutes a 6orn or da/aged tyre. 1,art fro/ nor/al 6ear@ other defects@ that can affect a tyre@ are cuts@ 9listers@ cree, and lo6 ,ressure. Most tyres can 9e re%treaded a nu/9er of ti/es after they ha2e reached their 6ear li/its@ 9ut the retread can only 9e co/,leted if the co/,lete tyre has not 9een da/aged 9adly. Cree, is the /o2e/ent of a co2er around the ri/@ in 2ery s/all /o2e/ents@ due to hea2y 9ra7ing action. This /o2e/ent is dangerous if the tyre is fitted 6ith a tu9e@ as the /o2e/ent can tear the charging 2al2e out of the tu9e@ causing a ra,id loss of ,ressure. To ,ro2ide an indicator@ s/all 6hite /ar7s are ,ainted across the 6heel ri/ and the tyre side 6all co2er so@ if cree, ta7es ,lace@ the /ar7s 6ill s,lit in half and indicate clearly that the tyre co2er has /o2ed in relation to the 6heel ri/. The installation of tu9eless co2ers has reduced the ,ro9le/ of cree,@ as the 2al2e is ,er/anently fitted to the 6heel. )t is still ,ossi9le for tyres to cree, a s/all a/ount@ 9ut the air re/ains in the tyre as the seal re/ains secure. Tyre%inflation de2ices usually consists of high%,ressure 9ottles fitted 6ith a ,ressure%reducing 2al2e or a si/,le air co/,ressor. The ,ressure a tyre should 9e inflated to de,ends on 2arious factors such as the 6eight of the aircraft.
&age 5
!"
engineering
The correct ,ressure for a s,ecific aircraft is gi2en in the rele2ant 1MM for the aircraft in ;uestion. )t is ,ossi9le for a tyre to lose a s/all a/ount of ,ressure o2ernight. 1 ,ressure dro, of less than 13J of the reco//ended ,ressure is not unusual@ 9ut the exact figures are gi2en in the 1MM. )f a tyre is co/,letely deflated 6ith the 6eight of the aircraft on it@ or is one of a ,air on a single landing gear leg@ 6hich has run 6ithout ,ressure@ all the tyres concerned /ust 9e re,laced due to the ,ossi9le@ unseen da/age 6ithin the co2er. 1gain the 1MM 6ill dictate the conditions. 1".1." 8heels ?efects to aircraft 6heels are usually due to i/,act da/age fro/ hea2y landings or fro/ ite/s on the run6ay hitting the 6heel ri/. -ther ,ro9le/s can arise fro/ corrosion starting as a result of the i/,act da/age and the shearing of 6heel 9olts@ 6hich hold the t6o hal2es of a s,lit 6heel together. 8heels are usually ins,ected thoroughly during tyre re,lace/ent and it is 2ery unusual for serious defects to 9e found during nor/al ins,ections of a 6heel. 1".1.* (ra7es (ra7e units are nor/ally attached onto the axle of an undercarriage leg@ and located inside the 6ell of the /ain 6heels. ?uring 9ra7ing o,eration they a9sor9 large a/ounts of energy as heat. This results in the 9ra7e rotors and stators 6earing a6ay and@ if they 9eco/e too hot@ the stator /aterial /ay 9rea7 u,. )ns,ection of 9ra7e units 9et6een flights is essential@ to chec7 for signs of excessi2e heating and to ensure that they ha2e not 6orn 9eyond their li/its. 8ear results in the total thic7ness of the 9ra7e ,ac7 9eing reduced@ 6hich /eans that 9y /easuring either the thic7ness of the ,ac7@ the a/ount of 6ear can 9e /onitored. -nce the a/ount of 6ear reaches a set figure@ the 9ra7e ,ac7 6ill 9e o2erhauled. )f the ,ads are 9rea7ing u, there 6ill 9e signs of de9ris@ excessi2e a/ounts of ,o6der and@ in extre/e cases@ scoring of the discs. This 6ill re;uire i//ediate re,lace/ent of the co/,lete 9ra7e unit. 1 reBected ta7e%off at /axi/u/ 6eight 6ill ,roduce the /axi/u/ ,ossi9le a/ount of heat and 6ear. )t is usual to re,lace all 9ra7e units and /ain 6heels after this has ha,,ened@ 9ut again the 1MM 6ill gi2e the re;uired infor/ation on 6hat /ust 9e changed and 6hen.
&age
!"
engineering
1".1.0 5anding 'ear 5oc7s
These ite/s are nor/ally fitted to the aircrafts undercarriage as a safety de2ice to ,re2ent the/ inad2ertently colla,sing. They are usually fitted 6hen the aircraft is to stay on the ground for so/e ti/e@ and re/o2ed 9efore the next flight. The /ost li7ely defects 6ill 9e da/age to the loc7ing ,in 9all 9earing de2ice or the loss of the high 2isi9ility 6arning flags. These flags 6ill@ ho,efully@ attract attention to the/sel2es to ensure that they are not left in ,osition 6hen the aircraft next goes flying. 1".1.13 )ndicators The /ost co//on ty,e of indicator is the 9lo6%out disc used in fire extinguishing and oxygen syste/s. This sho6s that a high%,ressure gas 9ottle has discharged its contents o2er9oard@ 9lo6ing the disc fro/ its flush housing in the aircrafts s7in. The reason for the ru,tured disc =refer Fig. 1> could 9e due to a fire extinguisher ha2ing 9een o,erated or the extinguishant ha2ing 9een discharged due to an excessi2e ,ressure 9eing reached.
'as (ottle and &ressure +elief <al2e
+etaining +ing
Frangi9le ?isc
'as (ottle (ursting ?isc Fig. 1

