AMMONIA EMISSION FROM POULTRY INDUSTRY, ITS EFFECTS AND MITIGATION MECHANISM

INTRODUCTION Nitrogen is found in relatively high levels in all excreted animal manures. It can exist in many chemical forms and can move easily in the environment as a gas in air, a dissolved constituent of ground or surface water or in combination with other materials. Nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH 3) is of particular importance because of its potential to create odors and negatively impact air and water quality and animal and human health. Agriculture is the major source of ammonia emission to the atmosphere. Dramatic increase in the air concentration of ammonia in areas of intensive animal agriculture has been reported, and studies indicate that animal agriculture accounts for more than 80% of total ammonia volatilization (Battye et al. 1994).Cattle farming especially dairy, is regarded as the largest source of ammonia production (Bussink and Oenema, 1998) and poultry industry is second to the cattle farming in being the largest source of ammonia emission. Smaller ammonia emissions are attributed to non-animal agriculture, such as fertilizers and crops (Sommer and Hutchings, 1995). As the size and density of these ammonia sources increase, it is likely that their effects on regional air and water quality will also become more significant. Ammonia emission is one of the major air quality concerns in the global, national and regional level (NRC 2002). Although ammonia has no any effect in global warming, it is known to significantly compromise poultry welfare (Darkins et al., 2004). In addition to the effects on birds health, ammonia has significant hazardous 3 ecology. High NH levels sometimes found in a poultry house have also become a cause of concern for the atmosphere outside the poultry house. Therefore, there 3 is a great need to reduce NH volatilization from poultry manure to reduce the possible harmful effects of NH 3 on animal and human health and the environment.

PRODUCTION OF AMMONIA GAS

The ammonia is not directly produced or excreted by the birds, but is a common by-product of poultry wastes. Birds excrete waste in the form of manure containing unused feed nitrogen in the form of uric acid. The term manure refers to the combination of feces and urine that is excreted. The potential for ammonia emissions exists wherever manure is present. Ammonia is formed through the microbial breakdown of uric acid. Conditions that favor microbial growth will result in increased ammonia production. These conditions include warm temperature, moisture, pH in the neutral range or slightly higher (7.08.5) and the presence of organic matter factors normally present in abundance in

poultry waste handling systems (Carey, ND).The volatilization of ammonia from any manure management operation can be highly variable depending on total ammonia concentration, temperature, pH, and storage time. Emissions depend on how much of the ammonia-nitrogen in solution reacts to form ammonia versus ionized ammonium 4+ (NH ), which is nonvolatile. Ammonia emissions are not constant over the year, but can change seasonally. The degree of seasonal variation depends on the geographic region, andmanagement practices adopted in the farm. Precipitation and humidity can either increase or decrease emissions depending on how manure is managed. The relationship between NH , NH3, and pH plays an important role in determining the fate of manure nitrogen because NH3 is much less soluble in water than NH4+. Therefore, 4+ NH is not readily volatilized from manure, whereas NH3 is rapidly converted to a gaseous form and emitted from manure. The rate of NH3 volatilization is influenced by theconcentration s of manure NH3 and urea, temperature, air velocity, 4+ surface area, and moisture. Understanding how NH and NH 3 are formed, the characteristics of these compounds, and the effects of various conditions on their environmental fate is the key to understanding how manure can be managed to minimize NH3 emissions.
4+

