TheAimsofIndianArt

ByAnandaK.Coomaraswamy

Source:StudiesinComparativeReligion,Vol.9,No.1.(Winter,1975).WorldWisdom, Inc. THEextantremainsofIndianartcoveraperiodofmorethantwothousandyears. Duringthistimemanyschoolsofthoughthaveflourishedanddecayed,invadersof manyraceshavepouredintoIndiaandcontributedtotheinfinitevarietyofher intellectualresources;countlessdynastieshaveruledandpassedaway;andsowedo notwonderthatmanyvarietiesofartisticexpressionremain,torecordforus,ina languageoftheirown,somethingoftheideasandtheidealsofmanypeoples,their hopesandfears,theirfaithandtheirdesire.ButjustasthroughallIndianschoolsof thoughtthererunslikeagoldenthreadthefundamentalidealismoftheUpanishads, theVedanta,soinallIndianartthereisaunitythatunderliesallitsbewilderingvariety. ThisunifyingprincipleisherealsoIdealism,andthismustofnecessityhavebeenso,for thesynthesisofIndianthoughtisone,notmany. What,afterall,isthesecretofIndiangreatness?Notadogmanorabook;butthegreat opensecretthatallknowledgeandalltruthareabsoluteandinfinite,waitingnottobe created,buttobefoundthesecretoftheinfinitesuperiorityofintuition,themethodof directperception,overtheintellect,regardedasamereorganofdiscrimination.There isaboutusastorehouseoftheAsYetUnknown,infiniteandinexhaustible;buttothis wisdom,thewayofaccessisnotthroughintellectualactivity.Theintuitionthatreaches toitwecallImaginationandGenius.ItcametoSirIsaacNewtonwhenhesawtheapple fall,andthereflashedacrosshisbraintheLawofGravity.ItcametotheBuddhaas hesatthroughthesilentnightinmeditation,andhourbyhourallthingsbecame apparenttohim;heknewtheexactcircumstancesofallbeingsthathaveeverbeenin theendlessandinfiniteworlds;atthetwentiethhourhereceivedthedivineinsightby whichhesawallthingswithinthespaceoftheinfinitesakvalasasclearlyasiftheywere closeathand;thencamestilldeeperinsight,andheperceivedthecauseofsorrowand thepathofknowledge,Hereachedatlasttheexhaustlesssourceoftruth.Thesameis trueofallrevelation;theVeda(sruti),theeternalLogos,breathedforth byBrahman,inwhomitsurvivesthedestructionandcreationoftheUniverse,is seen,orheard,notmade,byitshumanauthors....Therealityofsuchperceptionis witnessedtobyeverymanwithinhimselfuponrareoccasionsandonaninfinitely smallerscale.Itistheinspirationofthepoet.Itisatoncethevisionoftheartist,andthe imaginationofthenaturalphilosopher. ArtandScience Thereisacloseanalogybetweentheaimsofartandofscience.Descriptivescienceis,of course,concernedonlywiththerecordofappearances;butartandtheoreticalscience havemuchincommon.Theimaginationisrequiredforboth;bothillustratethatnatural

tendencytoseektheoneinthemany,toformulatenaturallaws,whichisexpressedin thesayingthatthehumanmindfunctionsnaturallytowardsunity.Theaimofthe trainedscientificorartisticimaginationistoconceive(concipio,layholdof)invent (invenio,tolightupon)orimagine(visualise)someunifyingtruthpreviously unsuspectedorforgotten.Thetheoryofevolutionorofelectronsoratoms;therapid discovery(unveiling)byamathematicalgeniusoftheanswertoanabtrusecalculation; theconceptionthatflashesintotheartistsmind,alltheserepresentsometruevisionof theIdeaunderlyingphenomenalexperience,somemessagefromtheexhaustless sourceoftruth.Idealartisthusratheraspiritualdiscoverythanacreation.Itdiffers fromscienceinitsconcernprimarilywithsubjectivethings,thingsastheyareforus, ratherthaninthemselves.Butbothartandsciencehavethecommonaimofunity;of formulatingnaturallaws. MentalImages Itissaidofacertainfamouscraftsmanthatwhendesigning,heseemednottobe making,butmerelytobeoutliningapatternthathealreadysawuponthepaperbefore him.Thetrueartistdoesnotthinkouthispicture,butseesit;hisdesireistorepresent hisvisioninthematerialtermsoflineandcolour.Tothegreatpainter,suchpictures comecontinually,oftentoorapidlyandtooconfusedlytobecaughtanddisentangled. Couldhebutcontrolhismentalvision,defineandholdit!Butfickleisthemind, forward,forceful,andstiff:Ideemitashardtocheckasisthewind;yetbyconstant labourandpassionlessnessitmaybeheld,andthisconcentrationofmentalvisionhas beenfromlongagotheverymethodofIndianreligion,andthecontrolofthoughtits idealofworship.ItisthusthattheHinduworshipsdailyhisIshtaDevata,thespecial aspectofdivinitythatistohimallandmorethanthePatronSaintistotheCatholic. SimplemenmayworshipsuchanoneasGanesa,easytoreach,notfaraway;somecan makethegreatereffortneededtoreachevenNatarja,andonlyforthosewhoseheart issetupontheUnconditioned,isamentalimageuselessasacentreofthought.These lastarefew;andforthosethatadoreanIshtaDevat,orconditionedandspecialaspect ofGod,worshipofHimconsistsfirstintherecitationofthebrief mnemonicmantramdetailingHisattributes,andtheninsilentconcentrationofthought uponthecorrespondingmentalimage. Thesementalimagesareofthesamenatureasthosetheartistsees,andtheprocessof visualisationisthesame.Here,forexample,isaversefromoneoftheimagers technicalbooks(theRupvaliya):
ThesearemarksofSiva:agloriousvisage,threeeyes,abowandanarrow,aserpent garland,earflowers,arosary,fourhands,atrisula,anoose,adeer,bandsbetokening mildnessandbeneficence,agarmentoftigerskin,Hisvahanabullofthehueofthe chank.[2]