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engineering
1".1.11 External &ro9es
There are se2eral different ty,es of ,ro9e@ ,roBecting into the airflo6@ to send infor/ation to the flight dec7. These can include the ,itotAstatic ,ro9es and the angle%of attac7 =1-1> ,ro9es. To ,re2ent these fro/ free4ing they ha2e electrical heating ele/ents 9uilt into the/ and@ occasionally@ they can 9eco/e o2erheated. Usually this is 6hen they are left s6itched on on the ground 6ith a faulty 6eigh%on%6heels =8-8> s6itch. This s6itch is designed to reduce or re/o2e ,o6er to the ,ro9es 6hen on the ground@ and to increase or restore it in flight. -n s/aller aircraft there is no 8-8 s6itch and it is u, to the ,ilot to turn the/ off after landing. )f the ele/ents o2erheat they can 9urn out and the ,ro9es 6ill sho6 this 9y discoloration. &ro9es are designed to ,roBect out fro/ the aircraft s7in@ and this /a7es the/ 2ulnera9le to ,hysical da/age. &ro9es need to 9e regularly ins,ected for signs of ,hysical da/age or discoloration. 1".1.12 $andles and 5atches $andles and latches usually 6ear through constant use. The handles and latches of cargo 9ays and 9aggage holds@ 6hich are o,erated e2ery ti/e the aircraft lands@ are ,articularly ,rone to 6ear. Technicians ha2e to 9e a6are that all ,anel fasteners 6ill 6ear slo6ly and these ,anels /ust 9e secured in flight. Most fasteners ha2e a ,ositi2e for/ of closing or loc7ing@ 6hilst the /ore i/,ortant installations use an indication syste/ =such as ,ainted lines and flush fitting catches> to ensure correct closure. These /ust 9e regularly chec7ed and@ 6hen found 6orn@ they should 9e re,aired or re,laced. 5osing a ,anel in flight is dangerous enough@ 9ut /ay 9e /ore so if it is dra6n into one of the engines@ and causes its destruction. 1".1.13 &anels and ?oors These ite/s can 9e of any si4e and can 9e faulty for se2eral reasons. They can 9e da/aged 9y excessi2e use and their fra/es can 9eco/e da/aged 6here ite/s ha2e to 9e ,assed through the/ =such as 6ith 9aggage hold doors>. )f the latches are ,oorly designed or 9adly adBusted@ they /ay ha2e 9een o,erated 6ith incorrect tools during ser2ice and /ay ha2e 9een da/aged.
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engineering
1".1.1# E/ergency .yste/ )ndication .o/e syste/s use ,rotecti2e co2ers@ to ,re2ent inad2ertent o,eration of a s6itch. These co2ers are usually held closed 9y so/e for/ of frangi9le de2ice that 6ill indicate the syste/ has 9een o,erated 6hen it is 9ro7en. Thin co,,er 6ire is@ so/eti/es@ used to hold the ,rotecti2e co2er closed on fire extinguisher s6itches. 1 9ro7en 6ire 6ill indicate that the co2er has 9een lifted and the syste/ /ay ha2e 9een o,erated. 1ny indication li7e this /ust 9e thoroughly in2estigated. 1".1.15 5ifed )te/s There are a nu/9er of ite/s on the aircraft that ha2e a s,ecific length of ti/e in ser2ice =7no6n as a life>. They 6ould 9e /aBor airfra/e and engine co/,onents 6ith finite fatigue li2es. The co/,any technical de,art/ent /onitors these and they 6ill 9e re,laced during /aBor ser2icing. The co/,onents 6hich can 9eco/e unser2icea9le due to life ex,iry /ay include@ engine fire 9ottles@ ca9in fire extinguishers@ first aid 7its@ ,orta9le oxygen 9ottles and e/ergency oxygen generators. 1".1.1 5ight (ul9s These ha2e to 9e chec7ed regularly@ to ensure they re/ain ser2icea9le at all ti/es. Most 9ul9s 6ith i/,ortant functions li7e fire 6arning lights and undercarriage indication 6ill 9e du,licated. This can 9e achie2ed either 9y using t6o se,arate 9ul9s or 9y a single@ t6in%fila/ent ty,e. The 9ul9 co2ers can also 9e da/aged@ leading to 9ro7en glass or ,lastic on the flight dec7@ 6ith its su9se;uent foreign o9Bect da/age =F-?> ha4ard. 1".1.1" &er/itted ?efects 1ll aircraft ha2e a list of ,er/itted defects that do not ha2e to 9e i//ediately corrected. These defects can 9e left outstanding 9y the o,erator until a /ore con2enient ti/e can 9e found to rectify the/.
&age 0
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engineering
17#$ L-ca(i-n' -1 C-&&-'i-n in Ai&c&a1( Certain locations in aircraft are /ore ,rone to corrosion than others. The rate of deterioration 2aries 6idely 6ith aircraft design@ 9uild@ o,erational use and en2iron/ent. External surfaces are o,en to ins,ection and are usually ,rotected 9y ,aint. Magnesiu/ and alu/iniu/ alloy surfaces are ,articularly susce,ti9le to corrosion along ri2et lines@ la, Boints@ fasteners@ faying surfaces and 6here ,rotecti2e coatings ha2e 9een da/aged or neglected. 1".2.1 Exhaust 1reas Fairings@ located in the ,ath of the exhaust gases of gas tur9ine and ,iston engines@ are su9Bect to highly corrosi2e influences. This is ,articularly so 6here exhaust de,osits /ay 9e tra,,ed in fissures@ cre2ices@ sea/s or hinges. .uch de,osits are difficult to re/o2e 9y ordinary cleaning /ethods. ?uring /aintenance@ the fairings in critical areas should 9e re/o2ed for cleaning and exa/ination. 1ll fairings@ in other exhaust areas@ should also 9e thoroughly cleaned and ins,ected. )n so/e situations@ a che/ical 9arrier can 9e a,,lied to critical areas@ to facilitate easier re/o2al of de,osits at a later date@ and to reduce the corrosi2e effects of these de,osits. 1".2.2 Engine )nta7es and Cooling 1ir <ents The ,rotecti2e finish@ on engine frontal areas@ is a9raded 9y dust and eroded 9y rain. $eat%exchanger cores and cooling fins /ay also 9e 2ulnera9le to corrosion. .,ecial attention should 9e gi2en@ ,articularly in a corrosi2e en2iron/ent@ to o9structions and cre2ices in the ,ath of cooling air. These /ust 9e treated@ as soon as is ,ractical. 1".2.3 5anding 'ear 5anding gear 9ays are ex,osed to flying de9ris@ such as 6ater and gra2el@ and re;uire fre;uent cleaning and touching%u,. Careful ins,ection should 9e /ade of cre2ices@ ri9s and lo6er%s7in surfaces@ 6here de9ris can lodge. 5anding gear asse/9lies should 9e exa/ined@ ,aying ,articular attention to /agnesiu/ alloy 6heels@ ,aint%6or7@ 9earings@ ex,osed s6itches and electrical e;ui,/ent. Fre;uent cleaning@ 6ater%dis,ersing treat/ent and re%lu9rication 6ill 9e re;uired@ 6hilst ensuring that 9earings are not conta/inated@ either 6ith the cleaning 6ater or 6ith the 6ater%dis,ersing fluids@ used 6hen re%lu9ricating.
&age 13
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engineering
1".2.# (ilge and 8ater Entra,/ent 1reas 1lthough s,ecifications call for drains 6here2er 6ater is li7ely to collect@ these drains can 9eco/e 9loc7ed 9y de9ris@ such as sealant or grease. )ns,ection of these drains /ust 9e fre;uent. 1ny areas 9eneath galleys and toiletA6ash%roo/s /ust 9e 2ery carefully ins,ected for corrosion@ as these are usually the 6orst ,laces in the 6hole airfra/e for se2ere corrosion. The ,rotection in these areas /ust also 9e carefully ins,ected and rene6ed if necessary. 1".2.5 +ecesses in Fla,s and $inges &otential corrosion areas are found at fla, and s,eed 9ra7e recesses@ 6here 6ater and dirt /ay collect and go unnoticed@ 9ecause the /o2ea9le ,arts are nor/ally in the closed ,osition. )f these ite/s are left o,en@ 6hen the aircraft is ,ar7ed@ they /ay collect salt@ fro/ the at/os,here@ or de9ris@ 6hich /ay 9e 9lo6ing a9out on the airfield. Thorough ins,ection of the co/,onents and their associated sto6age 9ays@ is re;uired at regular inter2als. The hinges@ in these areas@ are also 2ulnera9le to dissi/ilar /etal corrosion@ 9et6een the steel ,ins and the alu/iniu/ tangs. .ei4ure can also occur@ at the hinges of access doors and ,anels that are seldo/ used. 1".2. Magnesiu/ 1lloy .7ins These@ gi2e little trou9le@ ,ro2iding the ,rotecti2e surface finishes are unda/aged and 6ell /aintained. Follo6ing /aintenance 6or7@ such as ri2eting and drilling@ it is i/,ossi9le to co/,letely ,rotect the s7in to the original s,ecification. 1ll /agnesiu/ alloy s7in areas /ust 9e thoroughly and regularly ins,ected@ 6ith s,ecial e/,hasis on edge locations@ fasteners and ,aint finishes. 1".2." 1lu/iniu/ 1lloy .7ins The /ost 2ulnera9le s7ins are those 6hich ha2e 9een integrally /achined@ usually in /ain%,lane structures. ?ue to the alloys and to the /anufacturing ,rocesses used@ they can 9e susce,ti9le to intergranular and exfoliation corrosion. ./all 9u/,s or raised areas under the ,aint so/eti/es indicate exfoliation of the actual /etal. Treat/ent re;uires re/o2al of all exfoliated /etal follo6ed 9y 9lending and restoration of the finish.
&age 11
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engineering
1".2.* .,ot%8elded .7ins and .and6ich Constructions Corrosi2e agents /ay 9eco/e tra,,ed 9et6een the /etal layers of s,ot%6elded s7ins and /oisture@ entering the sea/s@ /ay set u, electrolytic corrosion that e2entually corrodes the s,ot%6elds@ or causes the s7in to 9ulge. 'enerally@ s,ot% 6elding is not considered good ,ractice on aircraft structures. Ca2ities@ ga,s@ ,unctures or da/aged ,laces in honeyco/9 sand6ich ,anels should 9e sealed to exclude 6ater or dirt. 8ater should not 9e ,er/itted to accu/ulate in the structure adBacent to sand6ich ,anels. )ns,ection of honeyco/9 sand6ich ,anels and 9ox structures is difficult and generally re;uires that the structure 9e dis/antled. 1".2.0 Electrical E;ui,/ent .ealing@ 2enting and ,rotecti2e ,aint cannot 6holly o92iate the corrosion in 9attery co/,art/ents. .,ray@ fro/ electrolyte@ s,reads to adBacent ca2ities and causes ra,id attac7 on un,rotected surfaces. )ns,ection should also 9e extended to all 2ent syste/s associated 6ith 9attery 9ays. Circuit%9rea7ers@ contacts and s6itches are extre/ely sensiti2e to the effects of corrosion and need close ins,ection. 1".2.13 Control Ca9les 5oss of ,rotecti2e coatings@ on car9on steel control ca9les can@ o2er a ,eriod of ti/e@ lead to /echanical ,ro9le/s and syste/ failure. Corrosion%resistant ca9les@ can also 9e affected 9y corrosi2e@ /arine en2iron/ents. 1ny corrosion found on the outside of a control ca9le should result in a thorough ins,ection of the internal strands and@ if any da/age is found@ the ca9le should 9e reBected. Ca9les should 9e carefully ins,ected@ in the 2icinity of 9ell%cran7s@ shea2es and in other ,laces 6here the ca9les flex as there is /ore chance of corrosion getting inside the ca9les 6hen the strands are /o2ing around =or 9eing /o2ed 9y> these ite/s.
&age 12
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engineering
17#+ C-&&-'i-n Rem-@al9 A''e''men( an) Re.&-(ec(i-n ?ue to the high cost of /odern aircraft@ o,erators are ex,ecting the/ to last /uch longer than ,erha,s e2en the /anufacturer antici,ated. 1s a result@ the /anufacturers ha2e ta7en /ore care in the design of the aircraft@ to i/,ro2e the corrosion%resistance of aircraft. This i/,ro2e/ent includes the use of ne6 /aterials and i/,ro2ed surface treat/ents and ,rotecti2e finishes. The use of ,re2entati2e /aintenance has also 9een e/,hasised /ore than ,re2iously. &re2entati2e /aintenance@ relati2e to corrosion control@ should include theF 1de;uate and regular cleaning of the aircraft &eriodic lu9rication =often after the cleaning> of /o2ing ,arts +egular and detailed ins,ection for corrosion and failure of ,rotecti2e treat/ents &ro/,t treat/ent of corrosion and touch%u, of da/aged ,aint :ee,ing of drain holes clear ?raining of fuel cell su/,s ?aily 6i,ing do6n of /ost critical areas .ealing of aircraft during foul 6eather and 2entilation on sunny days Use of ,rotecti2e co2ers and 9lan7s.
'eneral treat/ents for corrosion re/o2al includeF Cleaning and stri,,ing of the ,rotecti2e coating in the corroded area +e/o2al of as /uch of the corrosion ,roducts as ,ossi9le !eutralisation of the re/aining residue Chec7ing if da/age is 6ithin li/its +estoration of ,rotecti2e surface fil/s 1,,lication of te/,orary or ,er/anent coatings or ,aint finishes. 1".3.1 Cleaning and &aint +e/o2al )t is essential that the co/,lete sus,ect area 9e cleaned of all grease@ dirt or ,reser2ati2es. This 6ill aid in deter/ining the extent of corrosi2e s,read. The selection of cleaning /aterials 6ill de,end on the ty,e of /atter to 9e re/o2ed. .ol2ents such as trichloroethane =trade na/e 'en7lene> /ay 9e used for oil@ grease or soft co/,ounds@ 6hile hea2y%duty re/o2al of thic7 or dried co/,ounds /ay need sol2entAe/ulsion%ty,e cleaners. 'eneral%,ur,ose@ 6ater%re/o2a9le stri,,er is reco//ended for /ost ,aint stri,,ing. 1de;uate 2entilation should 9e ,ro2ided and synthetic ru99er surfaces such as tyres@ fa9rics and acrylics should 9e ,rotected =re/o2er 6ill also soften sealants>.
&age 13
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engineering
+u99er glo2es@ acid%re,ellent a,rons and goggles@ should 9e 6orn 9y ,ersonnel in2ol2ed 6ith ,aint re/o2al o,erations. The follo6ing re,resents a ty,ical ,aint stri,,ing ,rocedureF (rush the area 6ith stri,,er@ to a de,th of a,,roxi/ately 3.* // D 1. // =3.33 in D 3.3 in>. Ensure that the 9rush is only used for ,aint stri,,ing 1llo6 the stri,,er to re/ain on the surface long enough for the ,aint to 6rin7le. This /ay ta7e fro/ 13 /inutes to se2eral hours +e%a,,ly the stri,,er to those areas 6hich ha2e not stri,,ed. !on%/etallic scra,ers /ay 9e used to assist the stri,,ing action +e/o2e the loosened ,aint and residual stri,,er 9y 6ashing and scru99ing the surface 6ith 6ater and a 9roo/ or 9rush. 8ater s,ray /ay assist@ or the use of stea/ cleaning e;ui,/ent /ay 9e necessary. !oteF .tri,,ers can da/age co/,osite resins and ,lastics@ so e2ery effort should 9e /ade to ^/as7^ these 2ulnera9le areas. 1".3.2 Ferrous Metals 1t/os,heric oxidation of iron or steel surfaces causes ferrous oxide =rust> to 9e de,osited. .o/e /etal oxides ,rotect the underlying 9ase /etal@ 9ut rust ,ro/otes additional attac7 9y attracting /oisture and /ust 9e re/o2ed. +ust sho6s on 9olt heads@ nuts or any un,rotected hard6are. )ts ,resence is not i//ediately dangerous@ 9ut it 6ill indicate a need for /aintenance and 6ill suggest ,ossi9le further corrosi2e attac7 on /ore critical areas. The /ost ,ractical /eans of controlling the corrosion of steel is the co/,lete re/o2al of corrosion ,roducts 9y /echanical /eans. 19rasi2e ,a,ers@ ,o6er 9uffers@ steel 6ool and 6ire 9rushes are all acce,ta9le /ethods of re/o2ing rust on lightly stressed areas. +esidual rust usually re/ains in ,its and cre2ices. .o/e =dilute> ,hos,horic acid solutions /ay 9e used to neutralise oxidation and to con2ert acti2e rust to ,hos,hates@ 9ut they are not ,articularly effecti2e on installed co/,onents. Corrosion on high%stressed steel co/,onents /ay 9e dangerous and should 9e re/o2ed carefully 6ith /ild a9rasi2e ,a,ers or fine 9uffing co/,ounds. Care should 9e ta7en not to o2erheat ,arts during corrosion re/o2al. &rotecti2e finishes should 9e re%a,,lied i//ediately. 1".3.3 1lu/iniu/ and 1lu/iniu/ 1lloys Corrosion attac7@ on alu/iniu/ surfaces@ gi2es o92ious indications@ since the ,roducts are 6hite and 2olu/inous. E2en in its early stages@ alu/iniu/ corrosion is e2ident as general etching@ ,itting or roughness.
&age 1#
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engineering
1lu/iniu/ alloys for/ a s/ooth surface oxidation@ 6hich ,ro2ides a hard shell@ that@ in turn@ /ay for/ a 9arrier to corrosi2e ele/ents. This /ust not 9e confused 6ith the /ore serious for/s of corrosion. 'eneral surface attac7 ,enetrates slo6ly@ 9ut is s,eeded u, in the ,resence of dissol2ed salts. Considera9le attac7 can ta7e ,lace 9efore serious loss of strength occurs. Three for/s of attac7@ 6hich are ,articularly serious@ areF &enetrating ,it%ty,e corrosion through the 6alls of tu9ing .tress corrosion crac7ing under sustained stress )ntergranular attac7 @characteristic of certain i/,ro,erly heat treated alloys. Treat/ent in2ol2es /echanical or che/ical re/o2al of as /uch of the corrosion ,roducts as ,ossi9le and the inhi9ition of residual /aterials 9y che/ical /eans. This@ again@ should 9e follo6ed 9y restoration of ,er/anent surface coatings. 1".3.# 1lclad 81+!)!'F U.E -!5E 1&&+-<E? &1)!T .T+)&&E+. )! T$E <)C)!)TE -F +E?UG (-!?E? C-)!T.. CE+T1)! &1)!T .T+)&&E+. 8)55 1TT1C: 1!? ?E'+1?E +E.)!.. U.E 1?EKU1TE &E+.-!15 &+-TECT)<E EKU)&ME!T 8$E! 8-+:)!' 8)T$ C$EM)C15.. U.E -!5E T$E 1&&+-<E? F5U)?. F-+ +EM-<)!' C-++-.)-! &+-?UCT.. )!C-++ECT C-M&-U!?. 8)55 C1U.E .E+)-U. ?1M1'E T- MET15.. -92iously great care /ust 9e ta7en@ not to re/o2e too /uch of the ,rotecti2e alu/iniu/ layer 9y /echanical /ethods@ as the core alloy /etal /ay 9e ex,osed@ therefore@ 6here hea2y corrosion is found@ on clad alu/iniu/ alloys@ it /ust 9e re/o2ed 9y che/ical /ethods 6here2er ,ossi9le. Corrosion%free areas /ust 9e /as7ed off and the a,,ro,riate re/o2er =usually a ,hos,horic acid%9ased fluid> a,,lied@ nor/ally 6ith the use of a stiff =nylon> 9ristled 9rush@ to the corroded surface@ until all corrosion ,roducts ha2e 9een re/o2ed. Co,ious a/ounts of clean 6ater should@ next@ 9e used to flood the area and re/o2e all traces of the acid@ then the surface should 9e dried thoroughly. !oteF 1 /ethod of chec7ing that the ,rotecti2e alu/iniu/ coating re/ains intact is 9y the a,,lication of one dro, of diluted caustic soda to the cleaned area. )f the alclad has 9een re/o2ed@ the alu/iniu/ alloy core 6ill sho6 as a 9lac7 stain@ 6hereas@ if the cladding is intact@ the caustic soda 6ill cause a 6hite stain. The acid /ust 9e neutralised and the area thoroughly 6ashed and dried 9efore a ,rotecti2e coating =usually 1locro/ 1233 or si/ilar> is a,,lied to the surface. Further surface ,rotection /ay 9e gi2en 9y a coat of suita9le ,ri/er@ follo6ed 9y the a,,ro2ed to, coat of ,aint.
&age 15
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engineering
1".3.5 Magnesiu/ 1lloys
The corrosion ,roducts are re/o2ed fro/ /agnesiu/ alloys 9y the use of chro/icAsul,huric acid solutions =not the ,hos,horic acid ty,es>@ 9rushed 6ell into the affected areas. Clean@ cold 6ater is e/,loyed to flush the solution a6ay and the dried area can@ again@ 9e ,rotected@ 9y the use of 1locro/ 1233 or a si/ilar@ a,,ro2ed@ co/,ound. 1".3. 1cid .,illage 1n acid s,illage@ on aircraft co/,onents@ can cause se2ere da/age. 1cids 6ill corrode /ost /etals used in the construction of aircraft. They 6ill also destroy 6ood and /ost other fa9rics. Correct $ealth and .afety ,rocedures /ust 9e follo6ed 6hen 6or7ing 6ith such s,illages. 1ircraft 9atteries@ of the leadAacid ty,e@ gi2e off acidic fu/es and 9attery 9ays should 9e 6ell 2entilated@ 6hile surfaces in the area should 9e treated 6ith anti% acid ,aint. <igilance is re;uired of e2eryone 6or7ing in the 2icinity of 9atteries@ to detect =as early as ,ossi9le> the signs of acid s,illage. The correct ,rocedure to 9e ta7en@ in the e2ent of an acid s,illage@ is as follo6sF Mo, u, as /uch of the s,illed acid@ using 6et rags or ,a,er 6i,es. Try not to s,read the acid )f ,ossi9le@ flood the area 6ith large ;uantities of clean 6ater@ ta7ing care that electrical e;ui,/ent is suita9ly ,rotected fro/ the 6ater )f flooding is not ,ractical@ neutralise the area 6ith a 13J =9y 6eight> solution of 9icar9onate of soda =sodiu/ 9icar9onate> 6ith 6ater 8ash the area using this /ixture and rinse 6ith cold 6ater Test the area@ using uni2ersal indicating ,a,er =or lit/us ,a,er>@ to chec7 if acid has 9een cleaned u, ?ry the area co/,letely and exa/ine the area for signs of da/aged ,aint or ,lated finish and signs of corrosion@ es,ecially 6here the ,aint /ay ha2e 9een da/aged. +e/o2e corrosion@ re,air the da/age and restore the surface ,rotection as a,,ro,riate. 1".3." 1l7ali .,illage This is /ost li7ely to occur fro/ the alternati2e !ic7el%Cad/iu/ =!i%Cd> or !ic7el% )ron =!i%Fe> ty,e of 9atteries@ containing an electrolyte of &otassiu/ $ydroxide =or &otassiu/ $ydrate>. The co/,art/ents of these 9atteries should also 9e ,ainted 6ith anti%corrosi2e ,aint and ade;uate 2entilation is as i/,ortant as 6ith the leadAacid ty,e of 9atteries. &ro,er $ealth and .afety ,rocedures are@ again@ i/,erati2e.
&age 1
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engineering
1".3.* Mercury .,illage
+e/o2al of the al7ali s,illage@ and su9se;uent ,rotecti2e treat/ent@ follo6s the sa/e 9asic ste,s as outlined in acid s,illage@ 6ith the exce,tion that the al7ali is neutralised 6ith a solution of 5J =9y 6eight> of chro/ic acid crystals in 6ater.
81+!)!'F ME+CU+E =1!? )T. <1&-U+> ). EGT+EME5E T-G)C. )!.T1!CE. -F ME+CU+E &-).-!)!' MU.T@ (E 518@ (E +E&-+TE? TT$E $E15T$ 1!? .1FETE EGECUT)<E. 155 .1FETE &+EC1UT)-!. +E51T)!' T- T$E .1FE $1!?5)!' -F ME+CU+E MU.T (E .T+)CT5E F-55-8E?. Mercury conta/ination is far /ore serious than any of the 9attery s,illages and ,ro/,t action is re;uired to ensure the integrity of the aircraft structure. 8hile conta/ination fro/ /ercury is extre/ely rare on ,assenger aircraft@ sources of /ercury s,illage result fro/ the 9rea7age of =or lea7age fro/> containers@ instru/ents@ s6itches and certain test e;ui,/ent. The s,illed /ercury can@ ;uic7ly@ se,arate into s/all glo9ules@ 6hich ha2e the ca,a9ility of flo6ing =hence its na/e Kuic7 .il2er> into the tiniest of cre2ices@ to create da/age. Mercury can ra,idly attac7 9are light alloys =it for/s an a/alga/ 6ith /etals>@ causing intergranular ,enetration and e/9rittle/ent 6hich can start crac7s and accelerate ,o6der ,ro,agation@ resulting in a ,otentially catastro,hic 6ea7ening of the aircraft structure. .igns of /ercury attac7 on alu/iniu/ alloys are greyish ,o6der@ 6his7ery gro6ths@ or fu44y de,osits. )f /ercury corrosion is found@ or sus,ected@ then it /ust 9e assu/ed that intergranular ,enetration has occurred and the structural strength is i/,aired. The /etal in that area should 9e re/o2ed and the area re,aired in accordance 6ith /anufacturers instructions. Ensure that toxic 2a,our ,recautions are o9ser2ed at all ti/es during the follo6ing o,erationsF ?o not /o2e aircraft after finding s,illage. This /ay ,re2ent s,reading. +e/o2e s,illage carefully 9y one of the follo6ing /echanical /ethodsF Ca,illary 9rush /ethod =using nic7el%,lated car9on fi9re 9rushes>. $ea2y%duty 2acuu/ cleaner 6ith collector tra,. 1dhesi2e ta,e@ ,ressed =carefully> onto glo9ules /ay ,ic7 the/ u, Foa/ collector ,ads =also ,ressed@ carefully@ onto glo9ules>. 1lternati2e@ che/ical /ethods@ of /ercury reco2ery entail the use ofF Calciu/ ,olysul,hide ,aste (rushes@ /ade fro/ 9are strands of fine co,,er 6ire !eutralise the s,illage area@ using Flo6ers of .ul,hur Try to re/o2e e2idence of corrosion &age 1"
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engineering
The area should 9e further chec7ed@ using radiogra,hy@ to esta9lish that all glo9ules ha2e 9een re/o2ed and to chec7 extent of corrosion da/age Exa/ine area for corrosion using a /agnifier. 1ny ,arts found conta/inated should 9e re/o2ed and re,laced. !ote 1F T6ist drills =6hich /ay 9e used to se,arate ri2eted ,anels@ in an atte/,t to clean conta/inated surfaces> /ust 9e discarded after use. !ote 2F Further@ ,eriodic chec7s@ using radiogra,hy@ 6ill 9e necessary on any airfra/e that has suffered /ercury conta/ination. 17#3 Pe&manen( An(i4C-&&-'i-n T&ea(men(' These are intended to re/ain intact throughout the life of the co/,onent@ as distinct fro/ coatings@ 6hich /ay 9e rene6ed as a routine ser2icing o,eration. They gi2e 9etter adhesion for ,aint and /ost resist corrosi2e attac7 9etter than the /etal to 6hich they are a,,lied. 1".#.1 Electro%&lating There are t6o categories of electro%,lating@ 6hich consist ofF Coatings less no9le than the 9asic /etal. $ere the coating is anodic and so@ if 9ase /etal is ex,osed@ the coating 6ill corrode in ,reference to the 9ase /etal. Co//only called sacrificial ,rotection@ an exa/,le is found in the cad/iu/ =or 4inc> ,lating of steel. Coatings /ore no9le =e.g. nic7el or chro/iu/ on steel> than the 9ase /etal. The no9ler /etals do not corrode easily in air or 6ater and are resistant to acid attac7. )f@ ho6e2er@ the 9asic /etal is ex,osed@ it 6ill corrode locally through electrolytic action. The attac7 /ay result in ,itting corrosion of the 9ase /etal or the corrosion /ay s,read 9eneath the coating. 1".#.2 .,rayed Metal Coatings Most /etal coatings can 9e a,,lied 9y s,raying@ 9ut only alu/iniu/ and 4inc are used on aircraft. 1lu/iniu/@ s,rayed on steel@ is fre;uently used for high% te/,erature areas. The ,rocess =alu/inising>@ ,roduces a fil/ a9out 3.1 // =3.33# in> thic7@ 6hich ,re2ents oxidation of the underlying /etal. 1".#.3 Cladding The hot rolling of ,ure alu/iniu/ onto alu/iniu/ alloy =1lclad> has already 9een discussed@ as has the ,ro9le/ associated 6ith the cladding 9eco/ing da/aged@ ex,osing the core@ and the resulting corrosion of the core alloy.
&age 1*
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engineering
1".#.# .urface Con2ersion Coatings These are ,roduced 9y che/ical action. The treat/ent changes the i//ediate surface layer into a fil/ of /etal oxide@ 6hich has 9etter corrosion resistance than the /etal. 1/ong those 6idely used on aircraft areF 1nodising of alu/iniu/ alloys@ 9y an electrolytic ,rocess@ 6hich thic7ens the natural@ oxide fil/ on the alu/iniu/. The fil/ is hard and inert Chro/ating of /agnesiu/ alloys@ to ,roduce a 9ro6n to 9lac7 surface fil/ of chro/ates@ 6hich for/ a ,rotecti2e layer &assi2ation of 4inc and cad/iu/ 9y i//ersion in a chro/ate solution. -ther surface con2ersion coatings are ,roduced for s,ecial ,ur,oses@ nota9ly the ,hos,hating of steel. There are nu/erous ,ro,rietary ,rocesses@ each 7no6n 9y its trade na/e =e.g. (onderising@ &ar7erising@ or 8alterising>.
&age 10
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engineering
17#* N-n4De'(&!c(i@e Te'(in0BIn'.ec(i-n (NDTBNDI Techni7!e' 1/ong the /any ins,ection tas7s@ done 9y aircraft ser2ing technicians@ are those in2ol2ing .cheduled Maintenance )ns,ections =.M)s>. .M)^s are s,ecial ins,ections@ detailed 9y the /anufacturer@ to 9e done at a s,ecified ti/e ,eriod. 8hen doing these ins,ections the ulti/ate ai/ is to ensure that the aircraft =or ,art> 9eing ins,ected@ re/ains in a safe condition or that it co/,lies 6ith the original design s,ecification. The co//on factor@ in all the ins,ectionAtest ,rocedures is that they entail techni;ues that do not affect the continued ser2icea9ility of the co/,onents under ins,ection. They are@ in fact@ non%destructi2e testingAins,ection techni;ues. !on%destructi2e testing =!?T> or@ in 1/erica@ !on%destructi2e ins,ection =!?)> techni;ues@ in2ol2e the use of such /ethods asF <isual and 1ssisted <isual )ns,ections +e/ote <ie6ing )nstru/ents &enetrant Fla6 ?etection =&F?> Magnetic &article Fla6 ?etection =M&F?> Eddy Current Fla6 ?etection =ECF?> Ultrasonic Fla6 ?etection =UF?> +adiogra,hic Fla6 ?etection =+F?>.
)t is incu/9ent on all aircraft ser2icing technicians@ regardless of trade or le2el of certification@ to 9e constantly 2igilant and to use their eyes to detect the slightest i/,erfection in and around the areas of aircraft or co/,onent ,arts on 6hich they are 6or7ing. 8hen a,,roaching an aircraft@ a ,erfunctory glance /ay re2eal the fact that one 6ing is lo6er than the other@ 6hich could indicate a difference in the fluid le2els of the res,ecti2e landing gear struts@ different tyre ,ressures or@ ,erha,s@ a deflated tyre. Missing or 9adly secured ,anels ha2e often 9een disco2ered 9y such alert o9ser2ations@ as ha2e ,otentially catastro,hic structural failures@ and the student is urged to ado,t this 2igilant attitude as ;uic7ly as ,ossi9le to ensure the safety of all aircraft and the ,eo,le that fly in the/. 8hile all aircraft ser2icing technicians can@ therefore@ do 2isual and assisted 2isual ins,ections@ only those 6ho ha2e recei2ed a,,ro,riate training 6ill 9e authorised to do certain &F? techni;ues. The /ore so,histicated M&F?@ ECF?@ UF?@ and +F? techni;ues 6ill 9e done 9y s,ecially trained and a,,ro2ed !?T =!?)> technicians.
&age 23
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engineering
1".5.1 <isualA1ssisted <isual )ns,ections The a,,ro,riate 2isual or assisted 2isual ins,ection techni;ues 6ill 9e detailed in the rele2ant ser2icing /anuals 9ut@ generally@ they 6ill de,end on such factors asF The nature of the ite/ 9eing ins,ected =i.e. the /aterial fro/ 6hich it is /ade>F )t /ay 9e /etallic@ ,lastic@ ru99er or any other ty,e of /aterial The ,ur,ose of the ins,ectionF )t /ay 9e to esta9lish 6hether the ite/ is suffering fro/ a 7no6n fault or to confir/ the integrity of a ,re2ious re,air The location of the ite/ to 9e ins,ectedF )t /ay 9e installed in an aircraft or re/o2ed fro/ an aircraft. )n /ost cases the /aintenance schedule 6ill s,ecify that an ite/ is al6ays ins,ected 6ithout re/o2al fro/ the aircraft. The ter/ in%situ has ,re2iously 9een used to descri9e this instance The ins,ection surfaceF 8hether it is an internal or an external surface. The nor/al con2ention is that ins,ections are external unless other6ise stated The ti/e a2aila9le for the ins,ectionF This is often dictated 9y circu/stances@ in that@ if a tyre needs to 9e ins,ected for 6ear@ it should 9e a9le to 9e chec7ed in a fe6 /inutes. 1 /aBor aircraft ins,ection@ on a large aircraft@ is ho6e2er@ nor/ally ,lanned to ta7e /any days The degree or de,th of the ins,ectionF ?e,ending on the criticality of the co/,onent@ or its adBacent structure@ to the safety of the aircraft.
)t should 9e stressed here that@ 6hene2er a 2isual ins,ection is 9eing done@ there /ust 9e ade;uate illu/ination of the ins,ection site@ to ensure that s/all defects are a9le to 9e detected. .o/e 2isual ins,ections /ay dictate that a s,ecific a/ount of illu/ination =in a stated nu/9er of lux> 9e a2aila9le during the ins,ection. To assist in 2isual ins,ections@ use is fre;uently /ade of such aids asF )ns,ection Mirrors Magnifying 'lasses.
)ns,ection /irrors ena9le the technician to see the re/ote surface of co/,onents and into ,laces that nor/al 2ision is restricted. .elections of ins,ection /irrors are a2aila9le@ /ounted on the end of a handle or rod. .uch /irrors should 9e /ounted 9y /eans of a uni2ersal Boint so that they can 9e ,ositioned at 2arious angles. 1 de2elo,/ent of this de2ice has the a9ility to change the angle of the /irror 9y re/ote control. 1 rac7 and ,inion /echanis/ ,asses through the ste/ and is controlled 9y a 7no9 on the handle.
&age 21
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engineering
This ,er/its a range of angles to 9e o9tained@ after insertion of the instru/ent into the structure. .o/e instru/ents co/e e;ui,,ed 6ith integral non%da44le illu/ination. Magnifying glasses are /ost useful instru/ents@ to assist 6ith the close ins,ection of an airfra/e. They are ca,a9le of clarifying details@ 6hen nor/al 2isual ins,ection only ,roduces a sus,icion of a crac7 or corrosion. Magnifying glasses 2ary in design fro/ the ,oc7et ty,e@ 6ith a /agnification factor of ti/es t6o =x2>@ to the stereosco,ic ty,e 6ith a /agnification of u, to x32. The /agnification factor relates to the si4e of an o9Bect@ seen through the /agnifying lens@ co/,ared 6ith the si4e of the o9Bect@ 2ie6ed 6ith the na7ed eye@ at a distance of 253 // =13 in>. For day%to%day ins,ection of structures@ a hand instru/ent 6ith a x* /agnification and integral illu/ination could 9e used. Magnification a9o2e this 2alue should not 9e used unless s,ecified@ 9ecause the li/ited area of o9ser2ation does not re2eal the surrounding area. 1 higher /agnification lens can 9e used@ once the lo6er ,o6ered lens has identified a ,ro9le/. !oteF Magnifying glasses and si/ilar ins,ection instru/ents 6ill ,ro2ide the 9est results only 6hen the area under ins,ection is 6ell illu/inated. 1".5.2 +e/ote <ie6ing )nstru/ents These instru/ents ha2e a 2ariety of different na/es@ although they all@ 9asically@ o,erate on si/ilar ,rinci,les. 8hether they are called 9oresco,es or fi9resco,es@ =or@ collecti2ely@ introsco,es>@ they are o,tical instru/ents used for the ins,ection of the re/ote areas of structures@ co/,onents or engines@ 6hich 6ould 9e@ other6ise@ not directly 2ie6a9le. !oteF 1 detailed 7no6ledge of the internal structure of the co/,onent under ins,ection is essential@ and ,ro,er training in their use should 9e o9tained@ 9efore ins,ections in2ol2ing re/ote 2ie6ing instru/ents are atte/,ted. (oresco,es consist of ostensi9ly rigid tu9es of nic7el%,lated 9rass or of stainless steel. The outer dia/eters of the tu9es /ay range fro/ a,,roxi/ately 5.5 // =3.22 in> to 11 // =3.#3 in> 6ith lengths fro/ 233 // =0 in> to 1 "53 // = 0 in>. 8hile they do ,ossess a degree of rigidity@ they can 9e 2ery easily 9ent if too /uch side6ays force is a,,lied to the/@ so great care /ust 9e ta7en in their use. )nside the thin /etal tu9e is a co/,lex series of ,recision o,tical lenses and /irrors@ surrounded 9y a 9undle of 2ery fine glass fi9re fila/ents@ 6hich guide light to the 2ie6ing end of the tu9e.
&age 22
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engineering
The light is ,ro2ided 9y a 9ox@ containing an electrical transfor/er@ a high% intensity@ light 9ul9 of ;uart4%iodine@ Genon or so/ething si/ilar =6hich is /ounted in front of a reflector>@ and a cooling fan. The light source 9ox is usually connected to a /ains outlet and the ,o6erful light is trans/itted to the 9oresco,e 9y /eans of a connecting flexi9le ca9le 6hich also contains a guide 9undle of glass fi9res. )n this 6ay cold yet 9rilliant light is ,ro2ided at the 2ie6ing area@ to gi2e the necessary high ;uality illu/ination 6ithout the ha4ards associated 6ith heat and any fla//a9le fluids 6hich /ay 9e ,resent in the 2ie6ing area. +igid 9oresco,es are ,ro2ided 6ith se2eral 2ersions of 2ie6ing ends@ 6hich allo6 either a for6ard 2ie6@ a lateral 2ie6 =nor/al to the longitudinal axis of the tu9e>@ a for6ard o9li;ue or a retrograde =re2erse> 2ie6 of the ins,ection area. 8ith the exce,tion of those 6ith a for6ard 2ie6 end@ all the other 9oresco,es /ay also ha2e the ca,a9ility of rotating the tu9e around the longitudinal axis@ so that a full 3 3] internal 2ie6 of the area is ,ossi9le. They also ha2e adBusta9le focus of the eye,iece@ to /ini/ise eye strain on the 2ie6er and to acco//odate the 2arious le2els of acuity of the ins,ectors eyesight. Fi9resco,es are flexi9le and@ ,ro9a9ly 9ecause of this@ they are extre/ely ,rone to a9use and da/age. 1s the na/e i/,lies@ they rely on fi9re o,tic ca9les rather than a rigid tu9e and lensesA/irrors to ,ro2ide the i/age of the ins,ection area. The i/age is 2ie6ed through a 9undle of fi9re o,tic strands@ 6hile the o9Bect is illu/inated 9y light trans/itted through another surrounding 9undle of fi9re o,tic strands. ?ia/eters and lengths of fi9resco,es are si/ilar to those of rigid 9oresco,es and they are also ,ro2ided 6ith the 2arious 2ie6ing ends and focussing arrange/ents. .o/e fi9resco,es ha2e a controlla9le distal 2ie6ing end@ to allo6 articulation through al/ost 3 3] on 9oth an G and E lateral axis. These =refer to Fig. 2> are /ost often used =in addition to 9oresco,es> to ins,ect the inside of gas tur9ine engines@ 9ut can also 9e used for /any other ins,ections such asL loose article chec7s@ fuel lea7s etc. The i/ages@ ,resented 9y 9oresco,es and fi9resco,es@ /ay 9e 2ie6ed directly through an eye,iece@ as stated@ or they /ay 9e dis,layed on a T< screen 2ia a 2ideo ca/era@ 6hich can 9e attached to the eye,iece. The results of the ins,ection can also 9e recorded@ 9y /eans of a 2ideo ta,e@ and retained@ for future co/,arisons of ,ossi9le deterioration of the ins,ection area.
&age 23
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engineering
Eye &iece -,erating :no9 to Control 1rticulating ?istal End
Focus
Control
Fi9re -,tic Ca9le fro/ 5ight (ox )gniter &lug $ole
(y%&ass ?uct
?istal End
(urner Co/9ustion Cha/9er
Tur9ine (lades and !o44le 'uide <anes
Use of a Fi9resco,e inside a 'as Tur9ine Engine Fig. 2 (oresco,es and Fi9resco,es /ay 9e used for the ins,ection of gas tur9ine engineF Co/,ressorsF for da/age to Fans@ F-?@ )nterference 9et6een +otors and .tators@ .urge da/age@ and (earing -il 5ea7age Co/9ustion .ectionsF for signs of (urning@ Crac7ing@ ?istortion@ and Car9on (uild%u, Tur9ine .ectionsF for signs of (urning@ Crac7s@ ?ents@ ?e,osits of Melted Metals and !ic7s. !oteF 8hen using re/ote 2ie6ing instru/ents for engine ins,ections it /ust 9e ensured thatF The engine /ust 9e allo6ed to cool do6n 9efore inserting the sco,es 8ind/illing =or inad2ertent .tarting> of the engine /ust 9e ,re2ented 9y gagging or re/o2ing the a,,ro,riate fusesAcircuit 9rea7ers and ,lacing 6arning ,lacards on the flight dec7 Conta/ination of the instru/ents@ 9y Fuel@ 'rease and -il@ /ust 9e a2oided (oresco,es do not get 9ent and Fi9resco,es do not get 7in7ed nor crushed.
&age 2#
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engineering