EFFECTS OF AMMONIA GAS The volatilization of ammonia (NH3) from poultry manure has become a major problem not only for the health of the birds and caretakers, but also in the negative perception of the public sector, concerning poultry waste. It has been known for a long time that high levels of atmospheric NH3 can negatively affect poultry performance (Anderson et al., 1964). Numerous studies have demonstrated that high atmospheric NH3 within layer and broiler facilities have been shown to reduce egg production, feed efficiency, and growth (Charles and Payne, 1966; Reece et al., 1980; Deaton et al., 1984). NH 3 may produce a serious threat to the health of the birds such as; increase risk of skin burns, high incidence of contact dermatitis: foot, hock and breast burns that can be a gateway for bacteria causing further health problems to the birds. Similarly, NH3 has role in causing trachea & lung lesions which are associated with fluid accumulation and low blood oxygen, rendering the birds more susceptible to bacterial infections such as E. coli. Apart from this, ammonia is found to be associated with eye irritation, gastrointestinal irritation and ascites. The potentially negative environmental impacts of ammonia can occur through several different routes (Kurvits and Marta, 1998). For example, deposition of atmospheric ammonia can cause a number of harmful effects in a variety of ecosystems. These effects include over-enrichment of nitrogen in sensitive aquatic ecosystems. Eutrophication of surface waters can lead to the decline of aquatic species, including those with commercial value, and an overall decrease in biological diversity. Similarly, sensitive crops (e.g., tomatoes, cucumbers, and fruit cultures) that are cultivated near significant sources of ammonia can be damaged by over-fertilization caused by ammonia deposition (van der Eerden et al. 1998). Acidification of soils also results from the deposition of ammonia followed by oxidation to nitrate and may be of particular concern where soils have a low capacity to buffer acid. In addition to this, ammonia can have a negative impact on the environment by contributing to the formation of an air pollutant known as particulate matter (PM). Particulate matter refers to very small (0.005-100 m in diameter) airborne solid particles or liquid droplets that are also known as soot. One specific form of particulate matter, PM2.5, refers to particles with a diameter of 2.5 m or less. Indirect formation of PM2.5 can occur when ammonia reacts with nitrogen and sulfur oxides (NO X and SO X) in the atmosphere to form fine particles. This form of PM is of particular concern because the small size of the particles allows them to penetrate deep into the lungs, where they can contribute to respiratory disease and stress the cardiac and immune systems. When animals or human breathe air containing particulate matter, fine particles (PM2.5) penetrate deeper into the lungs than coarse particles (2.5 to 10m diameter) and