ItmaybecomparedwiththeDhynamantramsusedinthedailymeditationofaHindu upontheGayatrivisualisedasaGoddess:

IntheeveningSarasvatishouldbemeditateduponastheessenceoftheSamaVeda,fairof face,havingtwoarms,holdingatrislaandadrum,old;andasRudrani,thebullhervhan.

AlmostthewholephilosophyofIndianartiscontainedintheverseof SukrcryasSukranitisrawhichenjoinsthismethodofvisualisationupontheimager:
Inorderthattheformofanimagemaybebroughtfullyandclearlybeforethemind,the imagemakershouldmeditate;andhissuccesswillbeinproportiontohismeditation.No otherwaynotindeedseeingtheobjectitselfwillachievehispurpose.[3]

Maya Itcannotbetooclearlyunderstoodthatthemererepresentationofnatureisneverthe aimofIndianart.ProbablynotrulyIndiansculpturehasbeenwroughtfromaliving model,oranyreligiouspaintingcopiedfromlife.PossiblynoHinduartistoftheold schoolseverdrewfromnatureatall.Hisstoreofmemorypictures,hispowerof visualisationandhisimaginationwere,forhispurpose,finermeans:forhedesiredto suggesttheIdeabehindsensuousappearance,nottogivethedetailoftheseeming reality,thatwasintruthbutmy,illusion.Forinspiteofthepantheistic accommodationofinfinitetruthtothecapacityoffiniteminds,wherebyGodis conceivedasenteringintoallthings,NatureremainstotheHinduaveil,nota revelation;andartistobesomethingmorethanamereimitationofthismy,itisto manifestwhatliesbehind.Tomistakethemayaforrealitywereerrorindeed:
MenofnounderstandingthinkofMe,theunmanifest,ashavingmanifestation,knowingnot Myhigherbeingtobechangeless,supreme. VeiledbytheMagicofMyRule(YogaMaya),Iamnotrevealedtoalltheworld;thisworldis bewildered,andperceivesMenotasbirthlessandunchanging(BhagavadGita,VII,24,25).

IndoPersian Ofcourse,anexceptiontotheseprinciplesinIndianartmaybepointedtointheIndo Persianschoolofportraitminiature;andthisworkdoesshowthatitwasnolackof powerthatinmostothercaseskepttheIndianartistfromrealisticrepresentation.But herethedeliberateaimisportraiture,nottherepresentationofDivinityorSuperman. Andevenintheportraitstherearemanyidealqualitiesapparent.InpurelyHinduand religiousart,however,evenportraitsarefelttobelesserartthanthepurelyidealand abstractrepresentations;andsuchrealismaswefind,forexample,intheAjanta paintings,isduetothekeennessoftheartistsmemoryoffamiliarthings,nottohis desirefaithfullytorecordappearances. Forrealismthatthusrepresentskeennessofmemorypicture,strengthofimagination, thereisroominallart;dulyrestrained,itissomuchaddedpower. Butrealismwhichisofthenatureofimitationofanobjectactuallyseenatthetimeof paintingisquiteantipathetictoimagination,andfindsnoplaceintheidealofIndianart.