+e/ote 2ie6ing instru/ents /ay also 9e used to ins,ect /any other areas of an aircraft. Ty,ical areas 6ould includeF Electrical Co/,onents Electrical 5oo/s Enclosed .tructural &arts Fuel .yste/ Co/,onents $ydraulic .yste/ Co/,onents.
8here2er they are used@ there are certain difficulties in2ol2ed 6ith the inter,retation of 6hat is seen through the instru/ents. 8hen using re/ote 2ie6ing instru/ents@ it is reco//ended that the ins,ecting technician shouldF (e fully trained in the use =and care> of the instru/ents 9eing used (e fa/iliar 6ith the layout of the structure or co/,onent under ins,ection )f ,ossi9le@ ha2e a s,are or an exa/,le of the ,art near at hand 6ith 6hich to co/,are the i/ages fro/ the ins,ection area Use the ex,erience of other ins,ectors 6here dou9t exists =or consult ,re2ious 2ideo recordings etc.> +efer to the a,,ro,riate ser2icing /anual for guidance 6hene2er necessary.
1".5.3 &enetrant Fla6 ?etection =&F?> (efore discussing the a,,lication of &F? techni;ues it is necessary to highlight the health ha4ards associated 6ith 6or7ing 6ith &F? /aterials and to consider the reco//ended First 1id treat/ents and the .afety &recautions@ 6hich need to 9e o9ser2ed@ during their use. The ha4ards includeF Contact 6ith the eyesF to ,re2ent the ,ossi9ility@ che/ical ,roof goggles should 9e 6orn. )f@ des,ite this@ eye conta/ination occurs@ then the eyes /ust initially 9e irrigated 6ith co,ious a/ounts of 6ater and ,ro,er /edical assistance sought Contact 6ith the s7inF due to the de%fatting action of the che/icals@ 9arrier crea/ should 9e a,,lied to the hands 9efore 6or7 co//ences and@ 6here ,rolonged contact is ,ro9a9le@ ,rotecti2e &<C%ty,e glo2es should 9e 6orn. Conta/inated s7in should 9e thoroughly 6ashed 6ith 6ar/ soa, and 6ater and@ after drying@ a lanolin%9ased crea/ a,,lied. )f irritation ,ersists then /edical attention is needed )ngestionF food /ust not 9e consu/ed 6hile doing &F? ,rocedures and hands should 9e carefully 6ashed 9efore eating. )f che/icals are ingested then /edical hel, /ust 9e sought. <-M)T)!' .$-U5? !-T (E )!?UCE? )nhalationF face /as7s should 9e 6orn 6here concentrations of fu/es or ,articles are high and there /ust al6ays 9e ade;uate 2entilation. <icti/s 6ho 9eco/e nauseous@ di44y or dro6sy should 9e /o2ed to fresh air and /edical ad2ice sought. +esuscitation /ethods should 9e used 6here as,hyxiation occurs and 9reathing has sto,,ed and the E/ergency .er2ices su//oned. &age 25
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engineering

FireF all the necessary fire ,recautions /ust 9e o9ser2ed =C-2 @ Foa/ and ?ry &o6der extinguishers are the reco//ended ty,es> and@ in the e2ent of a fire@ any 2entilation should 9e s6itched off first .torageF &F? che/icals should 9e stored in a dry area@ a6ay fro/ heat and direct sunlight .,illageF any s,illages should 9e soa7ed u, 6ith a9sor9ent /aterials Trans,ortF a,,ro,riate ,recautions@ de,ending on the flash ,oint of the ,articular che/icals should 9e o9ser2ed ?is,osalF /aterials should 9e treated as oily 6aste and@ 6here large ;uantities are in2ol2ed@ /ust not 9e discharged into ,u9lic se6ers or 6ater6ays.
&enetrant fla6 detection /ay 9e used to detect surface%9rea7ing discontinuities in any non%,orous /aterials@ including cera/ics /etals@ and ,lastics. )t /ay also 9e used to detect ,orosity in those /aterials that should not 9e ,orous@ lea7s in tan7s and crac7ing of internal 9ores. The 9asic ,rinci,le of ,enetrant fla6 detection is that a li;uid =usually oil%9ased> is a,,lied@ to the ,re%cleaned surface of the /aterial under ins,ection@ and is then allo6ed to d6ell on the surface for a s,ecified ti/e =the d6ell or contact ti/e>. ?uring the d6ell ti/e@ and due to its characteristics@ so/e of the li;uid ,enetrates into any fine surface discontinuities 9y ca,illarity =or ca,illary action>. Ca,illarity is associated 6ith the surface tension of a li;uid@ 6hich causes it to rise =or fall> in fine ca,illaries or tu9es. )t is the action@ 6hich causes /oisture@ in the ground@ to 9e trans/itted to the to,/ost lea2es of a tree. The height =or de,th> to 6hich a li;uid can tra2el in a ca,illary tu9e is gi2en 9y the for/ulaF h V 2T Cos c gr 8here T V The surface tension of the li;uid c V The angle of contact =6etting angle> of the li;uid 6ith the ca,illary V The density of the li;uid g V The acceleration due to gra2ity r V The radius of the ca,illary. Fro/ the for/ula it can 9e seen that a li;uid 6ith a lo6 6etting angle and a co/,arati2ely high surface tension =9ut lo6er than that of 6ater> 6ill constitute a good ,enetrant. 1fter the allotted d6ell ti/e the excess ,enetrant is carefully re/o2ed fro/ the surface so that the surface is@ again@ clean. 1 6hite@ fine ,o6der is next a,,lied to the surface and this is also allo6ed to re/ain on the surface for a gi2en ti/e.
&age 2
!"
engineering
?uring this ti/e any ,enetrant@ 6hich has entered a surface discontinuity@ 6ill =through ca,illarity> see, out into the fine ,articles of the ,o6der@ in a si/ilar fashion to the action of 9lotting ,a,er@ and cause a stain in the ,o6der. This stain 6ill de2elo, as /ore ,enetrant is dra6n out during the allotted de2elo,er ti/e and 6ill ,ro2ide an indication of the site of the surface discontinuity. )ndications 6ithin the first thirty seconds can 9e co/,ared to the fully de2elo,ed indications@ o9ser2ed at the end of the de2elo,er ti/e@ and an assess/ent /ade of the li7ely si4e of the discontinuity. 1 ;uic7ly for/ed stain@ 6ith 2ery little su9se;uent de2elo,/ent@ could indicate a 6ide@ 9ut shallo6 discontinuity@ 6hile an initially light stain@ 6hich gradually s,reads o2er a greater area could indicate a narro6 9ut co/,arati2ely dee, fissure. )n other 6ordsF The +ate of staining indicates the 8idthA?e,th of a discontinuity. The Extent of staining indicates the <olu/e of the discontinuity.
!oteF This 6ill only gi2e an a,,roxi/ate assess/ent and is 9y no /eans an accurate /ethod of deciding the actual si4e of the discontinuity. &ro,erly a,,lied &F? ,rocedures are ca,a9le of detecting discontinuities 6ith 6idths of only 3.33333# // =3.3331 in> 9ut great care is needed in their a,,lication and technicians 6ill need to attend an a,,ro2ed training course 9efore they 6ill 9e authorised to a,,ly &F? ,rocedures to aircraft ,arts. &enetrants are a2aila9le in t6o 9asic ty,es. They are theF Ty,e 1 % Fluorescent ,enetrantF to 6hich is added a dye@ that gi2es 2ery little colour 6hen 2ie6ed in nor/al light. $o6e2er@ 6hen 2ie6ed in su9dued lighting conditions@ and illu/inated 6ith the rays fro/ a /ercury 2a,our la/,@ e/itting light in the ultra2iolet range of the s,ectru/ =referred to as (lac7 5ight>@ the ,enetrant fluoresces 9rilliantly =yello6Agreen> Ty,e 2 % Colour ContrastF =or <isi9le> ,enetrantF 6hich has a dar7 red dye added to the ,enetrant li;uid so that@ 6hen 2ie6ed in nor/al or =9etter> enhanced@ 6hite light conditions@ the red dye contrasts strongly against the 6hite 9ac7ground of the de2elo,er ,o6der
The ,enetrants are further su9%classified 9y the /ethods@ 6hich are used to re/o2e the excess ,enetrant fro/ the ins,ection surface. They are theF 8ater%6asha9le ,enetrantsF in 6hich the ,enetrant has an added e/ulsifier@ that allo6s the oil%9ased li;uid to 9e easily re/o2ed fro/ the surface 9y the use of a 6ater s,ray or 6ash. These are used@ ,ri/arily@ on rough surfaces =castings etc.>
&age 2"
!"
engineering
&ost%e/ulsification ,enetrantsF 6hich do not ha2e a 9uilt%in e/ulsifier and@ thus@ it is necessary to a,,ly an e/ulsifier to the ,enetrant and allo6 an e/ulsification ti/e 9efore the excess ,enetrant 6ill 9e a9le to 9e re/o2ed =again 9y 6ater> fro/ the ins,ection surface. These are used on the high% grade surface finishes of alloy steels =and alu/iniu/ and /agnesiu/ alloys> in the search for fine fatigue crac7s .ol2ent%re/o2a9le ,enetrantsF in 6hich the excess ,enetrant is re/o2ed fro/ the surface 9y a 2olatile sol2ent.
(oth the 8ater%6asha9le and &ost%e/ulsification ,enetrants are =usually> confined to the Ty,e 1 =Fluorescent> ,enetrants and are used in the controlled en2iron/ent of a /anufacturing or o2erhaul esta9lish/ent@ for the final acce,tance of critical aeros,ace /aterials. The .ol2ent%re/o2a9le@ Colour Contrast =Ty,e 2> ,enetrants are those 6hich 6ill 9e /ore li7ely to 9e used 9y the aircraft ser2icing technician@ as they are the ones 6hich are used for the /anual =)n the Field> a,,lications on li/ited ins,ection areas of aircraft ,arts. The sol2ent is usually trichloroethane%9ased@ 6hich@ 6hile 9eing 2olatile =e2a,orates readily>@ it has a lo6 toxicity and is non%fla//a9le. The /anual &F? ,rocess is done 9y technicians@ 6ith the use of the three ,ri/e /aterials % the &enetrant@ the &enetrant +e/o2er =.ol2ent> and the ?e2elo,er %contained in their res,ecti2e aerosol cans@ 6hich co/,rise the usual )n the Field &F? ins,ection 7it. The &F? ,rocedure can 9e 9ro7en do6n into theF )nitial surface ,re,aration and thorough ,re%cleaning of the ins,ection area Mas7ing of the areas adBacent to the ins,ection site 1,,lication of the ,enetrant =6ith the sti,ulated ?6ell ti/e> +e/o2al of the excess ,enetrant fro/ the surface 1,,lication of the de2elo,er =and the s,ecified ?e2elo,er ti/e> )ns,ection and the recording of any significant indications Cleaning and restoration of the surface ,rotecti2e finish.
-92iously if a defect is found@ the fault 6ill need to 9e rectified@ either 9y an a,,ro2ed re,air sche/e or 9y re,lace/ent of the defecti2e co/,onent.
&age 2*
!"
engineering
)n the initial surface ,re,aration the area of the ins,ection /ust 9e co/,letely clean and free fro/ corrosion dirt@ grease or oil@ ,aint@ surface treat/ents and 6ater. The ,resence of any of these conta/inants 6ill ,re2ent the ,enetrant fro/ entering surface%9rea7ing discontinuities. &aint should 9e re/o2ed using an a,,ro2ed ,aint stri,,er@ ta7ing care not to a,,ly the stri,,er to areas 6hich /ight 9e da/aged =e.g. +edux 9onded Boints> 9y its action. .i/ilar care is needed 6ith the ,enetrant sol2ents and such Boints. Care /ust 9e ta7en not to da/age the /aterial surface 6ith scra,ers as this /ight a,,ear as a defect. The use of non%/etallic scra,ers is reco//ended@ to a2oid this ,ro9le/. 1fter ,aint re/o2al@ the surface should 9e 6ashed 6ith 6ater@ dried and finally degreased@ 9y s,raying the area 6ith the sol2ent re/o2er and allo6ing it to e2a,orate. $arsh a9rasi2e /ethods should not 9e used in the ins,ection area@ as they 6ill tend to cause /etal flo6@ 6hich 6ill co2er the li,s of any surface crac7s and ,re2ent ingress of the ,enetrant. )f such /ethods /ust 9e used =to re/o2e stu99orn corrosion de,osits@ 9urnt on car9on or oil etc.>@ then it /ay 9e necessary to e/,loy so/e for/ of surface etching ,rocess =if a,,ro2ed> to re/o2e the s/eared /etal. (efore a,,lying &F? ,rocedures@ the areas adBacent to the ins,ection site should 9e ,rotected@ 9y /as7ing off@ to ,re2ent conta/ination 9y the che/icals of electrical co/,onents and other inco/,ati9le /aterials@ and to restrict the rather /essy ,rocedure to the s/allest ,ossi9le area. The ,enetrant should 9e a,,lied to the clean =and degreased> surface@ using the aerosol s,ray@ a 9rush or 9y di,,ing or s6a99ing. The ,enetrant should 9e left on the surface for the reco//ended contact ti/e and@ during this ti/e@ /ust 9e 7e,t 6et. )f the ,enetrant dries on the surface =and in any crac7> it 6ill 9e extre/ely difficult to re/o2e and the 6hole area 6ill ha2e to 9e thoroughly cleaned 9efore the ,rocess can 9e re%atte/,ted. !oteF )f the ,arts are too hot@ then ,re/ature drying is an o92ious danger. )deally the te/,erature of the ,art should 9e in the range of 5]C D #3]C. -utside this te/,erature range@ the a,,lication of the &F? ,rocedure 6ill re;uire care@ 9ecauseF 1t lo6 te/,eratures@ /etals s6eat@ and the resulting /oisture 6ill conta/inate the area@ as ,re2iously stated 1n increase in the 2iscosity of the ,enetrant@ at lo6 te/,eratures@ 6ill re;uire an increase in the d6ell ti/e &age 20
!"
engineering