canc a u s e c o u g h i n g , w h e e z i n g , s h o r t n e s s o f b r e a t h a n d l u n g d a m a g e ( E P A , 2 0 0 6 ) . I n a d d i t i o n , l a r g e r particulates contribute to the formation of haze and associated reductions in visibility by the formation of haze. WAYS TO REDUCE AMMONIA IN AND FROM POULTRY FARM Reduction of ammonia level inside poultry houses is the important part of management to increase birds live performance. The most appropriate strategy to control ammonia is to reduce ammonia volatilization. A number of compounds are 4+ available for use by poultry producers to reduce the pH of poultry litter to promote formation of NH ions that will bind to other compounds and thus reduce the amount of volatile ammonia. However, since manure, which neutralizes these acidifying agents, is constantly produced, these compounds provide pH control for only a short period of time. There are many ways to reduce ammonia emission in the poultry farms. Some of them are as follows; 1. Reducing litter moisture: Perhaps the simplest thing most poultry producers can do to minimize ammonia emissions from their poultry house is to control litter moisture. The more moisture there is in the litter, the more potential for ammonia emissions from that litter. Ferguson et. al., 1998 confirmed the relationship between higher litter moisture and increased litter ammonia. So, it is important to keep litter dry. However, keeping the litter dry depends, in part, on how well drinker management is maintained. Similarly, ventilation is also critical in maintaining proper litter moisture. Humidity levels must be maintained below 70% to prevent caking of the litter. 2. Dietary approaches: Bird diets that are formulated using proteinaceous ingredients such as soybean meal and meat-and-bone meal to meet the recommended levels of essential amino acids and contain relatively high levels of crude protein and excessive amounts of amino acids other than the first- and second-limiting amino acids (usually methionine and lysine, respectively). Because the birds have no storage mechanisms for amino acidsc o n s u m e d b e y o n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r p r o t e i n s y n t h e s i s , t h e a m i n o a c i d s c o n s u m e d i n e x c e s s a r e deaminated and the amino acid derived nitrogen is excreted in the urine mainly as uric acid (80%), ammonia (10%), and urea (5%) (Goldstein and Skadhauge, 2000).The amount of nitrogen excreted by poultry can be reduced dramatically by not specifying a dietary crude- protein minimum and instead formulating the diet to meet the chickens amino acid requirements. Suchlowcrude-protein diets can be obtained through a partial replacement of soybean meal with corn and crystalline amino acids or amino acid analogs. A three to five percentage-unit reduction in the dietary crude protein content has resulted in up to a 60% reduction in the total nitrogen excretion from broilers and laying hens (summers, 1993).As mentioned previously, ammonia emission can be reduced from the birds by minimizing the excretion of uric acid and, therefore, ammonia emission. However, some ammonia production is inevitable and additives can be added to the diet to sequester or trap it. Among these additives is zeolite, a type of mineral with a porous or lattice-like structure, which when included in the diet binds ammonia in the feces and prevents it from being emitted into the air. Another strategy is to acidify the diet through addition of gypsum (CaSO4) or calcium benzoate, or by lowering the dietary electrolyte balance (Canh et al., 1998).The acidic diet will result in acidic manure, causing ammonia (NH3) to be converted to ammonium (NH4+).Because of the electrical charge, ammonium is more water soluble and not readily emitted into the air. Xinet al., 2005 reported that feeding a low-protein diet fortified with gypsum and zeolite reduces ammonia emission from laying hens by 40%. Similarly, Bregendahl et al., 2006 found out that use of high fibrous feed such as soybean hulls, wheat middlings and corn reduces the total ammonia emission and the rate of ammonia emission from manure up to 50%. 3. Bio-filters Bio-filters are comprised of housing ventilation systems that pass air through a bio-filter media that incorporates a layer of organic material, typically a mixture of compost and wood chips or shreds that supports a microbial population and reduces ammonia emissions by oxidizing volatile organic compounds into carbon diozide, water and inorganic salts. A bio-filter system can be, thus applied to reduce ammonia emission from poultry houses. 4. Litter treatment A surface application of an acidifier to poultry litter to acidify poultry litter and maintain ammonia in the non-volatile ionized form (ammonium) can reduce the ammonia emission significantly. One approach is to incorporate acidifying agents such as aluminum sulfate (alum), sodium bisulfate, acidified clay, calcium chloride, calcium sulfate, magnesium chloride, and magnesium sulfate.

Litter treatments apply an acid that produces hydrogen ions that will attach to ammonia t o f o r m ammonium, which reacts with sulfate ions to form ammonium sulfate, a water-soluble fertilizer, reducing the ammonia emitted from the litter and increasing the nitrogen content of the litter. The acidity also creates unfavorable conditions for the bacteria and enzymes that contribute to ammonia formation, resulting in reduced ammonia production. CONCLUSION Poultry industry has the major role in ammonia emission to the environment. Ammonia not only affects poultry performance but also has the significant hazardous effect on the health of people around the farm and to the environment. So, poultry producers should start from the very beginning to reduce ammonia emission from their poultry farm. Otherwise, controlling ammonia emission will be the daunting task in the future. Ammonia emission in the poultry farm can be controlled by reducing litter moisture, dietarymanipulation such as use of low crude protein diet high fibrous diet and dietary additives to sequester ammonia, use of biofilters and litter treatment with acidifiers such as alum, sodium bisulfate, calcium sulfate, magnesium chloride etc. Poultry industry has the major role in ammonia emission to the environment. Ammonia not only affects poultry performance but also has the significant hazardous effect on the health of people around the farm and to the environment. So, poultry producers should start from the very beginning to reduce ammonia emission from their poultry farm. Otherwise, controlling ammonia emission will be the daunting task in the future. Ammonia emission in the poultry farm can be controlled by reducing litter moisture, dietarymanipulation such as use of low crude protein diet high fibrous diet and dietary additives to sequester ammonia, use of biofilters and litter treatment with acidifiers such as alum, sodium bisulfate, calcium sulfate, magnesium chloride etc.