TruthtoNature Muchofthecriticismappliedtoworksofartinmoderntimesisbasedupontheideaof truthtonature.Thefirstthingforwhichmanypeoplelookinaworkofartisfor somethingtorecognize;andiftherepresentationisofsomethingtheyhavenotseen,or symbolizessomeunfamiliarabstractidea,itistherebyselfcondemnedasuntrueto nature. What,afterall,isrealityandwhatistruth?TheIndianthinkeranswersthatnature,the phenomenalworldthatis,isknowntohimonlythroughsensation,andthathehasno warrantforsupposingthatsensationsconveytohimanyadequateconceptionofthe intrinsicrealityofthingsinthemselves;nay,hedeniesthattheyhaveanysuchreality apartfromhimself.Atmost,naturalformsarebutincarnationsofideas,andeachisbut anincompleteexpression. Itisfortheartisttoportraytheidealworld(Rpaloka)oftruereality,theworldof imagination;andthisverywordimagination,orvisualisation,expressesthemethodhe mustemploy. HowstrangelythisartphilosophycontrastswiththatcharacteristicofthemodernWest, soclearlysetforthinBrowningspoem:
Butwhynotdoaswellassay,paintthese Justastheyare,carelesswhatcomesofit? Godsworkspaintanyone Haveyounoticed,now, Yoncullionshangingface?Abitofchalk, Andtrustmebutyoushouldthough!Howmuchmore IfIdrewhigherthingswiththesametruth! ThatweretotakethePriorspulpitplace, InterpretGodtoallofyou!

Forsuchrealists,thislastisnotthefunctionofart;buttousitseemsthatthevery essentialfunctionofartistointerpretGodtoallofyou. BurneJones BurneJonesalmostaloneamongstartistsofthemodernWestseemstohave understoodartasweinIndiaunderstandit.Toacriticwhonamedasadrawbackinthe workofacertainartist,thathispictureslookedasifhehaddonethemonlyoutofhis head,BurneJonesreplied,TheplacewhereIthinkpicturesoughttocomefrom. OfimpressionismasunderstoodintheWest,andtheclaimthatbreadthisgainedby lackoffinish,BurneJonesspokeasanEasternartistmighthavedone.Breadthcouldbe gotbybeautifulfinishandbright,clearcolourwellmatched,ratherthanbymuzzy. They[theImpressionists]domakeatmosphere,buttheydontmakeanythingelse:they dontmakebeauty,theydontmakedesign,theydontmakeidea,theydontmake anythingbutatmosphereandIdontthinkthatsenoughIdontthinkitsvery

much.Ofrealismhespokethus:Realism?DirecttranscriptfromNature?Isupposeby thetimethephotographicartistcangiveusallthecoloursascorrectlyastheshapes, peoplewillbegintofindoutthattherealismtheytalkaboutisntartatall,butscience; interesting,nodoubt,asascientificachievement,butnothingmore.Transcriptsfrom Nature,whatdoIwantwithtranscripts?Ipreferherownsignature;Idontwant forgeriesmoreorlessskilful.Itisthemessage,theburdenofapicturethatmakes itsrealvalue. Atanothertimehesaid,Yousee,itisthesethingsofthesoulthatarerealtheonly realthingsintheuniverse. Ofthereligiousnessofart,hesaid:
ThatwasanawfulthoughtofRuskins,thatartistspaintGodfortheworld.Theresalumpof greasypigmentattheendofMichaelangeloshogbristlebrush,andbythetimeithasbeen laidonthestucco,thereissomethingtherethatallmenwitheyesrecognizeasdivine.Think ofwhatitmeans.ItisthepowerofbringingGodintotheworldmakingGodmanifest. Theobjectofartmustbeeithertopleaseortoexalt:Icantseeanyotherreasonforitatall. Oneisaprettyreason,theotheranobleone.

Ofexpressioninimaginativepictures,hesaid:
Ofcoursemyfaceshavenoexpressioninthesenseinwhichpeopleusetheword.How shouldtheyhaveany?Theyarenotportraitsofpeopleinparoxysmsparoxysmsofterror, hatred,benevolence,desire,avarice,venerationandallthepassionsandemotionsthat LeBrunandthatkindofpersonfindsomagnifiqueinRaphaelslaterwork...Theonly expressionallowableingreatportraitureistheexpressionofcharacterandmoralquality, notofanythingtemporary,fleeting,accidental.Apartfromportraitureyoudontwanteven somuch,orveryseldom:infactyouwantonlytypes,symbols,suggestions.Themoment yougivewhatpeoplecallexpression,youdestroythetypicalcharactersofheadsand degradethemintoportraitswhichstandfornothing.[4]