E2a,oration of the sol2ent =and the sol2ent carrier of the de2elo,er ,o6der> 6ill 9e retarded during lo6 te/,eratures. This 6ill result in the 9lurring of indications 1t higher te/,eratures the e2a,oration rate is /uch shorter and 6ill re;uire fre;uent 6etting of the surface 6ith ,enetrant to a2oid it drying.
The ti/e 6ill usually de,end on the te/,erature@ the surface texture and the si4e of the sus,ected defect. 1 ti/e of 5 % 33 /inutes is@ nor/ally@ reco//ended. The re/o2al of the excess surface ,enetrant is another facet 6here incorrect ,rocedures 6ill cause ,oor results. The o9Bect of the exercise is to re/o2e all of the surface ,enetrant 6ithout re/o2ing any of the ,enetrant that is in any defect. )n the ,ast@ o,erators ha2e 9een 7no6n to s,ray ,enetrant re/o2ers directly onto the surface@ thus 6ashing the ,enetrant out of the defect. The reco//ended /ethod@ 6ith sol2ent%9ased@ s,ray re/o2ers@ is firstly to re/o2e the excess ,enetrant 6ith a clean@ lint%free cloth =or ,a,er 6i,e>. !ext a s/all a/ount of the re/o2er should 9e a,,lied to a clean cloth and the surface 6i,ed 6ith the /oistened cloth =changing to a clean ,art of the cloth 6ith each 6i,e>@ until the surface is ;uite clean. 8i,ing should 9e done carefully and in one direction only@ to a2oid o2er%6i,ing the area 6ith the ris7 of 6i,ing the ,enetrant out of a defect. The a,,lication of the de2elo,er is also a 2ery critical stage of the &F? ,rocess and de/ands a degree of s7ill on the ,art of the technician if s/all fatigue defects are to 9e disco2ered. ?e2elo,ers consist of either dry ,o6ders@ or of the ,o6der carried in a li;uid. ?ry ,o6der de2elo,ers are a,,lied 9y the use of ,uffers@ electrostatic s,ray guns or 9y using a dust stor/ ca9inet. 5i;uid%carried de2elo,er ,o6ders /ay 9e classed asF 8ater%.olu9le de2elo,ersF 6here the fine ,articles are in solution 6ith the 6ater in the sa/e 6ay as sugar dissol2es in tea 8ater%.us,ended de2elo,ersF 6here the fine ,articles are sus,ended in 6ater in /uch the sa/e 6ay as sand re/ains sus,ended in 6ater and does not dissol2e 8et =non%a;ueous>@ sol2ent%9ased de2elo,ersF 6here the /icrosco,ic ,o6der ,articles are sus,ended in a 2olatile sol2ent.
&age 33
!"
engineering
The dry ,o6der de2elo,ers and the first t6o 6et ty,es of de2elo,ers are@ nor/ally@ confined to those esta9lish/ents using the Ty,e 1 ,enetrants@ so further consideration of the/ is not necessary in this to,ic. The li;uid in the )n the Field &F? de2elo,er aerosol is@ ho6e2er@ the sa/e as that in the sol2ent re/o2er aerosol =8et@ non%a;ueous>. 8ith this in /ind@ extre/e care /ust 9e ta7en 6hen the de2elo,er is s,rayed onto the ins,ection area if the ,enetrant is not to 9e 6ashed out of a ,otential defect. &rior to a,,lying the de2elo,er@ the aerosol container should 9e sha7en 2igourously so that the contents are agitated sufficiently to ensure that the ,o6der is thoroughly /ixed 6ith the sol2ent carrier li;uid. $olding the aerosol 9et6een 333 // % #33 // =12 in % 1 in> a6ay fro/ the ins,ection surface@ the de2elo,er is s,rayed@ in three or four 2ery short 9ursts =of a,,roxi/ately 1%second duration>@ 6ith inter2als =of a,,roxi/ately %seconds> 9et6een each 9urst@ to allo6 the sol2ent carrier to e2a,orate. The aerosol should continue to 9e sha7en during the inter2als@ to /aintain the ,o6der in sus,ension and the result should ,ro2ide a dusting of the de2elo,er o2er the ins,ection area. The o9Becti2e of the ,rocedure is to ,roduce a thin@ e2en co2erage of the ins,ection area@ % Bust enough to alter the surface 9ac7ground colour % 6ithout gi2ing a layer of such thic7ness 6hich /ight co/,letely 9lan7et the ,enetrant. ?uring the s,ecified de2elo,er ti/e the area should 9e /onitored for indications and@ as ,re2iously stated@ the ins,ection should 9e /ade@ using the a,,ro,riate ;uality of illu/ination. 8hen using colour contrast ,enetrants it is reco//ended that the area of the ins,ection should 9e illu/inated =using daylight or artificial light> to a le2el of at least 533 lux. This /ay 9e achie2ed 6ith a fluorescent tu9e of *3 8 at a distance of 1 / =30.3 in> or 6ith a tungsten fila/ent ,earl la/, of 133 8 at 3.2 / =* in>. Critical ins,ections /ay@ ho6e2er@ de/and higher le2els of illu/ination and@ as al6ays@ the 1MM or .+M 6ill s,ecify the ,recise re;uire/ents. )ndications of discontinuities =refer to Fig. 3> 6ill need to 9e inter,reted and assessed for their effect on the ser2icea9ility of the ,art under ins,ection. )t is i/,ortant that the exact ,osition of any significant indication is recorded =6ith the aid of a dra6ing or a ,hotogra,h if re;uired> 9ecause it /ight not 9e o92ious 6here the discontinuity is 6hen the area is su9se;uently cleaned for re,air or for e2entual return to ser2ice.
&age 31
!"
engineering
!arro6 Crac7
<ery Fine Crac7
8ide Crac7
&orosity
Ty,ical &enetrant )ndications Fig. 3 )f there are no defects@ then the area should 9e thoroughly cleaned. )t is i/,erati2e that all traces of the de2elo,er are re/o2ed 9ecause@ 9eing hygrosco,ic@ it 6ill attract /oisture@ 6hich could lead to su9se;uent corrosion ,ro9le/s in the area. )t is reco//ended that@ after the initial signs of the de2elo,er ha2e 9een 6i,ed a6ay@ the area 9e li9erally s,rayed 6ith the sol2ent re/o2er 6hich@ on e2a,orating@ 6ill lea2e the area in a clean and de%greased condition. +estoration of the ,rotecti2e surface finish /ay in2ol2e etch ,ri/ing@ ,ainting and@ ,ossi9ly@ additional anti%corrosi2e treat/ent. )f@ ho6e2er@ the area is to 9e ins,ected regularly@ it /ay 9e ,er/itted to a,,ly a coating of ,rotecti2e oil@ grease or inhi9iting fluid 9et6een ins,ections. There are /any different 9rand na/es of ,enetrants@ all of 6hich /ust /eet the &rocess .,ecification ?T? 020 =or M)5%)%25135%C>@ 9ut the a,,ro2ed ,rocess 6ill al6ays 9e s,ecified in the rele2ant 1ircraft Maintenance Manual. There are a2aila9le@ ?ual Mode ,enetrants@ 6hich exhi9it 9oth 2isi9le and fluorescent ca,a9ilities. 8hen 2ie6ed under 6hite light they ,ro2ide a contrast 6ith the de2elo,er and@ 6hen 2ie6ed under 9lac7 light@ they fluoresce. 1nother ty,e is the Thixotro,ic 2ariety@ 6hich is a gel that only 9eco/es fluid 6hile it is 9eing 9rushed on a surface and has the ca,a9ility of re/aining in ,lace on 2ertical or on o2erhead surfaces. .,ecial@ non%oil%9ased@ ,enetrants@ and others 6hich are also lo6 in sul,hur@ ,hos,horus and chlorine are used for the ins,ection of oxygen syste/ co/,onents@ ,lastics and ru99ers.
&age 32
!"
engineering
&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:
&age 33
!"
engineering
1".5.# Ultrasonic Fla6 ?etection =UF?> This for/ of !on%destructi2e Testing is done 9y s,ecially trained@ and a,,ro2ed@ technicians@ so only 9rief details of the 9ac7ground and the ,rocedures are gi2en in this course. The student is@ ho6e2er@ re;uired to ha2e a 9asic 7no6ledge of the ,rinci,les of the techni;ues in2ol2ed in Ultrasonic Fla6 ?etection =UF?>. UF? /ethods /ay 9e used to detect su9%surface defects in the /aBority of solid /aterials. Ultrasonics can also 9e used toF Measure the thic7ness of /aterials 6hen it is only ,ossi9le to get access to one side of the co/,onent Test for the dela/ination =de%9onding> of co/,osite structures Monitor real ti/e crac7ing in s,ars and struts 2ia 1coustic E/ission /ethods.
The ter/@ ultrasonic@ descri9es sound oscillations at fre;uencies too high to 9e detected 9y the hu/an ear. !or/al@ healthy adults are@ usually@ a9le to detect sound fre;uencies in the range 9et6een 23 $4 D 23 7$4. For exa/,le@ the lo6est note of a ty,ical@ full%si4e@ ,iano 2i9rates at a,,roxi/ately 2".5 $4@ 6hile the highest note is in the region of 3.52 7$4. UF? ,rocedures use sound fre;uencies ranging fro/ as /uch as 533 7$4 to 25 M$4 =and@ so/eti/es@ /ore>. .ound is caused 9y the sinusoidal oscillations of the ,articles in a /ediu/ and the s,eed of sound is fixed in different /aterials@ de,ending on their elasticity and density. Ta9le 1 sho6s the s,eed of sound through so/e co//on /aterials. Ta9le 1 .-U!? <E5-C)T)E. )! C-MM-! M1TE+)15. Material /Asec ftAsec 1ir =at 23]C> 3#3 1@125 8ater =at 23]C> 1@#*3 #@*5# &ers,ex 2@ *3 *@"03 &yrex 'lass 5@ #3 1*@533 .teel 5@033 10@351 1lu/iniu/ @353 23@*2" 5o6%fre;uency sound tra2els out6ards@ fro/ its source@ and goes in all directions@ 6hereas the higher the fre;uency@ the /ore the sound 9eco/es unidirectional until@ at the extre/ely high fre;uencies e/,loyed in UF?@ the sound can 9e considered to 9e si/ilar to a 2ery narro6 9ea/ of light. The ,rinci,le of UF? is that a narro6 9ea/ of sound is introduced into a /aterial and the effects on that 9ea/ can indicate the structural state of the /aterial.
&age 3#
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engineering
The sound 9ea/s@ used in UF?@ are ,roduced =and detected> 9y /eans of a ,ie4oelectric transducer =i.e. a de2ice 6hich con2erts electrical energy to /echanical energy and 2ice 2ersa>. 1 ,ie4oelectric crystal =for/erly ;uart4 9ut@ /ore co//only@ /an%/ade cera/ics such as 9ariu/ titanate or lead 4irconate titanate> is /ade to 2i9rate 6hen sti/ulated 9y electrical energy fro/ the ,ulse generator of a cathode ray tu9e =C+T> oscillosco,e. 1t the sa/e ti/e a ,ulse is generated across the ti/e 9ase of the oscillosco,e. The ,ulse re,etition fre;uency =&+F> is set so that the ti/e 9ase of the oscillosco,e a,,ears as a straight line. 8hen the transducer@ /ounted in a de2ice 7no6n as the ,ro9e =refer to Fig. #>@ is a,,lied to a /aterial@ the 2i9rations cause a narro6 9ea/ of ultrasonic 6a2es to 9e trans/itted through the /aterial.
)nitial
&ulse
(ac7 8all Echo Ti/e (ase Controller
&ulse 'enerator &ro9e Controller
G%,late 1/,lifier E%,late (ac7 8all Co/,onent under )ns,ection &ro9e Cou,lant 9et6een &ro9e and )ns,ection .urface .ound (ea/ and Echo
.i/,lified UF? .yste/ Fig. # )n a si/ilar /anner to radar 6a2es in air =and sonar 6a2es in 6ater> the sound 6a2es tra2el through the /aterial until they /eet an interface 6ith a /ediu/ 6hich has a different acoustic i/,edance. The acoustic i/,edance of a /aterial is a function of the density of@ and the 2elocity of sound in@ the /aterial.
&age 35
!"
engineering
1t the interface of different acoustic i/,edances the sound 6ill 9e reflected =as 6ith the radar and sonar echoes> in ,ro,ortion to their differences. )t is usual for the /aBority of sound to 9e reflected fro/ an interface and the interface can 9e caused 9yF The far face =also called the 9ac7 6all>@ of the co/,onent under ins,ection@ 6ith the air on the other side 1 crac7 or a 2oid 6ithin the /aterial =6hich 6ill contain air or another gas> 1n inclusion of a foreign 9ody 6ithin the /aterial =such as occurs in 6elds>.
The reflected sound =or echo> returns to the transducer ,ro9e@ 6here the energy is con2erted into an electrical ,ulse@ 6hich is fed =2ia an a/,lifier> to the oscillosco,e. The a/,lified ,ulse causes a ,ea7 on the ti/e%9ase@ 6hich is cali9rated so that the ,osition of the ,ea7 re,resents the distance the reflected sound has tra2elled in the /aterial under ins,ection. (ecause the transducer crystal is 2i9rating against the casing of the ,ro9e@ a great deal of sound is initially reflected 6ithin the ,ro9e. This is referred to as the initial ,ulse =1/ericans refer to it as the /ain 9ang> and it is usually ,laced at the extre/e left of the ti/e 9ase@ to act as the surface reference@ and is not considered as ,art of the search 9ea/. The face of the ,ro9e also creates an interface 6ith the surface of the /aterial under test@ due to the /icrosco,ic ,articles of air 9et6een the/. (ecause of the 2ast difference in the acoustic i/,edance of air co/,ared to other /aterials@ /ost of the sound 6ould not enter the /aterial@ unless a /ediu/@ 6ith a closer acoustic i/,edance to the ,ro9e and the /aterial under test@ is inter,osed 9et6een the/ to act as a cou,lant. Ty,ical cou,lants used are fluids in the for/ of glycerine@ silicon grease@ ,etroleu/ Belly or /ediu/%2iscosity oils. 8ith this ,ulseAecho /ethod@ the location of a discontinuity in a co/,onent can 9e ;uite accurately calculated. Unli7e the &F? /ethod@ it is not only a9le to detect su9surface fla6s 9ut also tight surface fla6s 6hich /ay 9e filled 6ith oil@ grease@ ,aint@ ru99er or any other conta/inants 6hich 6ould create difficulties for the &F? /ethods. UF? has a greater 2ersatility in that different /odes of sound 6a2es are utilised to locate discontinuities occurring in 2arious ,lanes relati2e to the ins,ection surface. Those /odes of sound includeF 5ongitudinal or Co/,ressional 6a2es =also called .traight (ea/ testing> Trans2erse or .hear 6a2es =also called 1ngle (ea/ testing> .urface or +ayleigh 6a2es.
&age 3
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engineering
(ecause the narro6 9ea/s of sound o9ey so/e of the ,hysical la6s a,,lica9le to light@ 6ith regard to reflection and refraction@ it is necessary to e/,loy 5ongitudinal sound 6a2es to locate discontinuities 6hich are a,,roxi/ately ,arallel to the surface 6hich is 9eing scanned 9y the ,ro9e =refer to Fig. 5>.
Co/,ressional 8a2e &ro9e )nitial &ulse =a>
(ac7 8all Echo
>
=a> =9>
>
>
=c> Echo fro/ Fla6 =9> +eduction of (ac7 8all Echo
>
=c>
Total +eflection fro/ Fla6 6ith loss of (ac7 8all Echo
Using 5ongitudinal .ound 8a2es =.traight (ea/ Testing> Fig. 5 Considering the light la6@ 6hich states that@ Tthe angle of incidence is e;ual to the angle of reflectionP it can 9e seen that the incident sound 6ill 9e reflected 9ac7 to the ,ro9e 6hen the /axi/u/ di/ension of the fla6 is in a ,lane ,arallel to the scan surface. )n instances 6here fla6s are oriented at angles 6hich are either o9li;ue or nor/al to the scan surface@ the sound 6ould not 9e reflected directly 9ac7 to the ,ro9e and the fla6s 6ould 9e extre/ely difficult =if not i/,ossi9le> to detect. For the detection of these ty,es of fla6s it 6ill 9e necessary to use Trans2erse sound 6a2es@ to ena9le the sound 9ea/ to 9e reflected 9ac7 to the transducer crystal =refer to Fig. >.
&age 3"
!"
engineering
.hear 8a2e &ro9e
Using Trans2erse .ound 8a2es =1ngle (ea/ Testing> Fig. 1gain considering the la6s associated 6ith light@ the crystal is angled in such a /anner that the 5ongitudinal 6a2es are refracted out of the /aterial under ins,ection@ lea2ing only Trans2erse 6a2es for the search. !oteF (y fixing the transducer to a /ore acute angle@ it is also ,ossi9le to refract the 6a2es in such a 6ay that they tra2el along the surface of the /aterial. )n this 6ay .urface or +ayleigh 6a2es /ay 9e generated@ and used@ to detect fla6s 6hich are in@ 9ut 6hich are nor/al to@ the scan surface. )n 2ery acoustic a9sor,ti2e /aterials it /ay 9e necessary to resort to Through Trans/ission or &itch and Catch /ethods =refer to Fig. "> 6here t6o ,ro9es are used@ 6ith one 9eing a Trans/itter =Tx> and another a +ecei2er =+x>.
Tx Tx +x
+x
=a>
=9>
Through Trans/ission or &itch and Catch Methods Fig. "
&age 3*
!"
engineering
Using the Through Trans/ission /ethods 6ill ensure that enough sound energy is recei2ed to ,ro2ide useful search infor/ation in /aterials 6hich tend to a9sor9 great a/ounts of sound. )n Fig. " =a>@ it can 9e seen that t6o Co/,ressional 6a2e ,ro9es are 9eing used@ 6here access to t6o o,,osite surfaces is ,ossi9le@ 6hile Fig. " =9> sho6s t6o Trans2erse 6a2e ,ro9es 9eing used@ 6here access is only a2aila9le to one surface. The disad2antage of the /ethod@ ho6e2er@ is that@ 6hile the existence of the fla6 can 9e detected =9y the loss of the signal to the +ecei2er ,ro9e>@ unli7e the ,ulse echo /ethod@ the actual location of the fla6 cannot 9e deter/ined@ 9ecause there 6ill 9e no ,ea7 on the ti/e 9ase to indicate its ,osition. 1s ,re2iously stated@ UF? techni;ues can also 9e used to /easure the thic7ness =or the loss of thic7ness in the e2ent of corrosion> of /etals and /ost other /aterials. The de%9onding or dela/ination of co/,osite structures can 9e achie2ed 9y either the Through Trans/ission /ethod =already descri9ed> or 9y /eans of the +esonance techni;ue. This techni;ue uses the fact that a /aterial 6ill 2i9rate at its /axi/u/ a/,litude 6hen the sound is at the resonant fre;uency for a gi2en thic7ness of that /aterial. Thus a certain thic7ness of ,ro,erly 9onded structure 6ill 2i9rate at a /axi/u/ a/,litude at a s,ecific fre;uency 6hen an ultrasonic transducer is a,,lied to its surface. The a/,litude and fre;uency of the sound can 9e dis,layed on an oscillosco,e and@ 6hen the transducer ,asses o2er a de%9onded area@ the loss of adhesion 6ill 9e detected as a change in thic7ness of the /aterial. This results in a change of a/,litude and a shift in the fre;uency range on the oscillosco,e@ such that the de%9onded area can 9e ;uite easily located. 1coustic E/ission techni;ues in2ol2e the ,lacing of ,ie4oelectric transducers at critical ,ositions on s,ars or struts and the /onitoring of the sounds 9eing gi2en out as a crac7 ,ro,agates through the /etal. The infor/ation is electronically ,rocessed and@ through a,,ro,riate circuitry@ can 9e lin7ed to recording de2ices or real ti/e 6arning la/,s to indicate the ,rogress and se2erity of the crac7ing or 6ear in the ,articular structure.
&age 30
!"
engineering
1".5.5 Eddy Current Fla6 ?etection =ECF?> ECF? ,rocedures are@ nor/ally@ restricted to s,ecially trained and a,,ro2ed ,ersonnel 9ut there /ay 9e instances 6here =in aircraft 6heel ser2icing 9ays for exa/,le> locally trained technicians are a,,ro2ed either to do li/ited and unco/,licated ,rocedures or to /onitor auto/ated ECF? e;ui,/ent. For these reasons it is necessary for the student to understand the funda/entals of ECF? and the techni;ues in2ol2ed in its a,,lication. Fla6 detection ,rocedures@ utilising eddy currents@ are e/,loyed on electrically conducti2e /aterials =/etals> and are ca,a9le of detectingF .urface and =to a li/ited degree> su9surface crac7sF 6hich /ay 9e closed 9y /etal flo6@ oil@ ,aint@ ru99er or other conta/inants <ariations in the thic7ness of /etal s7insF due to internal corrosion of closed areas@ to 6hich nor/al access is difficult =or i/,ossi9le> due to ti/eAex,ense constraints Changes in the electrical conducti2ity of /etalsF through incorrect heat% treat/ents or fire da/age Crac7ing e/anating fro/ ri2et and 9olt holes in aircraft s7ins and structures.
Eddy currents are alternating electrical currents@ 6hich are induced@ into a conducti2e /aterial@ 9y an alternating /agnetic field. They circulate in the /aterial in a ,lane nor/al to the field@ 6hich ,roduces the/. The 9asic ,rinci,le is that a ,ro9e =refer to Fig. *>@ consisting of a s/all coil@ 6hich is tightly 6ound around a ferrite core and su,,lied 6ith alternating current =ac>@ is held in contact 6ith =or in close ,roxi/ity to> the surface of the co/,onent under ins,ection.
ac .u,,ly Ferrite Core
1lternating Magnetic Field around Coil
Conducti2e Material under )ns,ection
)nduced 1lternating Electrical Currents
&rinci,les of ECF? Fig. *
&age #3
!"
engineering
The /agnetic field@ associated 6ith the current flo6ing in the coil@ is concentrated into a s/all area 9y the ferrite core of the ,ro9e. 8hen the ,ro9e is ,laced on the surface of the /etal@ the alternating /agnetic field cou,les 6ith the /etal and induces alternating electrical currents into the /etal. These induced electrical currents circulate in the /etal in a ,lane nor/al to the ,ro9es coil and@ as they are electrical currents@ flo6ing in a conductor@ they 6ill also create /agnetic fields in the /etal. )n accordance 6ith 5en4s 5a6@ the induced /agnetic fields 6ill o,,ose the field 6hich ,roduces the/@ and@ in so doing@ 6ill /odify the coils /agnetic field@ 6hich hence@ affects the electrical i/,edance of the coil. 1ny e2ent that changes the 2alue of the induced eddy currents 6ill@ su9se;uently@ cause a change in the i/,edance of the coil. )f the coil is included in a 9ridge circuit =refer to Fig. 0>@ 6ithin an ins,ection instru/ent@ 6hich is ,ro2ided 6ith a suita9le indicating de2ice@ it 6ill ,ro2ide an indication of the condition of the co/,onent under ins,ection.
51 .et Qero Control &1 .ensiti2ity Control
52
&2
53
5#
.i/,lified ECF? )/,edance (ridge Circuit Fig. 0
&age #1
!"
engineering
Using the 8heatstone (ridge ,rinci,le =6here the coil is one of the inductances>@ 6hen the ratio of 51 F 52 e;uals the ratio of 53 F 5#@ the 9ridge 6ill 9e in 9alance and the 2oltages at ,oints &1 and &2 6ill 9e e;ual. The indicating /eter 6ill sho6 4ero@ 9ecause no current is flo6ing through it. )f the ,ro9e is no6 ,laced on a /etal surface@ the induced eddy currents 6ill change the 2alue of 5# and cause an i/9alance of the 9ridge. The 2oltages at &1 and &2 6ill 9e different and a current 6ill flo6 9et6een the/. The /eter 6ill sho6 an indication of the current flo6. The 2aria9le inductance 51 is adBusted to regain the 9alance of the 9ridge@ so that the /eter@ once /ore@ is set at 4ero and the ,ro9e is /o2ed o2er the ins,ection area. The function of the sensiti2ity control 6ill 9e ex,lained a little later. 1ny factors@ 6hich alter the 2alue of the induced eddy currents in the ins,ection area@ 6ill result in an indication on the /eter. Factors@ 6hich affect eddy currents in a /etal =and re;uire careful inter,retation>@ includeF Conducti2ity &er/ea9ility Fre;uency &roxi/ity &ro9e $andling ?iscontinuities.
1 change in the conducti2ity and the /agnetic ,er/ea9ility of the /etal 6ill o92iously influence the induced current flo6 and su9se;uent /agnetic fields. The fre;uency@ at 6hich the dri2ing current of the ,ro9e coil alternates@ 6ill go2ern the ;uality of the induced current and influences the de,th of ,enetration of the eddy currents into the /aterial. The higher the fre;uency of the coil current@ then the closer to the surface of the /aterial the eddy currents re/ain. This is referred to as the s7in effect. $igh fre;uencies of ac are used to dri2e the coils 6hen searching for fine fatigue crac7s in the surface of /etals@ 6hile lo6 fre;uencies are e/,loyed for the coils of the ,ro9es used to detect su9%surface defects. )ncidentally@ an increase in conducti2ity@ or ,er/ea9ility@ 6ill also result in a decrease in the de,th of ,enetration@ of the eddy currents@ in the /aterial under ins,ection.
&age #2
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engineering
The ,roxi/ity of the ,ro9e to the surface affects the induced currents and this ,heno/enon can 9e used to ,ro2ide a coating thic7ness /easure/ent. 8ith the ,ro9e ,laced on a 9are /etal test s,eci/en@ the ins,ection /eter indicator is set at 4ero. :no6n thic7nesses of ,lastic fil/s are then gradually inter,osed 9et6een the ,ro9e and the /etal. 1s the thic7nesses increase@ the a/ount of lift off 6ill 9e indicated on the /eter and these indications can 9e used to co/,are 6ith readings@ o9tained 6hen the ,ro9e is ,ositioned on a ,ainted surface of si/ilar /etal@ to ,ro2ide a /easure/ent of the coating thic7ness. &ro9e handling is also 2ery i/,ortant and the ,ro9e should 9e /aintained at a constant angle to the search surface =,refera9ly nor/al to the surface>. To ensure this@ ,ro9es are often /ounted in ,ur,ose%/ade shoes@ 6hich confor/ to the surface under ins,ection =,articularly in 6heel flanges and 9ead seat areas> to /aintain the correct angle of the ,ro9e 6ith the surface. ?iscontinuities 6ill@ of course@ cause a change in the induced eddy currents 9ut the ty,e =and se2erity> of fla6s cannot 9e deduced unless the e;ui,/ent is ,ro,erly cali9rated 9efore =and during> the ins,ection ,rocedure. )n order to cali9rate the e;ui,/ent@ standard reference ,ieces@ /anufactured fro/ a /aterial si/ilar to that 9eing tested@ are necessary. 1lu/iniu/ alloy s7ins@ used for engine co6lings@ 6ill 9e affected 9y ex,osure to ele2ated te/,eratures =u, to a,,roxi/ately 533]C> and the resulting heat% treat/ent 6ill cause the /aterial to 9e 9elo6 strength@ 6ith o92ious i/,lications. 19o2e this te/,erature@ signs of heat da/age@ such as /elted or charred /etal@ 6ill 9eco/e a,,arent 9ut@ 9elo6 the te/,erature@ the da/age is not easily seen. Conducti2ity changes in the s7ins@ caused 9y the heat@ can ho6e2er 9e detected@ using ECF? ,rocedures@ and 9elo6%strength areas identified for su9se;uent re,air or re,lace/ent. 1 Conducti2ity Meter and a surface ,ro9e are used for this ,articular ,rocedure 6ith the /eter 9eing cali9rated on /aterials 6ith 7no6n le2els of conducti2ity. The /eter@ in this ,rocedure@ registers relati2e conducti2ity as a ,ercentage of the )nternational 1nnealed Co,,er .tandard =J )1C.> 6here co//ercially ,ure co,,er is set at 133J and the conducti2ity of other alloys@ containing co,,er@ is co/,ared to it.
&age #3
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engineering
.il2er@ 6hich is a 9etter electrical conductor than co,,er@ is considered to ha2e a relati2e conducti2ity of a,,roxi/ately 13 J )1C..
&age ##
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engineering
Corrosion of the internal surfaces of aircraft s7ins can 9e detected@ 6ithout resort to ti/e%consu/ing =and ex,ensi2e> internal tri/ re/o2al@ and stri,,ing@ 9y the use of lo6 fre;uency ECF? ,rocedures. 8hen searching for corrosion on the re/ote surface of a single layer s7in@ a ty,ical cali9ration standard /ight 9e a si/,le ste, 6edge =refer to Fig. 13>.
.te, 8edge Cali9ration .tandard
.te, 8edge used for Corrosion ?etection Fig. 13 The ,ro9e fre;uency 6ould 9e set so that the eddy currents ,enetrate the full de,th of the thic7 layer =6hich re,resents the correct thic7ness of the s7in> and the instru/ent is 4eroed 6ith the ,ro9e on the thic7 layer. The ,ro9e is next /o2ed onto the thin ,art of the 6edge and the sensiti2ity control adBusted to gi2e the re;uired indication. Follo6ing cali9ration@ the ,ro9e is /o2ed onto the ins,ection area and a series of ,arallel scans /ade. 1ny significant indications are noted and recorded for a,,ro,riate action. For ins,ections@ searching for corrosion in the re/ote surfaces of /ulti,le layers of s7ins =such as is found in the la, and 9utt Boints of fuselages>@ it is then necessary to use a cali9ration standard 6ith the a,,ro,riate nu/9er of s7ins. The fre;uency of the ,ro9e 6ould 9e adBusted =lo6ered> to ,ro2ide the re;uired de,th of ,enetration in each ,late 9eing ins,ected. 5o6 fre;uency ,ro9es /ay also 9e used to detect crac7s e/anating fro/ the ri2et holes of /ulti%layered s7ins. .,ecially constructed doughnut =or ring> ,ro9es@ 6hich ha2e a clear@ ,lastic centre@ to facilitate accurate ,lace/ent of the ,ro9e o2er the ri2et heads@ are used in these ,rocedures.
&age #5
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engineering
5o6 fre;uency ,ro9es o,erate in the 133 $4 to u,,er 7$4 range@ 6hile high fre;uency ,ro9es are dri2en at fre;uencies of 5M$4 =or /ore> and ha2e a /uch greater sensiti2ity@ due to the highly concentrated eddy current field at such fre;uencies. $igh fre;uency ,ro9es are used in the search for fine fatigue crac7s in the surfaces of /etals ty,ically used in aircraft structures and co/,onents. They are ,articularly useful for the ins,ection of such critical ite/s asF &ro,eller (lades =9oth the ferrous and the non%ferrous /etal ty,es> Co/,ressor and Tur9ine 9lades =and guide 2anes> of gas tur9ine engines. 8heels and 5anding 'ear struts 8indo6 and ?oor surrounds Front and rear &ressure ?ia,hrag/s of ,ressurised aircraft fuselages
The ins,ections of these ite/s are achie2ed 6ith s/all@ ,orta9le@ 9attery% o,erated /achines or 6ith auto/ated installations housed in ser2icing 9ays or 6or7sho,s. 1 cali9ration standard for the detection of fatigue crac7s 6ould necessitate either a ,re2iously failed co/,onent 6ith a 7no6n defect or =ty,ically> a sa/,le of the rele2ant /etal@ containing s,ar7 eroded@ si/ulated defects =refer to Fig. 11> against 6hich to cali9rate the /achine. The ,ro9e is ,laced on unfla6ed /aterial and the /eter 4eroed 9efore /o2ing the ,ro9e o2er the a,,ro,riate slit and adBusting the sensiti2ity control to ,ro2ide the s,ecified le2el of sensiti2ity for the ins,ection ,rocedure.
Three .,ar7 Eroded .lits =3.2 // 8ide>
.lit ?e,ths 3.2 // 3.5 // 1.3 // Metal of .i/ilar .,ecification to 1rea under )ns,ection
Ty,ical $igh Fre;uency EF? Cali9ration .tandard Fig. 11
&age #
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engineering
)ns,ections@ of critical 9olt holes@ are achie2ed 9y the use of a =high fre;uency> hand%held@ 9olt hole ,ro9e. 8here large nu/9ers of 9olt holes are in2ol2ed@ use is /ade of a s,ecially designed ,ro9e 6hich is attached and rotated 9y a lo6 tor;ue /achine rese/9ling an electric rotary drill. The /achine is connected to a C+T oscillosco,e@ 6hich analyses the ,hase difference of the changing eddy currents and dis,lays the/ as lissaBous cur2es =also called flying dots> on the C+T screen. &hase analysis /achines ,ro2ide /uch /ore infor/ation regarding the cause of the change in the induced eddy currents and are a9le to discri/inate 9et6een the 2arious factors =i.e. changes in conducti2ity@ ,er/ea9ility@ geo/etry etc.>@ 6hereas the si/,le i/,edance change /achines cannot. &hase analysis /achines can accurately differentiate 9et6een the signals recei2ed fro/ corrosion@ crac7s and scores =and e2en a crac7 in the 9otto/ of a scoreU> such that the trend has /o2ed to6ards the use of co/,uter%controlled ,hase analysis /achines for all 9ut the /ost si/,lest of EF? ,rocedures. 1".5. Magnetic &article Fla6 ?etection =M&F?> M&F? techni;ues =in the aeros,ace industry> are restricted to ;ualified !?T ,ersonnel@ usually 6or7ing in ,ur,ose%designed 6or7sho,s. )t is a re;uire/ent@ ho6e2er@ that the student is a6are of the funda/ental ,rinci,les and the a,,lications associated 6ith this /ethod of ins,ection. 1s the title i/,lies@ M&F? ,rocedures are e/,loyed on co/,onents and structures 6hich are ca,a9le of 9eing /agnetised. The ,rocedures are used to locate 9oth surface and su9%surface discontinuities in ferro/agnetic /etals. The ,rinci,le in2ol2es the setting u, of a /agnetic field in a co/,onent such that@ if a discontinuity disru,ts the lines of /agnetic force =flux lines>@ the resultant flux lea7age =refer to Fig. 12> 6ill create local !orth and .outh /agnetic ,oles on the surface of the co/,onent.
Flux 5ines Flux 5ea7age =$ighly Magnified for Clarity> . !
Magnetic Flux 5ea7age Fig. 12 &age #"
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engineering
The flux lea7age /ay 9e caused 9y internal fla6s@ such as inclusions@ or 9y extre/ely tight fatigue crac7s on the surface of the co/,onent. (oth ty,es of defects 6ould 9e i/,ossi9le to see 6ith the na7ed eye 9ut@ 6hen a ,o6der@ consisting of finely di2ided ferro/agnetic ,articles@ is a,,lied to the surface of the co/,onent@ the tiny ,articles 6ill 9e attracted to the site of the flux lea7age and 6ill ,ro2ide a 2isi9le indication of the discontinuity. To aid detection@ the ,o6der /ay 9e coloured red@ grey@ yello6 or 9lac7 =or any colour 6hich ,ro2ides the 9est contrast against the ins,ection surfaces finish>. (lac7 is the /ost co//on colour and@ 6hile ,o6ders /ay 9e a,,lied dry@ 9y ,uffers or 9y s,rin7ling@ the ,articles are nor/ally sus,ended in a light oil =usually 7erosene>@ to assist their /o2e/ent to the flux lea7age and =as o,,osed to using 6ater as the carrier> to /ini/ise the onset of corrosion. The resulting 9lac7ened fluid has earned the na/e of /agnetic in7@ 9ut this ter/ is used to descri9e all of the li;uid%carried ,o6ders@ regardless of their colour. Magnetic in7s are also a2aila9le 6here9y the ,articles are treated 6ith ,o6erful fluoro%agents so that@ in a si/ilar /anner to the fluorescent &F? ,rocedures@ they can 9e 2ie6ed under 9lac7 light@ to ,ro2ide su,erior sensiti2ity to flux lea7ages 6hen ins,ecting Class 1 aeros,ace /aterials. !oteL Flux lea7ages can also 9e caused 9y a9ru,t changes of geo/etry@ such as corners@ s/all radii and scre6 threads. )t@ thus@ de/ands that great care is needed in inter,reting the indications o9tained 6ith M&F? ,rocedures and re;uires that ,ersonnel a,,lying the ,rocedures recei2e a,,ro,riate training. There are 2arious /ethods of esta9lishing a /agnetic field in co/,onents 9ut they@ 9asically@ fall into the t6o categories ofF Magnetic Flo6 ,rocedures Current Flo6 ,rocedures.
The choice of /ethod de,ends on the geo/etry of the ,art under ins,ection and the ex,ected orientation of any fla6. Maxi/u/ sensiti2ity for fla6 detection is o9tained 6hen the fla6 is nor/al =03]> to the direction of the lines of flux. .ensiti2ity is not@ ho6e2er@ too greatly reduced 6hen fla6s lie at angles u, to #5] fro/ the o,ti/u/ angle 9ut@ 9eyond #5]@ sensiti2ity reduces a,,recia9ly. For these reasons@ co/,lete ins,ection of a surface 6ill re;uire that the /agnetic field 9e esta9lished in at least t6o directions@ /utually at right angles =in se,arate a,,lications>@ to ensure full co2erage of the area under ins,ection.
&age #*
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engineering

Esta9lishing a /agnetic field@ in a co/,onent@ using Magnetic Flo6 =MF> ,rocedures =refer to Fig. 13> in2ol2es the use ofF &er/anent MagnetsF using con2entional@ ,orta9le@ U%sha,ed or horse%shoe /agnets of 2arying si4es@ de,ending on the strength of /agnetic field re;uired. Electro%/agnetsF or Eo7es =once again ,orta9le and hand%o,erated de2ices>@ 6ith articulating legs@ 6hich can 9e adBusted to acco//odate co/,onents of different sha,es and si4es. &ur,ose%9uilt installationsF used in 6or7sho,s and consisting of electro/agnetic /achines@ 6ith adBusta9le heads@ 9et6een 6hich co/,onents are cla/,ed so that the /agnetic flux flo6s fro/ one head to the other and through the co/,onent under ins,ection.
-!A-FF .6itch
acAdc .u,,ly
1rticulating 5egs Flux 5ines ?iscontinuities Flux 5ines ?iscontinuities =a> &er/anent Magnet Flux 5ines ?iscontinuities =9> Electro/agnetic Eo7e Co/,onent under )ns,ection
Fixed $ead
1dBusta9le $ead
=c> .i/,lified MF )nstallation
Magnetic Flo6 Methods Fig. 13

&age #0
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engineering
Electrical current@ used for the electro/agnetic /ethods =,orta9le ty,es or the fixed installations>@ can 9e either ac@ or half% or full%6a2e rectified ac. )t /ay also 9e ,ro2ided fro/ a 9an7 of dc 9atteries. The ty,e of current used 6ill de,end on the ty,es of defects@ 6hich are 9eing sought@ and the /etal in2ol2ed. .u9%surface defects 6ill 9e detected using dc@ or rectified ac@ to ,ro2ide /agnetic fields 6hich ,enetrate to different le2els 9elo6 the surface of the /etal =straight dc ,enetrates the dee,est>. Unrectified ac@ in a si/ilar /anner to high%fre;uency ECF? /ethods@ 6ill create a s7in effect and is used to locate fine fatigue crac7s on the surface of high%grade steel alloy ,arts. Esta9lishing a /agnetic field@ in a co/,onent@ using Current Flo6 =CF> /ethods in2ol2es the ,re2iously%descri9ed electrical sources and the use ofF ?irect /ethodsF 6here9y the electrical current is ,assed directly through the co/,onent under ins,ection )ndirect or induced /ethodsF 6hich in2ol2e the use of rigid rods or 9ars of /etal or lengths of flexi9le@ hea2y duty =6elding grade> ca9le@ through 6hich the 2arious ty,es of ,re2iously%/entioned currents /ay 9e ,assed.
8ith direct /ethods of CF ins,ections it is essential that good electrical contact 9e achie2ed 9et6een the current%carrying electrodes and the surfaces of the co/,onent under ins,ection@ in order to a2oid da/age fro/ arcing or 9urning. 8hile direct /ethods /ay 9e used in situ on aircraft structures they are /ore co//only used in 6or7sho,s@ 9y ;ualified ,ersonnel@ using ,ur,ose%9uilt installations@ 6ith adBusta9le heads =si/ilar to the MF installations>. The ,arts are cla/,ed 9et6een the heads and@ in this instance@ the s,ecified electrical current is allo6ed to flo6 through the co/,onent =refer to Fig. 1#>.
Flux 5ines
?iscontinuities
.i/,lified CF )nstallation Fig. 1#

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engineering
(oth the CF and the MF installations are@ in fact@ contained in one /achine@ 6ith the ca,a9ility =through circuit s6itching> of selecting either current flo6 9efore a,,lying /agnetic flo6 or 2ice 2ersa@ de,ending on the techni;ue re;uire/ents. 8hen current flo6 is a,,lied to the co/,onent@ a /agnetic field is set u, in =and around> that co/,onent@ in a direction nor/al =03]> to the direction of the current. This trans2erse =or circular> /agnetic field 6ill also 9e at right angles to the field created 9y the su9se;uent =or ,re2ious> /agnetic flo6 ,rocedure. -nce again@ /axi/u/ sensiti2ity for fla6 detection 6ill 9e at 03] to the /agnetic field =or in the direction of the a,,lied currentU> 6ith a lessening of sensiti2ity u, to #5] fro/ the o,ti/u/ direction. Using such installations@ 6ith 9oth CF and MF ca,a9ilities@ allo6s full co2erage of the ins,ection area and@ thus@ /axi/ises the ,ossi9ility of locating ,otential defects in critical co/,onents. The ,arts /ust al6ays 9e de%/agnetised 9efore@ 9et6een and after all M&F? ins,ections. This ensures that there are no interfering or s,urious fields 6ithin the ,arts 9efore and 9et6een each a,,lication. ?e/agnetisation also allo6s easier cleaning after the ins,ection@ 6hen the lo6% retenti2ity /agnetic ,articles 6ill 9e a9le to 9e cleaned fro/ the de/agnetised ,arts. 1dditionally@ de/agnetisation /ust 9e ,erfor/ed after the ins,ection@ to ensure that the ,arts 6ill not affect /agnetic co/,asses or attract /etal s6arf =fro/ oil or fuel syste/s etc.> 6hich could cause da/age 6hen the ,arts are reinstalled in their res,ecti2e locations. -ne of the indirect or induced /ethods of CF ins,ections ta7es ad2antage of the fact that an insulated /etal rod /ay 9e threaded through annular or cylindrical co/,onents =refer to Fig.15>. 8hen current is ,assed through the central conductor =also called a threading 9ar>@ the associated /agnetic field cou,les 6ith@ and enters@ the co/,onent. The induced =circular> /agnetic field 6ill allo6 defects to 9e detected in the inner and outer 6alls of the co/,onent in addition to indicating any fla6s in the end surfaces. Maxi/u/ sensiti2ity 6ill@ again@ 9e in the direction of the current flo6 in the central conductor and nor/al to the circular /agnetic field 6hich is induced into the co/,onent.
&age 51
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engineering
?irection of )nduced Flux
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical ?iscontinuities )nsulation around Threading (ar
?irection of Current Flo6 through Threading (ar
Central Conductor =Threading (ar> Fig. 15 1nother of the indirect or induced /ethods of CF ins,ections entails the use of hea2y%duty@ insulated ca9le@ for/ed into coils =e.g. # D turns for ac>@ 6hich /ay 9e 6ra,,ed around the co/,onent under test =refer to Fig. 1 >. 8hen current is a,,lied to the coil@ its associated /agnetic field 6ill cou,le 6ith the co/,onent and@ in this instance@ a longitudinal /agnetic field 6ill 9e induced into the co/,onent. Maxi/u/ sensiti2ity for fla6s 6ill@ of course@ 9e nor/al to the longitudinal /agnetic field and in the direction of the current flo6 in the coil.
Flux 5ines
?iscontinuities Current Flo6 through Coil
Close%Fitting or 8ra,,ing Coil Fig. 1 Coils /ay also 9e used in a si/ilar /anner to threading 9ars@ 6here a one% or t6o%turn coil /ay 9e threaded through the lug of a landing gear strut@ for exa/,le@ to search for stress crac7s e/anating fro/ the centre of the lug.
&age 52
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engineering
5arger@ rigid or a,erture coils are used in 6or7sho, situations@ 6here the co/,onent under ins,ection is laid in the coil and the resulting longitudinal /agnetisation 6ill assist in re2ealing fla6s in the co/,onent. The a,erture coils are also the /ost co//only used /ethods of achie2ing the de/agnetisation of co/,onents@ 9efore@ 9et6een and after M&F? ins,ections. 8hen ac is 9eing used@ the co/,onent is ,laced in the coil and@ 6hile the current is a,,lied@ the co/,onent is slo6ly 6ithdra6n =/aintaining align/ent 6ith the coils axis> to a distance of a,,roxi/ately 1.5 / =5 ft> fro/ the coil. ?e/agnetisation /ay also 9e achie2ed@ in an ac coil =and@ incidentally@ 9y all the other /ethods using ac to generate the /agnetic field>@ 9y gradually reducing the 2alue of the current 6hile the co/,onent is lying in the coil. 8here dc su,,lies are used to energise coils@ there is usually a ca,a9ility of reducing the a/,erage in s,ecified incre/ents 6hilst the direction of the current is alternately s6itched. This for/ of de/agnetisation is the /ost thorough as the dc%induced field ,enetrates dee,est in co/,onents under ins,ection. Follo6ing de/agnetisation a confir/atory test is /ade@ using a s,ecial flux /eter =or a suita9le /agnetic co/,ass> 9efore the co/,onent is thoroughly cleaned of all traces of /agnetic in7. Co/,onents should then 9e stored a6ay fro/ all /agnetic sources and any surface ,rotection restored 6hile a6aiting reinstallation@ re,air or re,lace/ent. 1".5." +adiogra,hic Fla6 ?etection =+F?> (ecause the /isuse of radiogra,hic e;ui,/ent could result in the release of ,hysically har/ful =ionising> radiation@ o,erators /ust 9e trained and a6are of the /any safety regulations and codes of ,ractice associated 6ith these ,rocedures. 1ircraft +F? ins,ections are@ therefore@ only done 9y ;ualified !?T ,ersonnel fro/ organisations a,,ro2ed under (C1+ 1*@ and 6ho are nationally registered as radiation 6or7ers. These 6or7ers are su9Bect to fre;uent /edical chec7s and 6ear sensiti2e fil/ 9adges to detect any radiation dosage to 6hich they /ay 9eco/e ex,osed. .hould the dosage exceed stringent li/its@ then the 6or7er is 6ithdra6n fro/ tas7s in2ol2ing ionising radiation. )nter,retation of radiogra,hic i/ages is also 2ery i/,ortant@ as incorrect conclusions could result in the acce,tance of unser2icea9le structures or@ con2ersely@ in the scra,,ing of safe structures. .tudents are@ ho6e2er@ re;uired to ha2e 7no6ledge of the funda/ental ,rinci,les of +F? and its a,,lications in aeros,ace ins,ections. &age 53
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engineering
?ue to the ha4ards of radiation@ it 6ill 9e necessary to isolate the aircraft and to 7ee, ,ersonnel at a safe distance fro/ the ins,ection area. The area should 9e ro,ed off@ 6ith radiation 6arning signs =a 9lac7 trefoil against a yello6 9ac7ground>@ clearly sho6n. Flashing lights and horns =or 7laxons> are also e/,loyed to signify that ionising radiation sources are in use in the area and that unauthorised ,ersonnel should 7ee, a6ay. The /ain sources of ionising radiation@ used in aeros,ace +F? ,rocedures@ in2ol2e the use of either G% or 'a//a%ray e/itters. (oth rays ha2e the a9ility to ,enetrate /aterials@ 6hich cannot 9e ,enetrated 9y 2isi9le light and are identical for/s of energy in the electro/agnetic s,ectru/ =refer to Fig. 1">. Their difference lies only in the 6ay in 6hich they are generated and the na/es gi2en the/ 9y the scientists 6ho disco2ered the/.
+adio
+adar T<
)nfra%red
+ays
U< +ays 8hite 5ight
G a 'a//a +ays
Cos/ic +ays
1/
13 /
3.31 / 3.1/
133 /
1 / 13 /
13 n/ 1n/
3.1 n/
13 %3
n/
13 %5 n/
13 %" n/
3.331 /
133 n/
3.31 n/
13 %# n/
13 % n/
The Electro/agnetic .,ectru/ Fig. 1" G%rays are electrically ,roduced in a cathode ray tu9e@ =refer to Fig. 1*> 6hich accelerates electrons@ released at the cathode@ to6ards a dense /etal =tungsten> target 6hich is e/9edded in the anode. The a/ount of electrons@ freed at the cathode@ is controlled 9y adBust/ent of the tu9e current@ 6hich is /easured in /illia/,s =/1>. The force of the collisions and@ hence@ the ,enetrating ,o6er of the G%rays@ is controlled 9y the ,otential difference 9et6een the cathode and the anode. The tu9e 2oltage is /easured in 7ilo2olts =7<>. Ty,ical aeros,ace +F? ,rocedures use /achines generating G%rays in the range of 137< to 2537<@ de,ending on the ,enetrati2e ,o6er re;uired.
&age 5#
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engineering
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical &otential ?ifference =7<> Free Electrons Cathode %2e 1node W2e
Tu9e Current =/1>
E2acuated 'lass En2elo,e
Tungsten Target set in Co,,er 1node G%+ay (ea/
.i/,lified G%+ay Tu9e Fig. 1* -n stri7ing the target@ the electrons collide 6ith the ato/ic ,articles of the tungsten and the resulting energy exchange is released as heat@ light and a s/all ,ercentage of ,ac7ages =,hotons> of energy. 1 large co,,er anode@ in 6hich the target is /ounted@ dissi,ates the heat@ generated 9y the electron strea/. The anode and the glass en2elo,e are@ in turn@ cooled 9y circulating gas@ oil or 6ater 9eing ,u/,ed around the/. The a/ount of light is confined to a dull red glo6 at the target and is insignificant. The ,hotons@ ho6e2er@ 9eha2e in a si/ilar /anner to rays of light in that they tra2el in straight lines. They also o9ey the in2erse s;uare la6 in that@ as they tra2el fro/ the source@ their area of incidence increases 9ut their intensity decreases in a ratio to the s;uare of the distant fro/ the source. -ne i/,ortant safety as,ect is that G%rays are generated electrically and@ hence@ can 9e s6itched off@ either auto/atically@ 9y a ti/er s6itch@ or /anually@ 9y the !?T ,erson at the control ,anel. 'a//a radiation is the na/e gi2en to the ,hotons of energy 6hich result fro/ the ato/ic collisions occurring during the disintegration of radioacti2e isoto,es. 1n isoto,e is an ele/ent@ the nucleus of 6hich gains or loses ,articles such that the ato/ic 6eight changes though the che/ical ,ro,erties re/ain unchanged.
&age 55
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engineering
The naturally occurring isoto,es of /any ele/ents are ;uite sta9le in their changed state@ 6hile others 9eco/e unsta9le and@ in atte/,ting to regain a sta9le state@ e/it ,hotons of energy =9eco/e radio%acti2e> due to the nucleic ,article collisions. 'a//a radiation cannot 9e s6itched off =it can only 9e shielded> and continues until the ele/ent reaches a sta9le condition.
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engineering
'a//a radiation sources@ used in +F? ,rocedures@ include artificially created isoto,es such as Co9alt 3@ )ridiu/ 102 and Etter9iu/ 1 0 =the nu/9er follo6ing the ele/ent na/e is the ato/ic 6eight or relati2e ato/ic /ass of the isoto,e>. 1s ,re2iously stated@ 'a//a rays can exist o2er si/ilar 6a2elengths as G% rays 6ith si/ilar ,ro,erties 9ut@ generally@ the 'a//a rays@ e/itted 9y the co//only used radio%isoto,es@ ha2e a greater ,enetrati2e ,o6er. Their ,o6er does@ ho6e2er@ decrease 6ith the ,assage of ti/e as the isoto,e atte/,ts to gain a sta9le state. The decrease in ,o6er o2er ti/e is referred to as the half 2alue ,eriod =also called half life> and is a /easure of the ti/e 6hen the acti2ity of the isoto,e 6ill decay to half that of its original or for/er 2alue. Ta9le 2 sho6s so/e ty,ical radio%isoto,es@ their ,enetrati2e ,o6er =co/,ared to G%rays>@ the /etal thic7nesses through 6hich they can ,enetrate and their half 2alue ,eriods. Ta9le 2 '1MM1%+1E .-U+CE. C-M&1+E? T- G%+1E 'E!E+1T-+. +adio% &enetrati2e &o6er Thic7ness of Metal $alf <alue )soto,e =co/,ared to G%rays> =ca,a9le of ,enetrating> &eriod Etter9iu/ 1 0 3.15 D 3.#3 Me< 2 // D 33 // .teel 32 days )ridiu/ 102 3.31 D 1.23 Me< // D 133 // .teel "# days Thuliu/ 1"3 3.3*3 D 3.0 Me< 2 // D 12 // 1lu/iniu/ 13# days Co9alt 3 1.1" D 1.33 Me< 53 // D 233 // .teel 5.3 years Caesiu/ 13" 3. D 3. " Me< 25 // D 133 // .teel 2 .2 years The ad2antage of using a radio%isoto,e as o,,osed to an G%ray /achine lies not only in the fact that the ,enetrating ,o6er is su,erior 9ut also the e;ui,/ent is less 9ul7y than the G%ray /achines and there is no re;uire/ent for a /ains electrical su,,ly. The radioacti2e source is usually so s/all that it can 9e ,laced inside o9Bects such as engine shafts@ using s/all dia/eter@ flexi9le guide tu9es. The disad2antages in their use is the need for greater ,rotection /easures@ in2ol2ing larger isolation areas@ and the ,ossi9ility of longer ex,osures as the isoto,es decay in strength 6ith the ,assage of ti/e. 1nother dra69ac7@ and ,articularly so 6ith the /ore ,o6erful Co9alt 3 source@ is that the resulting radiogra,hs tend to 9e less sensiti2e than those created 6ith lo6%,o6er G%rays. The radiogra,h is ,roduced 6hen the a,,ro,riate radiation source is directed at the co/,onents under ins,ection and a light%,roof en2elo,e =or cassette>@ containing a sheet of radiogra,hic fil/@ is ,laced on the re/ote side of the co/,onent =refer to Fig. 10>. ?e,ending on the si4e of the ins,ection area there /ay 9e se2eral sheets of fil/ en2elo,es@ ,laced si/ultaneously@ to ,ro2ide ade;uate co2erage at one ex,osure.
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engineering
+adiation .ource =G% or 'a//a +ays>
Metallic .te, 8edge &lastic Fil/ (ase =E/ulsion on (oth .ides
&roduction of a +adiogra,h Fig. 10 The fil/s@ used in radiogra,hy@ are 2ery si/ilar to those used in ,hotogra,hy exce,t that the e/ulsion is a,,lied to 9oth sides of the trans,arent@ ,lastic 9ase. The e/ulsion contains /icrosco,ic grains of sil2er halides@ 6hich are sensiti2e to the ,hotons of energy =and light>. 8hen ex,osed to the rays@ a change ta7es ,lace in the sil2er ,articles such that@ 6hen the fil/ is de2elo,ed and fixed@ they turn into different degrees of dar7 /etallic co/,ounds@ de,ending on the a/ount of radiation they ha2e recei2ed. The sil2er 6hich has not recei2ed radiation is unaffected and is 6ashed a6ay in the de2elo,ing and fixing ,rocesses. 1 negati2e%ty,e i/age of the co/,onent is thus for/ed@ the dar7ness =density> of 6hich de,ends on the ;uantity of radiation ,assing through the s,eci/en. The thic7er the s,eci/en@ the /ore radiation it 6ill a9sor9 and@ conse;uently@ it 6ill ,ro2ide a lighter =less dense> i/age. The accurate inter,retation of defects@ indicated on a radiogra,h@ re;uires a great deal of s7ill and a good 7no6ledge of the aircraft structure. 8ithout the 7no6ledge it 6ould 9e easy for the !?T technician to o2erloo7 faults such as distorted or /issing ,arts. E2en the ,resence of leaded fuel in the tan7 of a ,iston%engined aircraft can /as7 defects. The inter,retation /ay 9e si/,lified if radiogra,hs of ser2icea9le structure are a2aila9le for co/,arison.
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engineering

+adiogra,hic ins,ections are often done during the /anufacturing stages@ to chec7 for such faults asF Metallurgical defects in castings and 6eldsF these ,roduce ,atterns recognisa9le 9y an ex,erienced 2ie6er. &orosity 6ill reduce the a/ount of /aterial through 6hich the rays /ust ,ass and a dar7er i/age 6ill result Crac7s in 6eldsF these are difficult to detect@ as the angle at 6hich the radiogra,h is ta7en is i/,ortant. The source should 9e a9solutely nor/al to the direction of the sus,ected crac7.
Ty,ical +F? ,rocedures@ done during routine aircraft /aintenance@ include the search forF CorrosionF this 6ill sho6 u, as a fu44y i/age@ 9ut the ,resence of ,aint and Bointing co/,ound 6ill /a7e it difficult to detect. )nter%granular corrosion /ay not 9e detected until it has reached an ad2anced state and affects the /etal surface. 1 corrosion ,it@ 6here there is a change in thic7ness@ is /ore readily detected Crac7sF stress crac7s often run along a line of ri2ets@ 9ut the edge of Bointing co/,ounds@ used during the 6et asse/9ly of ri2eted Boints@ often gi2es a false indication. +adiogra,hs /ay sho6 indications of crac7s@ 6hich@ e2entually@ are found to 9e crac7s in tan7 sealant. )t is so/eti/es ,ossi9le to o,en u, crac7s@ 9efore ins,ection@ 9y a,,lying a tension load 9y Bac7ing 5oose articles@ ri2eting faults and ,oor asse/9ly techni;ues 5e2els of fluids in accu/ulators and the ,resence of 6ater in co/,osite /aterials.
1".5.* Miscellaneous +adiation Techni;ues -ther techni;ues@ 6hich in2ol2e the use of radiation of one ty,e or another@ includeF Fluorosco,yF using either of the ,re2iously /entioned sources the standard sheet fil/ is re,laced 9y a fluorescent screen. This ena9les /o2ing i/ages to 9e ca,tured. For safety reasons a 2ideo ca/era is focused on the screen and the i/age 2ie6ed at a safe distance. 1n exa/,le of ^fluorosco,y^ is 6here oscillation in a tur9ine shaft of gas tur9ine engine 9eing ^run^ can 9e o9ser2ed. 1 /ore co//on exa/,le of its use is ,ro2ided 9y the lo6%energy G%raying of luggage@ at air,ort de,arture security ^chec7%ins^ Ther/ogra,hyF using heat radiation@ a heat%sensiti2e ca/era is used to ins,ect areas of aircraft in ,articular co/,osites. )n the ,assi2e /ode the aircraft is ins,ected shortly after landing and te/,erature ^cold^ s,ots 6ill indicate de%la/ination or os/osis. The acti2e /ode consists of /icro6a2e radiations 9eing targeted at sus,ect co/,onents 6ith the area 9eing ins,ected 9y the ca/era in the sa/e 6ay as the ,assi2e /ode. &age 50
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engineering
17#6 Di'a''em6l2 an) Re4a''em6l2 Techni7!e' ?isasse/9ly and re%asse/9ly@ in the ter/s of aircraft@ can co2er a range of acti2ities fro/ co/,lete airfra/es do6n to co/,onent /aintenance@ 6ith se2eral ste,s in 9et6een. The reasons for dis/antling and re%asse/9ly /ay includeF

Co/,lete airfra/e disasse/9ly for roadAair shi,/ent +e,lace/ent of /aBor co/,onentsA/odules +e,lace/ent of /inor co/,onentsA/odules ?isasse/9ly a re%asse/9ly of /aBor co/,onents ?isasse/9ly a re%asse/9ly of /inor co/,onents
1". .1 Co/,lete 1irfra/es )t /ay 9e necessary to dis/antle a co/,lete aircraft for the ,ur,ose of trans,ortation 9y road or 9y air. This could 9e for reco2ery fro/ an accident site@ re/ote fro/ the airfield or for /o2e/ent of the aircraft 6hen it is totally non% air6orthy@ due ,erha,s to se2ere corrosion or an un7no6n /aintenance history. (ecause /any larger@ /odern aircraft are /anufactured at se2eral different locations@ the co/,leted /odules are asse/9led in the final 9uild hall of the ,ri/ary /anufacturer. The Boining ,oints are often 7no6n as trans,ortation Boints@ and@ in extre/e instances@ can 9e the ,oints 6here the aircraft /ay 9e dis/antled again to allo6 trans,ortation =refer to Fig. 23>.
Ty,ical Manufacturers Coining &oints Fig. 23
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engineering
The instructions for the dis/antling o,eration 6ill 9e found either in the aircrafts Maintenance Manual or in a s,ecial dis/antling ,rocedure@ issued 9y the /anufacturer. ?uring the dis/antling o,eration@ ,recautions /ust 9e ta7en to ,re2ent inBury and da/age. 'eneral ,recautions 6ould include such ite/s asF

The aircraft should@ if at all ,ossi9le@ 9e dis/antled 6ithin a hangar. )f this is not ,ossi9le@ then le2el and fir/ ground 6ill suffice .ufficient clearance in the hangar /ust 9e a2aila9le@ 9oth to clear the airfra/e 6hen on Bac7s@ and to allo6 hea2y lifting cranes enough roo/ to /anoeu2re o2er the aircraft 1ll ,recautions@ in accordance 6ith the /anufacturers instructions@ /ust 9e ta7en ,rior to the aircraft entering the hangarL such as de%fuelling and the re/o2al of de2ices such as e/ergency oxygen canisters 8hen the aircraft is Bac7ed%u,@ all trestles /ust also 9e ,laced in ,osition. This allo6s the aircraft to 9e cli/9ed u,on and@ later@ ensures that it 6ill not o2er9alance 6hen a /aBor ,art =such as a 6ing>@ is re/o2ed.
8hilst the /anufacturers instructions 6ill gi2e the details for a s,ecific aircraft@ the follo6ing se;uence of dis/antling gi2es an idea of the correct order of disasse/9lyF

Main ,lanes Tail unit Undercarriage units Centre section Fuselage.
+e%asse/9ly is in the re2erse order of disasse/9ly@ and all ,arts /ust 9e cleaned@ ,rotected and ser2icea9le@ ,rior to their installation. 1". .2 +e,lace/ent of MaBor Co/,onentsAModules This ty,e of o,eration 6ill nor/ally 9e co/,leted at a large /aintenance 9ase@ 6here all the re;uired e;ui,/ent is a2aila9le. 1n exa/,le could 9e the re,lace/ent of a 6ing that has suffered /aBor da/age. -ther ty,es of si/ilar 6or7 /ight 9e the re,lace/ent of da/aged 6ing ti,s@ e/,ennage surfaces and nose cones. )f the aircraft is at an outstation 6hen the da/age occurs@ confir/ation should 9e sought as to 6hether the aircraft can 9e flo6n 9ac7 to 9ase for re,air@ or re,aired 6here it is.
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engineering
1". .3 +e,lace/ent of Minor Co/,onentsAModules .o/e co/,onents ha2e to 9e re,aired 9y re,lace/ent. +e,airs to flying control surfaces@ for exa/,le@ are often done in a re,air 9ay. The co/,onent /ay 9e re,laced on the aircraft 9y a ser2icea9le ite/@ or reinstalled once the re,air in the 9ay has 9een co/,leted. -ther co/,onents@ 6hich are re,laced first and re,aired later@ /ight include so/e structural ite/s such as doors of all ty,es@ and /ost fairings and co6lings. Most of these tas7s are si/,le re/o2al and re,lace/ent o,erations that are co2ered in the 1MM. 1". .# ?isasse/9ly and +e%asse/9ly of MaBor Co/,onents Most of the 6or7 done@ during this ,hase of /aintenance@ is scheduled in 6ith nor/al aircraft /aintenance. The co/,onents /ay not only 9e re/o2ed and reinstalled at different ti/es during the /aintenance@ 9ut 6or7 6ill also 9e done on the ite/s 6hilst they are re/o2ed. They /ay also 9e re/o2ed to allo6 access to other ,arts of the airfra/e during the /aintenance. )te/s such as engines@ ,ro,ellers@ landing gears and 6heels re;uire so/e for/ of /aintenance. This /ay include a si/,le condition chec7@ or a full o2erhaul of its co/,onent ,arts@ allo6ing chec7s on internal co/,onent ,arts for 6ear@ da/age and corrosion. The full ,rocedure for this ty,e of 6or7 6ill 9e carried out in accordance 6ith the CMM. This 9oo7 6ill gi2e all the o,erations re;uired to dis/antle the co/,onent and 6ill ad2ise 6hat to loo7 for 6hilst the ite/ is undergoing /aintenance. )t 6ill also state the re%asse/9ly /ethod@ including the fitting of ne6 ,arts such as seals@ gas7ets@ oil and other consu/a9les that ha2e to 9e re,laced@ during o2erhaul. 1". .5 ?isasse/9ly and +e%asse/9ly of Minor Co/,onents 1 ty,ical ,assenger aircraft can contain hundreds of s/all co/,onents that 6or7 together as ,arts of a larger syste/. This can include a 6ide range of hydraulic and ,neu/atic co/,onents that can 9e /echanical@ electro/echanical or electrical in o,eration. -ther co/,onents /ight include those installed into fuel@ air conditioning@ ,ressurisation@ electrical and electronic syste/s. These co/,onents ha2e their o6n CMM to allo6 /aintenance and trou9le%shooting to 9e done. .o/e co/,onents are only re/o2ed once they fail =-n%Condition>@ 6hile others recei2e regular /aintenance.
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engineering
)nstru/ents@ electric and electronic co/,onents can 9e dis/antled and ser2iced 9y the aircraft o,erator. )t nor/ally re;uires the use of a dedicated o2erhaul facility@ 6hich can ,ro2ide the correct en2iron/ental conditions and is e;ui,,ed 6ith the s,ecial test e;ui,/ent re;uired to carry out /aintenance and re,air. -,erators of s/aller aircraft@ or those 6ho o,erate only a fe6 aircraft@ 6ill usually send co/,onents re;uiring re,air or /aintenance to a third ,arty /aintenance organisation. This co/,any 6ill ha2e the s,ecial facilities@ e;ui,/ent and ,ersonnel@ to co/,lete the re;uired 6or7 on co/,onents fro/ a nu/9er of different custo/ers. 1". . (asic ?isasse/9ly and +e%asse/9ly Techni;ues 1ll of the ,re2iously /entioned ,rocedures re;uire the use of the correct techni;ues o2er a 6ide range of 6or7ing ,ractices. These techni;ues 6ill ensure that the co/,onents are re/o2ed@ dis/antled@ re%asse/9led and re%installed in accordance 6ith 9oth the rele2ant /anuals and using the correct standard ,ractices. 1n 1MM and CMM dictate the correct ty,e and si4e of loc7ing 6ire or s,lit ,in to 9e used during o2erhaul or /aintenance of a co/,onent. These ,u9lications also sti,ulate exact detail of ite/s such as the loc7 6ire angle of a,,roach and the correct ,ositioning of a s,lit ,in. 1MM cha,ters 23 and "3 list the standard ,ractices that should 9e used during o2erhaul. -ther loc7ing de2ices include ite/s such as single ta9 6ashers@ sha7e%,roof 6ashers@ circli,s and loc7ing rings. .o/e can only 9e used once only 6hilst others are re%used ,ro2ided they are still ser2icea9le. The re,lace/ent of s,ring 6ashers is ad2ised during o2erhaul and re,air@ es,ecially on engines and ,u/,s. -ther de2ices used for loc7ing or holding fasteners in ,osition@ such as /ulti%ta9 6ashers and loc7ing ,lates can nor/ally 9e reused. .tiff nuts 6ith fi9re or nylon inserts can 9e chec7ed to ascertain if a certain degree of stiffness is still a2aila9le. )f the nut can 9e run along a thread 9y hand it should 9e re,laced. They should not 9e used in high te/,erature areas. )n all /atters relating to aircraft@ the /anufacturer has the final say on 6hich fasteners can 9e reused and 6hich /ust 9e re,laced. (ecause friction is essential to 7ee, the fasteners secure@ so/eti/es it is necessary to do a tor;ue chec7 on the 9oltAnut co/9ination@ in order to confir/ their continuing ser2icea9ility. This is es,ecially true of all /etal fasteners that can nor/ally 9e re%used.
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engineering
The /aBority of nuts@ 9olts and set%scre6s@ on an aircraft@ are su9Bect to a standard tor;ue 2alue. This de,ends on their /aterial@ finish@ lu9rication@ thread ty,e and si4e@ although the /anufacturers tor;ue 2alue 6ill 9e the correct one to use. The correct tor;ue loadings are nor/ally a,,lied using a tor;ue 6rench that has 9een ,re2iously cali9rated to the correct 2alue. )n so/e s,ecial instances@ ,re% load indicating =&5)> 6ashers /ay 9e s,ecified. 8hen asse/9ling any co/,onent or /aBor airfra/e ,art@ the /anufacturer 6ill s,ecify 6hether the tor;ue 2alue is lu9ricated or dry. 5u9ricated 2alues are /easured 6ith the threads and all /ating surfaces lightly lu9ricated 6ith oil@ sealant or anti%sei4e co/,ound as a,,ro,riate. 8hen asse/9ling so/e co/,onents@ it /ay 9e 2ital that certain align/ents@ di/ensions or ,rofiles are achie2ed. ?uring initial ,roduction@ /ost of the airfra/e and /any of the co/,onents are asse/9led in a Big. 1 Big is de2ice that allo6s the /anufacture@ re,air or rigging of co/,onents to a high di/ensional accuracy. This guarantees consistency o2er a nu/9er of co/,onents. The Big holds all of the ite/s securely@ so that@ 6hen asse/9led@ the 6hole co/,onent is exactly the sha,e that the designer has sti,ulated. Cigs are used to 9uild fuselage and 6ing sections in the factory. They are also used to ensure that s/all actuators are ,re%set to the exact length@ to assist in rigging the controls containing the actuator. 1". ." ./all &art and Co/,onent )dentification 8hen disasse/9ling or re/o2ing any co/,onent@ it is 2ital that all s/all ite/s such as 9olts@ scre6s@ nuts@ 6ashers and shi/s are clearly identified. This in2ol2es not only identifying the ite/s 9y ,art nu/9er@ 9ut also recording their correct location and 6hich aircraft they ha2e 9een re/o2ed fro/ as@ in so/e hangars@ /ore than one aircraft /ay 9e in a state of disasse/9ly at any one ti/e. .o/e ite/s /ay si/,ly 9e attached to the /aBor asse/9ly using /any s/all tie on 9ags 6ith identification la9els. )f a nu/9er of different si4ed fasteners are re/o2ed fro/ a co/,onent such as a 6indscreen@ they can 9e located in a locally%/ade holding Big 6hich 7ee,s the different ,arts in their sa/e relati2e ,osition to the original ite/. This should allo6 all the scre6s to 9e returned to their original locations 6hen the screen is reinstalled. 1ny ,art 6hich is re/o2ed /ust ha2e its identity and location retained until it is reinstalled.
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engineering
1". .* ?iscarding of &arts
1 nu/9er of ite/s@ 6hen they are re/o2ed fro/ their original ,osition@ ha2e to 9e discarded. The once only ,olicy is a co/9ination of the /anufacturers reco//endations together 6ith nor/al engineering ,ractice. )te/s that are usually discarded at re/o2al are filters@ sealing rings@ desiccants@ fuels and oils of all ty,es. There are /any other ite/s that ha2e a gi2en life. This /ay 9e counted in flying hours@ calendar ti/e or o,erating cycles@ 6hich 6ill /ean that ite/s ha2e to 9e re,laced throughout the life of the aircraft. )f aircraft@ or /aBor co/,onents of the/@ ha2e 9een disasse/9led@ it /ay 9e ,olicy to re,lace co/,onents 6ith 4ero life ite/s ,rior to re%asse/9ly. This 6ill allo6 the aircraft to fly for considera9le ti/e 9efore any ,arts 9eco/e due for re,lace/ent. 1". .0 Freeing .ei4ed Co/,onents 8hen dis/antling any ,art of an aircraft@ it is not unusual for the technician to encounter a sei4ed fastener. ?e,ending u,on its location@ the 1MM /ay reco//end a range of actions to assist in the re/o2al of the ite/=s>. These actions /ay in2ol2e use of ,enetrating oil@ 6hich 6or7s its 6ay do6n through the sei4ed threads@ ,ro2iding 9oth an anti%corrosion action and lu9rication for the threads. -ther actions /ay in2ol2e the a,,lication of heat or cold to a s,ecific ,art@ so that their relati2e dia/eters change@ thus lo6ering the friction 9et6een the ,arts. 1". .13 Use of Correct Tools )t is nor/al for technicians to o6n a co/,rehensi2e tool 7it@ containing tools reco//ended for the 6or7 ,lanned and 6hich are of the highest ;uality. )n a nu/9er of situations@ it /ay 9e ,ossi9le for a technician to use an incorrect tool that /ay a,,ear to 9e the correct one for the tas7. )t is /ost i/,ortant that only the correct tools are used for each and e2ery /aintenance tas7. 8hen@ for exa/,le@ using a cross ,oint scre6dri2er@ it is ,ossi9le to find at least six different ty,es of scre6 9its@ each of 6hich only fits its o6n res,ecti2e scre6 head slot. The re/o2al of nuts fro/ 9olts is nor/ally acco/,lished using a soc7et and 6rench set and these soc7ets can 9e of the t6el2e%,oint or six% ,oint ty,e. 8hen s,anners need to 9e used@ ,reference should 9e gi2en to a ring s,anner rather than an o,en%ended s,anner. 1dBusta9le s,anners or /ole gri,s should ne2er 9e used on aircraft.
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engineering
The /anufacturer of the aircraft often s,ecifies s,ecial tools@ 6hen standard tools are una9le to co/,lete the tas7. Unless a,,ro2ed to do so@ the technician should ne2er su9stitute con2entional tools for the s,ecial tools that are called for in the /anual. ?a/age to the ,art 9eing 6or7ed u,on 6ill al/ost al6ays result fro/ the use of incorrect tools. 1". .11 Mur,hys 5a6 This la6 states thatF )f a ,art or co/,onent can 9e installed incorrectly@ so/eone@ so/e6here 6ill install it that 6ay. There are nu/erous solutions in the fight against this ,ro9le/. For exa/,le@ 6hen a ,air of ,i,es or hoses are to 9e Boined@ there is the ris7 of the t6o ,airs of cou,lings 9eing cross connected. This could result in serious da/age if the ,i,es carried fuel and hydraulic oil. To ,re2ent this ha,,ening@ ,i,es and cou,lings usually ha2e different dia/eters. 1lternati2ely@ the t6o sets of cou,lings 6ould 9e located at different ,laces@ so the ,i,es could not 9e 6rongly connected under any circu/stances. The sa/e logic is a,,lied to control ca9les that@ of course@ /ust also ne2er 9e cross%connected. )n this instance@ the turn9uc7les are located at slightly different locations at each ca9le 9rea7@ again /a7ing it i/,ossi9le to connect the 6rong ,air of ca9les together.
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engineering
1A ABNORMAL E?ENTS
1ll aircraft are designed to 6ithstand the nor/al flight and landing loads ex,ected during a ty,ical flight cycle. These loads 6ill include the nor/al /anoeu2res the aircraft is ex,ected to /a7e. The designer 6ill 9uild in a safety factor to co/,ensate for loads slightly larger than nor/al. .o/eti/es extre/e circu/stances occur 6hich cause stresses outside the nor/al design li/its. )f the design li/its are exceeded@ then da/age /ay occur to the aircraft. )f it is 7no6n or sus,ected that the aircraft has 9een su9Bected to excessi2e loads@ then an ins,ection should 9e /ade@ to ascertain the nature of any da/age that /ay ha2e occurred. The /anufacturer 6ill nor/ally ha2e antici,ated the nature of so/e of these occurrences and detailed s,ecial chec7s for these 19nor/al -ccurrences. 1A#1 T2.e' -1 a6n-&mal -cc!&&ence' The aircraft /aintenance /anual 6ill nor/ally list the ty,es of a9nor/al occurrences needing s,ecial ins,ection. The list /ay 2ary@ de,ending on the aircraft. The follo6ing ite/s are a selection fro/ a ty,ical aircraftF 5ightning stri7es $igh%intensity radiated fields ,enetration $ea2y or o2er6eight landing Flight through se2ere tur9ulence (urst tyre Fla, or slat o2er%s,eed Flight through 2olcanic ash Tail stri7e Mercury s,illage ?ragged engine or engine sei4ure $igh%energy sto,.
1A#$ T2.e' -1 )ama0e )t is not intended to descri9e the ty,es of da/age a,,lica9le to e2ery ty,e of occurrence. )t is /ore i/,ortant to understand that@ often@ the da/age /ay 9e re/ote fro/ the source of the occurrence. )n /any cases the ins,ection 6ould 9e /ade in t6o stages. )f no da/age is found in the first stage then the second stage /ay not 9e necessary. )f da/age is found@ then the second stage ins,ection is done. This is li7ely to 9e a /ore detailed exa/ination.
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engineering
1A#+ Li0h(nin0 S(&i"e'
(oth lightning stri7es and high%intensity radiated fields =$)+F> are discussed in Module 5. Consideration is gi2en in this to,ic to their effects and the ins,ections re;uired in the e2ent of their occurrence. 5ightning@ of course@ is the discharge of electricity in the at/os,here@ usually 9et6een highly charged cloud for/ations@ or 9et6een a charged cloud and the ground. )f an aircraft is flying in the 2icinity of the discharge or it is on the ground@ the lightning /ay stri7e the aircraft. This 6ill result in 2ery high 2oltages and currents ,assing through the structure. 1ll se,arate ,arts of the aircraft are electrically 9onded together@ to ,ro2ide a lo6% resistance ,ath to conduct the lightning a6ay fro/ areas 6here da/age /ay ha4ard the aircraft. 1*.3.1 Effects of a 5ightning .tri7e 5ightning stri7es are li7ely to ha2e t6o /ain effects on the aircraftF .tri7e da/age 6here the discharge enters the aircraft. This 6ill nor/ally 9e on the extre/ities of the aircraft@ the 6ing ti,s@ nose cone and tail cone and on the leading edge of the 6ings and tail,lane. The da/age 6ill usually 9e in the for/ of s/all circular holes@ usually in clusters@ and acco/,anied 9y 9urning or discoloration. .tatic discharge da/age at the 6ing ti,s@ trailing edges and antenna. The da/age 6ill 9e in the for/ of local ,itting and 9urning. (onding stri,s and static 6ic7s /ay also disintegrate@ due to the high charges. 1*.3.2 )ns,ection The /aintenance schedule or /aintenance /anual should s,ecify the ins,ections a,,lica9le to the aircraft 9ut@ in general@ 9onding stra,s and static discharge 6ic7s should 9e ins,ected for da/age. ?a/aged 9onding stra,s on control surfaces /ay lead to trac7ing across control surface 9earings@ this in turn /ay cause 9urning@ 9rea7 u, or sei4ure due to 6elding of the 9earings. This ty,e of da/age /ay result in resistance to /o2e/ent of the controls@ 6hich can 9e chec7ed 9y doing a functional chec7 of the controls. 1dditional chec7s /ay includeF Exa/ine engine co6lings and engines for e2idence of 9urning or ,itting. 1s in control 9earings@ trac7ing of the engine 9earings /ay ha2e occurred. Manufacturers /ay reco//end chec7ing the oil filters and chi, detectors for signs of conta/ination. This chec7 /ay need to 9e re,eated for a s,ecified nu/9er of running hours after the occurrence.
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Exa/ine fuselage s7in@ ,articularly ri2ets for 9urning or ,itting. )f the landing gear 6as extended@ so/e da/age /ay ha2e occurred to the lo6er ,arts of the gear. Exa/ine for signs of discharge. 1fter the structural exa/ination it 6ill 9e necessary to do functional chec7s of the radio@ radar@ instru/ents@ co/,asses@ electrical circuits and flying controls. 1 9onding resistance chec7 should also 9e done. 1A#3 E<am.le -1 a P-'( Li0h(nin0 S(&i"e P&-ce)!&e This ,rocedure is an extract fro/ the (oeing "5" Maintenance Manual. )t is included to gi2e an idea of a ty,ical aircraft ins,ection ,rocedure. !ot all of the details ha2e 9een su,,lied@ 9ut there is enough infor/ation to ,ro2ide a general idea. The student 6ill not 9e exa/ined in detail on this ,rocedure@ 9ut should 9e a9le to identify s,ecific chec7s that highlight the ,re2ious notes. This ,rocedure has these three tas7sF Exa/ination of the External .urfaces for 5ightning .tri7e Exa/ination of the internal Co/,onents for 5ightning .tri7e )ns,ection and -,erational Chec7 of the +adio and !a2igation .yste/s.
1*.#.1 (asic &rotection The aircraft has all the necessary and 7no6n lightning stri7e ,rotection /easures. Most of the external ,arts of the aircraft are /etal structure 6ith sufficient thic7ness to 9e resistant to a lightning stri7e. This /etal asse/9ly is its 9asic ,rotection. The thic7ness of the /etal surface is sufficient to ,rotect the internal s,aces fro/ a lightning stri7e. The /etal s7in also gi2es ,rotection fro/ the entrance of electro/agnetic energy into the electrical 6ires of the aircraft. The /etal s7in does not ,re2ent all electro/agnetic energy fro/ going into the electrical 6iringL ho6e2er@ it does 7ee, the energy to a satisfactory le2el. )f lightning stri7es the aircraft@ then all of the aircraft /ust 9e fully exa/ined@ to find the areas of the lightning stri7e entrance and exit ,oints. 8hen loo7ing at the areas of entrance and exit@ this structure should 9e carefully exa/ined to find all of the da/age that has occurred.
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engineering
1*.#.2 .tri7e 1reas
5ightning stri7e entrance and exit ,oints =refer to Fig. 1> are@ usually@ found in Qone 1@ 9ut also can occur in Qones 2 and 3. 5ightning stri7es can@ ho6e2er@ occur to any ,art of the aircraft@ including the fuselage@ 6ing s7in trailing edge ,anels. 6ing%9ody fairing@ antennas@ 2ertical sta9iliser@ hori4ontal sta9iliser@ and along the 6ing trailing edge in Qone 2.
1a(
Qone 1. $igh &ossi9ility of .tri7e Qone 2. 12erage &ossi9ility of
.tri7e
Qone 3. 5o6 &ossi9ility of .tri7e 1 V 1erials and &rotrusions ( V .har, Corners of Fuselage and Control .urfaces
+is7 1reas for 5ightning .tri7es Fig. 1
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engineering
1*.#.3 .igns of ?a/age
)n /etal structures@ stri7e da/age usually sho6s as ,its@ 9urn /ar7s or s/all circular holes. These holes can 9e grou,ed in one location or di2ided around a large area. (urned or discoloured s7in also sho6s lightning stri7e da/age. )n co/,osite =non%/etallic> structures@ solid la/inate or honeyco/9 da/age sho6s as discoloured ,aint. )t also sho6s as 9urned@ ,unctured@ or de%la/inated s7in ,lies. $idden da/age can also exist. This da/age can extend around the 2isi9le area. .igns of arcing and 9urning can also occur around the attach/ents to the su,,orting structure. 1ircraft co/,onents /ade of ferro/agnetic /aterial /ay 9eco/e strongly /agnetised 6hen su9Bected to large currents. 5arge currents@ flo6ing fro/ the lightning stri7e in the aircraft structure@ can cause this /agnetisation. 1*.#.# External Co/,onents at +is7 1 lightning stri7e usually attaches to the aircraft in Qone 1 and goes out a different Qone 1 area. Fre;uently@ a lightning stri7e can enter the nose rado/e and go out of the aircraft at one of the hori4ontal sta9iliser trailing edges. External co/,onents /ost li7ely to 9e hit are theF !ose +ado/e !acelles 8ing Ti,s $ori4ontal .ta9iliser Ti,s Ele2ators <ertical Fin Ti,s Ends of the 5eading Edge Fla,s Trailing Edge Fla, Trac7 Fairings 5anding 'ear 8ater 8aste ?rain Masts &itot &ro9es
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engineering
1*.#.5 Electrical Co/,onents at +is7 5ightning stri7es can cause ,ro9le/s to the electrical ,o6er syste/s and the external light 6iring The electrical syste/ is designed to 9e resistant to lightning stri7es 9ut a stri7e of unusually high intensity can ,ossi9ly da/age such electrical syste/ co/,onents as theF Fuel 2al2es 'enerators &o6er Feeders Electrical ?istri9ution .yste/s .tatic ?ischarge 8ic7s
!-TEF .hould inaccuracies in the stand9y co/,ass 9e re,orted@ after a lightning stri7e@ then a chec7 s6ing 6ill 9e necessary. Fre;uently@ a lightning stri7e is referred to as a static discharge. This is incorrect and /ay create the i/,ression that the /etal static discharge 6ic7s@ found on the external surfaces of the aircraft ,re2ent lightning stri7es. These static discharge 6ic7s are for 9leeding off static charge onlyL they ha2e no lightning ,rotection function. 1s the aircraft flies through the air@ it can ,ic7 u, a static charge fro/ the air =or fro/ dustA6ater ,articles in the air>. This static charge can 9eco/e large enough to 9leed off the aircraft on its o6n. )f the charge does not 9leed off the aircraft on its o6n@ it 6ill usually result in noise on the <$F or $F radios. The static discharge 6ic7s hel, to 9leed the static charge off in a 6ay that ,re2ents radio noise. The static discharge 6ic7s are fre;uently hit 9y lightning. .o/e ,ersonnel thin7 static dischargers are for lightning ,rotection. The dischargers ha2e the ca,acity to carry only a fe6 /icro%1/,s of current fro/ the collected static energy. The a,,roxi/ate 233@333 1/,s fro/ a lightning stri7e 6ill cause da/age to the discharge 6ic7 or /a7e it totally unser2icea9le. 1*.#. Exa/ination of External .urface Exa/ine the Qone 1 surface areas for signs of lightning stri7e da/age. ?o the exa/inations that follo6F Exa/ine the external surfaces carefully to find the entrance and exit ,oints of lightning stri7e. Ma7e sure to loo7 in the areas 6here one surface sto,s and another surface starts.
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engineering

Exa/ine the internal and external surfaces of the nose rado/e for 9urns@ ,unctures@ and ,inholes in the co/,osite honeyco/9 sand6ich structure. Exa/ine the /etallic structure for holes or ,its@ 9urned or discoloured s7in and ri2ets. Exa/ine the external surfaces of the co/,osite co/,onents for discoloured ,aint@ 9urned@ ,unctured@ or de%la/inated s7in ,lies. Use instru/ental !?) =!?T> /ethods or ta, tests to find co/,osite structure da/age 6hich is not 2isi9le. !oteF ?a/age@ such as de%la/ination can extend to the areas around the da/age area 6hich is not 2isi9le. ?e%la/ination can 9e detected 9y instru/ental !?) /ethods or 9y a ta, test. For a ta, test@ use a solid /etal disc and ta, the area adBacent to the da/aged area lightly. )f there is de% la/ination@ it 6ill ,roduce a sound that is different to the sound of a solid 9onded area.
Exa/ine the flight control surfaces for signs of stri7e da/age. )f the control surfaces sho6 signs of da/age@ exa/ine the surface hinges@ 9earings and 9onding Bu/,ers for signs of da/age. )f the ailerons sho6 signs of a lightning stri7e@ exa/ine the surface hinges@ 9earings@ and 9onding Bu/,ers for signs of da/age. )f the s,eed 9ra7es sho6 signs of a lightning stri7e@ exa/ine the surface hinges@ 9earings@ and 9onding Bu/,ers for signs of da/age. )f the trailing edge fla,s sho6 signs of a lightning stri7e@ exa/ine the surface hinges@ 9earings@ and 9onding Bu/,ers for signs of da/age. )f the leading edge fla,sAslats sho6 signs of a lightning stri7e@ exa/ine the surface hinges@ 9earings@ and 9onding Bu/,ers for signs of da/age. Exa/ine the nose rado/e for ,in%holes@ ,unctures and chi,,ed ,aint. 1lso ensure 9onding stra,s are correctly attached. Exa/ine the lightning di2erter stri,s and re,air or re,lace the/ if da/aged. )f there is rado/e da/age@ exa/ine the 8G+ antenna and 6a2e%guide for da/age.
1*.#." Functional Tests Functional tests 6ill need to 9e done as follo6sF Ensure the na2igation la/,s@ rotary lights and landing lights o,erate. )f the ,re2iously /entioned control exa/inations sho6 signs of da/ageF ?o an o,erational test of the rudder if there are signs of lightning stri7e da/age to the rudder or 2ertical sta9iliser. ?o an o,erational test of the ele2ator if there are signs of lightning stri7e da/age to the ele2ator or hori4ontal sta9iliser. ?o an o,erational test of the ailerons if there are signs of lightning stri7e da/age to the ailerons. ?o an o,erational test of the s,eed 9ra7es if there are signs of lightning stri7e da/age to the s,eed 9ra7e syste/. &age "
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engineering

?o an o,erational test of the trailing edge fla,s if there are signs of lightning stri7e da/age to the trailing edge fla,s. ?o an o,erational test of the leading edge fla,Aslats if there are signs of lightning stri7e da/age to the trailing edge fla,Aslats. )f there are signs of stri7e da/age to the landing gear doors@ disengage the /ain gear door loc7s and /anually /o2e the doors to ensure they /o2e s/oothly. <isually exa/ine the door lin7age@ hinges@ 9earings and 9onding Bu/,ers for stri7e da/age. Ensure the ,roxi/ity s6itch indication unit gi2es the correct indication.
1*.#.* Exa/ination of )nternal Co/,onents )f a lightning stri7e has caused a syste/ /alfunction@ do a full exa/ination of the syste/. ?o a chec7 of the stand%9y co/,ass syste/ if the flight cre6 re,orted a 2ery large co/,ass de2iation. Ma7e sure the fuel ;uantity syste/ is accurate. This can 9e achie2ed 9y a ()TE test. Exa/ine the air data sensors for signs of stri7e da/age. ?o an o,erational test of the ,itot syste/ if there are signs of da/age to the ,ro9es. ?o a test of the static syste/ if there are signs of da/age near the static ,orts. ?o an o,erational chec7 of any of the follo6ing syste/s that did not o,erate follo6ing the stri7e@ or if the flight cre6 re,orted a ,ro9le/@ or if there 6as any da/age found near the syste/ antennaF $F co//unications syste/ <$F co//unications syste/ )5. na2igation syste/ Mar7er 9eacon syste/ +adio alti/eter syste/ 8eather radar syste/ <-+ syste/ 1TC syste/ ?ME syste/ 1uto/atic ?irection Finder =1?F> syste/
)f one or /ore of the ,re2ious syste/s ha2e ,ro9le/s 6ith their o,erational chec7s@ exa/ine and do a test of the coaxial ca9les and connectors.
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engineering
1*.#.0 +eturn the 1ircraft to .er2ice 1fter all areas ha2e 9een ins,ected and lightning da/age has 9een re,aired@ co/,onents re,laced as necessary and tests co/,leted if necessary@ the aircraft /ay 9e returned to ser2ice. 1A#* /i0h In(en'i(2 Ra)ia(e) %iel)' (/IR% Pene(&a(i-n Module 5 discusses electro/agnetic ,heno/ena@ in ,articular the ,ro9le/ of electro/agnetic interference. $)+F /ay 9e generated 9y air9orne trans/itters such as high%,o6ered radar or radio. to co//ercial aircraft. )ncreased use of digital e;ui,/ent has increased the ,ro9le/. $)+F can 9e generated fro/ an internal =6ithin the aircraft and its syste/s> or external source =i.e. $)+F /ay 9e trans/itted 9y /ilitary aircraft in close ,roxi/ity>. 1ll of the syste/s 6hich /ight cause@ or 9e affected 9y@ $)+F@ /ust 9e suita9ly ,rotected. Electronic de2elo,/ents ha2e yielded greater /iniaturisation and co/,lexity in integrated circuits =)C> and other electronic circuitry and asse/9lies@ increasing the ,ro9a9ility of electro/agnetic interference. +a,id ad2ances in technology and the increased use of co/,osite /aterials and higher radio fre;uency =+F> energy le2els@ fro/ radar@ radio@ and tele2ision trans/itters@ ha2e su9stantially increased the concern for electro/agnetic 2ulnera9ility of flight critical syste/s@ relati2e to their ex,osure to $)+F. En2iron/ental factors such as corrosion@ /echanical 2i9rations@ ther/al cycling@ da/age and su9se;uent re,air and /odifications can ,otentially degrade electro/agnetic ,rotection. Continued air6orthiness of these aircraft re;uires assurance that the electro/agnetic ,rotection is /aintained to a high le2el 9y a defined /aintenance ,rogra//e. $)+F can interfere 6ith the o,eration of the aircrafts electrical and electronic syste/s 9y cou,ling electro/agnetic energy to the syste/ 6iring and co/,onents. This can cause ,ro9le/s relating to the control syste/s@ 9oth of the aircraft and its ,o6er% ,lants@ the na2igation e;ui,/ent and instru/entation. ?esign ,hiloso,hies in the area of aircraft 9onding for ,rotection against $)+F can e/,loy /ethods that /ay not ha2e 9een encountered ,re2iously 9y /aintenance ,ersonnel. (ecause of this@ the $)+F ,rotection in the aircraft can 9e unintentionally co/,ro/ised during nor/al /aintenance@ re,air and /odification. )t is critical that ,rocedures@ contained in the 1MMACMM@ reflect relia9le ,rocedures@ to detect any incorrect installations@ 6hich could degrade the $)+F ,rotection features.
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There are three ,ri/ary areas to 9e considered for aircraft o,erating in $)+F en2iron/entsF 1ircraft .tructure =1irfra/e .7in and Fra/e>. Electrical 8iring )nstallation &rotection =.olid or (raided .hielding Connectors>. E;ui,/ent &rotection =5+U case@ Electronics )n,ut -ut,ut &rotection>.
<isual ins,ection is the first and generally /ost i/,ortant ste, in $)+F /aintenance. )f errors ha2e 9een /ade that do degrade the ,rotection =,aint o2er s,ray and incorrect asse/9ly of connectors for exa/,le>@ then they should 9e found during ins,ections. 8hilst the 2isual ins,ection /ay suffice for o9ser2ation of the deterioration of the ,rotecti2e features@ any ti/e that this /ethod is found to 9e insufficient or inefficient@ then s,ecific testing /ay 9e re;uired. These techni;ues should /a7e use of easy%to%a,,ly@ ;uic7%loo7 de2ices that can 9e readily integrated into the nor/al /aintenance o,erations. 1*.5.1 .,ecific Testing D $)+F The /illioh//eter is often used to /easure the ,ath resistance of earthing stra,s or other 9onding. This techni;ue is li/ited to the indication of only single ,ath resistance 2alues. The 5o6%fre;uency 5oo, )/,edance testing /ethod co/,le/ents dc 9onding testing and it can 9e used together 6ith 2isual ins,ection. )t can gi2e good confidence in the integrity of the shielding. This loo, i/,edance testing can 9e used to chec7 that ade;uate 9onding exists 9et6een 9raidingAconduits and the aircraft structure@ es,ecially 6here there are /ulti,le earth ,aths@ 6hen the dc resistance syste/ 6ill not indicate 6hich earth has failed. The fre;uency of any /aintenance tas7s selected for the $)+F ,rotection features should 9e deter/ined 9y considering the follo6ing criteriaF +ele2ant o,erating ex,erience gained. Ex,osure of the installation to any ad2erse en2iron/ent. .usce,ti9ility of the installation to da/age. Criticality of each ,rotecti2e feature. =6ithin the o2erall ,rotection sche/e> The relia9ility of ,rotecti2e de2ices fitted to e;ui,/ent.
Ta9le 1 gi2es so/e indication as to the /aintenance tas7s that /ay 9e a,,lied to certain ty,es of electro/agnetic ,rotection features. +ace6ay conduits are se,arate conduits containing indi2idual ca9les to the 2arious aircraft syste/s 6hile +F gas7ets ha2e conducting ,ro,erties.
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&rotection Ty,e ?escri,tion Ca9le .hielding -2er 9raid shield@ critical indi2idual ca9le shield Metallic conduit 9raid Corrosion@ da/age <isually ins,ect and /easure ca9le shielding or 9onding
Ta9le 1 $)+F &+-TECT)-! ME1.U+E.

1,,lica9le Maintenance Tas7s for $)+F &rotection Measures 1ircraft .tructure .hielding +ace6ay conduits +F gas7et .hield for non% conducti2e surfaces Conducti2e coatings ?a/age@ erosion <isually ins,ect and /easure shielding effecti2eness .tructural 9onding Circuit &rotection ?e2ices $)+F ,rotection de2ices
Exa/,les
+ace6ay conduits Corrosion@ da/age <isually ins,ect and /easure 9onding
+e/o2a9le &anels Corrosion@ da/age@ defor/ation <isually ins,ect gas7ets@ 9onding leads and stra,s
Contact 9onds@ ri2et Boints Corrosion@ da/age <isually ins,ect and /easure 9onding
(onding leadAstra,s@ ,igtails Corrosion@ da/age@ security of attach/ent <isually ins,ect for corrosion@ attach/ent and condition@ /easure 9onding
?egradation or failure /odes Maintenance o,erations
+esistors@ Qener diodes@ EM) filters a filter ,ins .hort circuit@ o,en circuit Chec7 at testAre,air facility ia6 /aintenance or sur2eillance ,lans
1*.5.2 &rotection against $)+F )nterference The /anufacturer 6ill nor/ally ,rotect the aircraft against $)+F. (onding@ shielding and se,aration of critical co/,onents usually achie2e this. )t is difficult to 7no6 6hen the aircraft has 9een su9Bected to $)+FL conse;uently ,rotection is 9est achie2ed 9y regular chec7s ofF (onding of the aircraft Correct cri/,ing .creens correctly ter/inated and earthed 1ll 9onding ter/inals correctly tor;ue loaded.
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1A#6 /ea@2 Lan)in0'
1 hea2y or o2er6eight landing@ can cause da/age to the aircraft 9oth 2isi9le and hidden. 1ll da/age found should 9e entered in the aircrafts Technical 5og. 1n aircraft landing gear is designed to 6ithstand landing at a ,articular aircraft 6eight and rate of descent. )f either of these ,ara/eters 6as exceeded during a landing@ then it is ,ro9a9le that so/e da/age has 9een caused to the landing gear@ its su,,orting structure or else6here on the airfra/e. -2er%stressing /ay occur if the aircraft is not ,arallel to the run6ay 6hen it lands or if the nose% or tail%6heel stri7es the run6ay 9efore the /ain 6heels. .o/e aircraft are ,ro2ided 6ith hea2y landing indicators@ 6hich gi2e a 2isual indication that s,ecified g forces ha2e 9een exceeded. 5ong aircraft /ay ha2e a tail scra,e indicator fitted@ as a scra,e is /ore li7ely. )n all instances of sus,ect hea2y landings@ the flight cre6 should 9e ;uestioned for details of the aircrafts 6eight@ fuel distri9ution@ landing conditions and 6hether any unusual noises 6ere heard during the incident. &ri/ary da/age@ that /ay 9e ex,ected follo6ing a hea2y landing@ 6ould nor/ally 9e concentrated around the landing gear@ its su,,orting structure in the 6ings or fuselage@ the 6ing and tail,lane attach/ents and the engine /ountings. .econdary da/age /ay 9e found on the fuselage u,,er and lo6er s7ins and on the 6ing s7in and structure. ?ifferent aircraft ha2e their o6n hea2y landing ,rocedures. For exa/,le@ so/e aircraft@ 6hich sho6 no ,ri/ary da/age@ need no further ins,ection@ 6hilst others re;uire that all ins,ections are /ade after e2ery re,orted hea2y landing. This is 9ecause so/e aircraft can ha2e hidden da/age in re/ote locations 6hilst the outside of the aircraft a,,ears to 9e unda/aged. 1*. .1 Exa/,le of &ost $ea2y 5anding )ns,ection The follo6ing ite/s gi2e an exa/,le of a ty,ical ,ost hea2y landing ins,ectionF 5anding 'ear Exa/ine tyres for cree,@ da/age@ and cuts. Exa/ine 6heels and 9ra7es for crac7s and other da/age. Exa/ine axles@ struts and stays for distortion. Chec7 landing gear legs for lea7s@ scoring and a9nor/al extension. Exa/ine gear attach/ents for signs of crac7s@ da/age or /o2e/ent. .o/e aircraft re;uire the re/o2al of critical 9olts and ,ins for !?T chec7s. Exa/ine structure in 2icinity of gear attach/ent ,oints. Exa/ine doors and fairings for da/age. Carry out retraction and nose 6heel steering tests
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engineering
Main,lanes Exa/ine the u,,er and lo6er s7ins for 6rin7les and ,ulled ri2ets@ ,articularly if the engines are /ounted on the 6ings. Chec7 for fuel lea7s. Chec7 the root attach/ents and fairings for crac7s. Function the flying controls for freedo/ of /o2e/ent. Exa/ine 6ing s,ars. Fuselage Chec7 s7in for da/age and 6rin7les. Exa/ine ,ressure 9ul7heads for da/age. Chec7 all su,,orting structures of hea2y co/,onents li7e galleys@ 9atteries@ 6ater tan7s and 1&Us. Ensure no inertia s6itches ha2e tri,,ed. Chec7 instru/ents and their ,anels are functional. Ensure ,i,es and ducts for security. Chec7 all doors and ,anels fit correctly. Engines Chec7 controls for freedo/ of /o2e/ent. Exa/ine all /ountings and ,ylons for da/age and distortion. Chec7 tur9ine engines for freedo/ of rotation. Exa/ine all co6lings for 6rin7ling and distortion. Chec7 all fluid lines@ filters and chi, detectors. -n ,ro,eller installations@ chec7 for shoc7%loading@ ,ro,eller attach/ents and counter6eight installations. Tail Unit Chec7 flying controls for freedo/ of /o2e/ent. Exa/ine all hinges for distortion or crac7s es,ecially near 9alance 6eights. Exa/ine attach/ents@ fairings and /ountings of scre6 Bac7s. There are nu/erous other chec7s that need to 9e done@ de,ending on the da/age found =or not found>@ during the ins,ections. This can include engine runs and functional chec7s of all the aircraft syste/s. .igns of so/e da/age and distortion could 9e a reason to do full rigging and sy//etry chec7s of the airfra/e.
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engineering
1A#7 %li0h( (h&-!0h Se@e&e T!&6!lence )f an aircraft has 9een flo6n through conditions of se2ere tur9ulence@ the se2erity of the tur9ulence /ay 9e difficult to assess and re,ort. For aircraft that utilise accelero/eters@ flight data recorders or fatigue /eters@ the records o9tained can gi2e an o2erall ,icture of the loads felt 9y the aircraft. They cannot@ ho6e2er@ gi2e a full ,icture and so /ust only 9e used for guidance. Tur9ulence can 9e too fleeting to record on so/e for/s of load instru/entation. 1s a general guide only@ loadings greater than D 3.5g and W 2.5g on trans,ort aircraft could indicate so/e da/age to the airfra/e and engines. 1ircraft@ 6hich ha2e no recording de2ices installed@ /ust ha2e re,orts of flight through se2ere tur9ulence thoroughly in2estigated. .e2ere tur9ulence /ay cause excessi2e 2ertical or lateral forces si/ilar to those felt during a hea2y landing. The forces felt /ay 9e increased 9y the inertia of hea2y co/,onents such as engines@ fuel and 6ater tan7s and cargo. ?a/age can 9e ex,ected at si/ilar ,oints to those /entioned ,re2iously concerning hea2y landings. )t is also ,ossi9le for da/age to occur in those areas of the 6ings@ fuselage@ tail unit and flying controls 6here the greatest 9ending /o/ent ta7es ,lace. &ulled ri2ets@ s7in 6rin7les or other si/ilar structural faults /ay ,ro2ide signs of da/age. 1s 6ith a hea2y landing re,ort@ further ins,ection@ in2ol2ing dis/antling of so/e /aBor structural co/,onents@ /ay 9e necessary if external da/age is found during the initial ins,ection follo6ing flight through tur9ulence. .
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engineering
1= MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
1n aircraft has to recei2e regular /aintenance@ of 2arying de,ths@ to re/ain fully air6orthy at all ti/es. This is achie2ed in /ost circu/stances 9y /a7ing 2arious chec7s@ at inter2als@ throughout the life of the aircraft. These inter2als can 9e stated in ;uantities of flying hours@ calendar ti/e or co/9inations of the t6o syste/s. 1=#1 Main(enance Plannin0 The ,eriods of /aintenance can 9e s/all or large. The aircraft can 9e in for a short ,eriod of /aintenance o2er%night =or ,erha,s no longer than t6o days>@ 6hilst@ on a large /aintenance ,eriod@ the aircraft /ight 9e in the hangar for a 6ee7 or t6o@ de,ending on the ty,e of aircraft. )t is nor/al to a,,ly 6hat is 7no6n as a 9ac7%sto, to each ,eriod for safety. For exa/,le@ if the fre;uency of each /aintenance action is e2ery 133 flying hours@ then there 6ill ,ro9a9ly 9e a calendar 9ac7%sto, of one /onth. This /eans that if the aircraft is only flo6n for 25 hours during one /onth@ then it 6ill ha2e its /aintenance done on the last day of that /onth@ regardless if its lo6 hours. E;ually@ if the aircraft is intensi2ely flo6n day%and%night@ it /ight reach its 133 hours after 10 days. )t 6ill then recei2e its /aintenance at that ti/e@ as a result of its intensi2e flying. The decision as to the fre;uency and de,th of this /aintenance is controlled 9y the Ty,e ?esign -rganisation@ the organisation 6hich designed the aircraft. The /aintenance ,rogra//e contains a list of the /ost significant ite/s and reco//endations as to the /aintenance actions@ reco//ended fre;uencies and sa/,lingAins,ection ,oints. )t 6ill also contain a ,rogra//e that /onitors engine critical ,arts and the ins,ections to 9e done on those ,arts. 1ll aircraft ha2e a list of critical ,arts@ 6ith 6hich it cannot fly 6ithout the/ 9eing ser2icea9le@ or 6hich can 9e dis,ensed 6ith@ ,ro2iding other ,arts can co2er for the /issing ,art.
&age 1
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engineering
1=#$ M-)i1ica(i-n P&-ce)!&e' Modifications are changes /ade to a ,articular aircraft@ including all its co/,onents@ engines@ ,ro,ellers@ radio a,,aratus@ accessories@ instru/ents@ e;ui,/ent and their res,ecti2e installations. 8ith the exce,tion of /odifications 6hich the C11 agree to 9e of such a /inor nature that air6orthiness is unaffected@ all /odifications /ust 9e a,,ro2ed in accordance 6ith the rele2ant ,arts of C1+ -&.. The /odifications are a,,ro2ed 9y the C11 or 9y the 1,,ro2ed -rganisation carrying out the /odification ,rogra//e. Modifications /ust 9e such that the design of the aircraft@ 6hen /odified@ co/,lies at least 6ith the re;uire/ents 6hich a,,lied 6hen the aircraft 6as originally certified. 8hen a /odification is 9eing designed@ a decision has to 9e /ade as to 6hether the /odification is to 9e classified as Minor or MaBor. The installing of a ne6 ty,e of engine 6ould /ost definitely 9e a /aBor /odification@ 6hilst changing the ty,e of cli,s holding ca9les together 6ould 9e a /inor one. )t is so/e6here in the /iddle 6hen the decision as to the grading of a /odification has to 9e decided 9y the C11. 10.2.1 MaBor Modifications The organisation sends a for/@ 1?2*2 to the C11 and@ 6hen a,,ro2ed@ an a,,ro2al note is returned to the organisation. This allo6s the /odification to 9e e/9odied. 10.2.2 Minor Modifications The organisation 6rites to the C11@ re;uesting ,er/ission to e/9ody the /odification and@ 6hen a,,ro2ed@ the C11 sends a for/@ 1?2 1 9ac7@ to ,er/it e/9odi/ent. )f the organisation has C11 a,,ro2al@ it is ,er/itted to a,,ro2e its o6n /odifications. 1ll the organisation has to do is to 7ee, full records of the design and e/9odi/ent of the /odification. 1ll /odifications are recorded in the aircraft docu/entation@ either inside the 1irfra/e 5og (oo7@ if the aircraft 6eighs less than 2"33 7g@ or in a se,arate Modification +ecord (oo7 if the aircraft 6eighs /ore than 2"33 7g.
&age 2
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engineering
1=#+ S(-&e' P&-ce)!&e'
1ll aircraft and co/,onent /anufacturing and /aintenance esta9lish/ents 6ill ha2e a stores de,art/ent@ 6hose o9Bect is t6ofold. )ts ,ur,ose@ firstly@ is to ensure that all /aterials@ ,arts@ co/,onents etc. used on aircraft are to the correct s,ecification. The second ,ur,ose of the stores is to ena9le the history of any i/,ortant ,art to 9e traced 9ac7 to its original /anufacture and its ra6 /aterials. 1ll stores transactions use the sa/e for/s throughout the C11 syste/ as 6ell as the U.1 and Canada. This syste/ ensures that a store in one ,art of this country 6ill recei2e a co/,onent fro/ 6ithin the U:@ all C11 countries or !orth 1/erica on the sa/e for/. This is 7no6n throughout the C11 syste/ as the C11 For/ 1. .tores that o,erate 6ithin an organisation that is a,,ro2ed 9y the C11 to o,erate@ 6ith little control or su,er2ision fro/ the C11@ is 7no6n as an 1,,ro2ed .tores. 1n 1,,ro2ed .tore 6ill contain three /ain de,art/entsF 1 ;uarantine store@ 6hich acce,ts ite/s fro/ other co/,anies and chec7s that they are satisfactory. 1 9onded store 6hich ta7es ite/s fro/ the ;uarantine store@ after a,,ro2al@ and@ 6hen re;uested@ issues those co/,onents to the ser2icing technicians. 1n office or ad/inistration centre@ 6hich 7ee,s ade;uate files and records@ to ena9le cross%chec7ing of any transaction through the store syste/.
1=#3 Ce&(i1ica(i-n an) Relea'e P&-ce)!&e' 1ny /aintenance done on an aircraft that has a Certificate of 1ir6orthiness =C of 1>@ has to 9e certified 9y the technician=s> doing the 6or7. ?e,ending on the co/,any they 6or7 for@ the technicians can ha2e either ,ersonal certification or a,,ro2al 9y their o6n co/,any. The legal re;uire/ent is ;uoted asF 1n aircraft shall not fly unless there is in force a Certificate of +elease to .er2ice issued in res,ect of any o2erhauls@ /odifications@ re,airs or /aintenance to the aircraft or its e;ui,/ent. !or/ally the 6or7 is either certified 9y an a,,ro2ed engineer or@ co/,leted 9y a non%a,,ro2ed engineer and certified 9y another@ a,,ro2ed engineer. This certification is 7no6n as a Certificate of +elease to .er2ice. The 6ording on the docu/ent for signature is to a standard for/at and certifies that the 6or7 has 9een done in accordance 6ith C1+ 1#5 and that the aircraft is fit for release 9ac7 to ser2ice.
&age 3
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engineering
The certification should also contain ,articulars of the 6or7 done or the ins,ection co/,leted and the organisation and ,lace at 6hich the 6or7 6as done. )t is also re;uired that the aircraft ty,e and registration or co/,onent ty,e@ ,art and serial nu/9er shall 9e recorded as a,,lica9le. There are a nu/9er of /inor /aintenance o,erations that do not re;uire certificationA release to ser2ice. This can include /inor /aintenance@ done 9y the ,ilot@ on a s/all ,ri2ate aircraft. 10.#.1 )nterface 6ith 1ircraft -,eration There are /any lin7s 9et6een aircraft /aintenance and the flying done 9y 9oth co//ercial and ,ri2ate o,erations. These lin7s@ or interfaces@ include the legislation that dictates ho6 the t6o o,erations are to 6or7 together. For the larger co//ercial co/,anies@ all the legislation is currently laid do6n under C1+% -&.@ ,roduced 9y the C11 as an a,,roxi/ate re,lace/ent for the ,u9lication C1& 3 3 6hich 6as the /ethod 9y 6hich co//ercial flying co/,anies o9tained their 1ir -,erators Certificate. C1+%-&. controls /any facets of co//ercial flying. This can include ho6 the co/,any /aintains its aircraft@ =or ho6 it su9%contracts the 6or7 else6here>L ho6 the docu/entation and ,u9lications record all the infor/ation needed for 9oth the engineers and the flight cre6 and ho6 the ;uality of the 6hole o,eration is 7e,t to an acce,ta9le standard. The co//unication of infor/ation 9et6een /aintenance and flying ,ersonnel is nor/ally 2ia a nu/9er of different ,u9lications such asF

The Technical 5og (oo7 =Tech. 5og> The 5og (oo7s =1ircraft@ Engine and &ro,eller> The Modification +ecords.
The Tech. 5og contains all details of the sector 9y sector flight o,erations@ such as flight ti/es@ defects@ fuel =on arri2al and u,lifted>@ other ground /aintenance and re,lenish/ents. The 5og (oo7s are usually 7e,t 6ithin the records de,art/ent@ 9ut they are a long ter/ record of not only the total flying hours@ 9ut of the life re/aining on engines and ,ro,ellers and the /aintenance chec7s done on the aircraft. The Modification +ecords allo6 all to see 6hat changes@ =/odifications>@ ha2e 9een e/9odied to the aircraft. These changes /ight re;uire different flight o,erations or /aintenance actions than ,rior to their e/9odi/ent.
&age #
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engineering
-ther ,u9lications that can 9e used 9y 9oth sections include the Mini/u/ E;ui,/ent 5ist =ME5> and Configuration ?e2iation 5ist =C?5>. These ,u9lications infor/ 9oth the cre6s and the engineers 6hich co/,onents and ,arts can 9e unser2icea9le@ and yet allo6 the aircraft to 9e dis,atched. There are /inor@ 9ut no less i/,ortant@ syste/s in ,lace to allo6 the sa/e for/ of co//unication 6ith s/aller@ ,ri2ate aircraft. They also ha2e 5og (oo7s and records of /odifications 9ut@ 9ecause of their lo6er utilisation and ,ri2ate o6nershi,@ /ost 6or7 is done during their annual and three%yearly Certificate of 1ir6orthiness 9y a,,ro2ed and licensed engineers. 1=#* Main(enance In'.ec(i-nB C!ali(2 C-n(&-l an) A''!&ance 1ll /aintenance done on the aircraft@ fro/ the &re%?e,arture )ns,ection =/ade 9efore e2ery flight>L to the hea2y Chec7 ? ins,ection =done e2ery four to six years>@ is controlled fro/ the Maintenance .chedule. This ,u9lication is ,roduced 9y the aircraft /anufacturer@ and dictates the de,th and fre;uency of 6or7 at 6hich each ins,ection is co/,leted. -n light aircraft@ the /aintenance is nor/ally done in accordance 6ith a .chedule ,roduced 9y the C11@ called the 5ight 1ircraft Maintenance .chedule@ =51M.>. This is a si/,le schedule@ co//on to all ,ri2ate aircraft 9elo6 2"337g@ 6hich di2ides the /aintenance into 53 and 153 flying hour@ annual and tri%annual ins,ections. The ,ersonnel 6ho do any of the ins,ections ha2e to 9e either licensed 9y the C11 or a,,ro2ed 9y their o6n co/,any@ =if the co/,any is itself a,,ro2ed 9y the C11>. The ty,es of aircraft 9eing ser2iced@ and their use@ 6ill control 6hich ty,e of ;ualification they re;uire. )f a co/,any has C11 a,,ro2al under C1+%1#5@ it is ,er/itted to control all of the /aintenance it does as 6ell as@ in so/e instances =6ith the additional a,,ro2al under C1+%1#">@ the in house training of its o6n engineers. 1n a,,ro2ed co/,any has to introduce a Kuality 1ssurance ?e,art/ent@ to the strict rules laid do6n in C1+%1#5. This de,art/ent controls the standards of the co/,any fro/ the lo6liest 6or7er on the hangar floor to the 1ccounta9le Manager@ usually the /anaging director. )t is res,onsi9le for all of the engineers and their a,,ro2als. )t also exa/ines engineers and trainees@ ,rior to their exa/ination 9y the C11. The Kuality de,art/ent also /a7es audits throughout the co/,any@ at inter2als@ to ensure all the ,rocedures@ laid do6n in the co/,any /anuals@ are 9eing follo6ed.
&age 5
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engineering
8hen certain o,erations are 9eing done on an aircraft@ 6here9y there /ight 9e catastro,hic conse;uences to the aircraft if the 6or7 6as not done correctly@ then a du,licate ins,ection is re;uired. This in2ol2es t6o engineersL one of 6ho/ co/,letes the 6or7 6hile the second =6ho has had nothing to do 6ith the tas7>@ chec7s the 6or7 and signs that it has 9een co/,leted correctly. 1=#6 A))i(i-nal Main(enance P&-ce)!&e' 1,art fro/ the regular /aintenance chec7s@ listed in the Maintenance Manual@ there are a nu/9er of additional /aintenance ,rocedures that are done at irregular inter2als. These could include 6ashing the aircraft@ de%icing it in the 6inter@ 6eighing it after certain o,erations and ,ainting it 6hen its condition 6arrants it. The infor/ation and the correct ,rocedures 6ill ,ro9a9ly 9e found in the /aintenance /anuals. =under 8ashing@ ?e%icing@ 8eighing and &ainting>. -ther 6or7 done@ in addition to the nor/al regular /aintenance@ /ight include an on%going sa/,ling ,rogra//e or condition /onitoring@ 6hich is done during the nor/al day%to%day o,eration of the aircraft. These tas7s 6ould ,ro9a9ly 9e organised at the re;uest of the local C11 office@ to co/,ly 6ith an air6orthiness re;uest fro/ the /anufacturer. 1=#7 C-n(&-l -1 Li1e4Limi(e) C-m.-nen(' -n al/ost any aircraft@ there 6ill 9e a nu/9er of co/,onents that ha2e a stated life@ usually ;uoted in flying hours@ cycles@ calendar ti/e or o,erating hours. The correct ter/inology for life is Mandatory 5ife 5i/itation. The co/,onents 6ill ha2e 9een gi2en a life for 2arious reasons. For exa/,le@ a fatigue life on a structural co/,onent in flying hoursL the landing gear legs due for retire/ent after 13@333 landings@ the 9atteries due for re,lace/ent after 3 or # /onths and a retire/ent life on an 1&U /easured in hours running ti/e. The control of the re,lace/ent of co/,onents@ on co/,letion of their li2es@ rests 6ith the Technical ControlA+ecords de,art/ent@ 6hich /onitors all of the aircraft docu/ents. 8hen an ite/ is due for re,lace/ent@ the 6or7 is often synchronised 6ith a scheduled /aintenance chec7@ so that the aircraft is out of ser2ice for the /ini/u/ a/ount of ti/e. )t is nor/al@ ho6e2er@ for s/all ite/s such as 9atteries@ to 9e changed on the flight line@ often at the end of the days flying@ 6ith the 9attery re,lace/ent 9eing done at the sa/e ti/e as the daily ins,ection.
&age
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engineering
The notification of the correct day for the re,lace/ent 6ill 9e annotated on a docu/ent called the Maintenance .tate/ent@ 6hich gi2es all ite/s due for re,lace/ent@ in 9et6een scheduled /aintenance chec7s. )n the front of the Maintenance Manual is a cha,ter@ 2ariously entitled +etire/ent 5i2esL 5ong 5ife )te/s or Fatigue 5i2es. This cha,ter lists the retire/ent li2es of /any co/,onents and ,arts 6ith long li2es@ 6hich can include such ite/s as engine hot%end co/,onents@ landing gear legs and /aBor structural ite/s that ha2e retire/ent li2es in the thousands of flying hoursAcycles. This list 6ill 9e /onitored 9y the Technical +ecords de,art/ent@ and the aircraft docu/ents 6ill 9e annotated and the 6or7 cards etc.@ raised 6hen the tas7 is re;uired to 9e done.
&age "
!"
engineering
&1'E )!TE!T)-!155E (51!:
&age *

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

* ENGINEERING DRA,ING9 DIAGRAMS AND STANDARDS#########1

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

6 %ITS AND CLEARANCES#################################################################1

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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1* AIRCRA%T MASS AND BALANCE################################################1

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

16 AIRCRA%T /ANDLING AND STORAGE#######################################1

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

17 PRE?ENTATI?E MAINTENANCE TEC/NICUES##########################1

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1 MODULE 7 MAINTENANCE PRACTICES (mechanical

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