TechnicalPerfection CommoncriticismsofIndianartarebasedonsupposedorreallimitationsoftechnical attainmentinrepresentations,especiallyofthefigure.Inpart,itmaybeansweredthat solittleisknownintheWestoftherealachievementofIndianart,thatthisideamaybe allowedtodieanaturaldeathinthecourseoftime;andinpart,thattechnical attainmentisonlyameans,notanend.Thereisanorderofimportanceinthethingsart meanstousisitnotsomethingthus:first,Whathastheartisttosay?andsecondonly, Ishisdrawingscientificallyaccurate?Baddrawingiscertainlynotinitselfdesirable,nor gooddrawing,amisfortune;but,strangeasitmayseem,ithasalwayshappenedinthe historyofart,thatbythetimeperfectionoftechniquehasbeenattained,inspiration hasdeclined.ItwassoinGreece,andinEuropeaftertheRenaissance.Italmostseems asifconcentrationupontechniquehinderedthefreeworkingoftheimaginationalittle; ifso,howevermuchwedesireboth,donotletusmakeanymistakeastowhichisfirst.

Also,accuracyisnotalwaysevendesirable.Ithasbeenshownbyphotographythatthe gallopinghorsehasneverbeenaccuratelydrawninart;letushopeitneverwillbe.For arthastomakeuseofabstractionsandmemorypictures,notofphotographs;itisa synthesis,notananalysis.Andsothewholequestionofaccuracyisrelative;andthelast wordwassaidbyLeonardodeVinci:Thatfigureisbestwhichbyitsactionbest expressesthepassionthatanimatesit.ThisisthetrueimpressionismoftheEast,a verydifferentthingfromimpressionismasnowunderstoodintheWest. IndianArtReligious Indianartisessentiallyreligious.TheconsciousaimofIndianartistheportrayalof Divinity.Buttheinfiniteandunconditionedcannotbeexpressedinfiniteterms;andart, unabletoportrayDivinityunconditioned,andunwillingtobelimitedbythelimitationof humanity,isinIndiadedicatedtotherepresentationofGods,who,tofiniteman, representcomprehensibleaspectsofaninfinitewhole.SankarcryaprayedthusO Lord,pardonmythreesins:IhaveincontemplationclothedinformThyselfthathastno form;IhaveinpraisedescribedTheewhodosttranscendallqualities;andinvisiting shrinesIhaveignoredThineomnipresence.So,too,theTamilpoetessAuwaiwasonce rebukedbyapriestforirreverence,instretchingoutherlimbstowardsanimageof God:Yousaywell,Sir,sheanswered,yetifyouwillpointouttomeadirectionwhere Godisnot,Iwilltherestretchoutmylimbs.Butsuchconceptions,thoughweknow themathearttobetrueandabsolute,involveadenialofallexoterictruth;theyarenot enough,orrathertheyaretoomuch,forordinarymentoliveby:
ExceedinggreatisthetoilofthesewhosemindisattachedtotheUnshown;forthe UnshownWayispainfullywonbythemthatwearthebody. Butasforthemwho,havingcastallworksonMeandgiventhemselvesovertoMe,worship Meinmeditation,withwholeheartedyoga. ThesespeedilyIliftupfromtheseaofdeathandlife,OPrtha,theirmindsbeingsetonMe (BhagavadGit,XII,57).

AndsoitisthatanyIndianmanorwomanwillworshipatthefeetofsomeinspired wayfarerwhotellsthemthattherecanbenoimageofGod,thattheworlditselfisa limitation,andgostraightway,asthenaturalconsequence,topourwateronthehead oftheSivalingam.[5]Indianreligionhasacceptedart,asithasacceptedlifeinits entirety,withopeneyes.India,withallherpassionforrenunciation,hasneversuffered fromthatterribleblightoftheimaginationwhichconfusestheidealsoftheasceticand ofthecitizen.Thecitizenisindeedtoberestrained;buttheveryessenceofhismethod isthatheshouldlearnrestraintortemperancebylife,notbytherejectionoflife.For him,therejectionoflife,calledPuritanism,wouldbeintemperance. Renunciation Whatthenofthetrueascetic,withhisidealofrenunciation?Ithasbeenthoughtby manyHindusandBuddhists,asithasbymanyChristians,thatrapidspiritualprogressis compatibleonlywithanasceticlife.Thegoalbeforeusallissalvationfromthe

limitationofindividuality,andrealisationofunitywithunconditionedabsolutebeing. Beforesuchagoalcanbeattained,eventhehighestintellectualandemotional attachmentsmustbeputaway;art,likeallelseintimeandspace,mustbetranscended. ThreestatesorplanesofexistencearespokenofinIndianmetaphysics:Kamaloka,the sphereofphenomenalappearance;Rpaloka,thesphereofidealform;andArpa loka,thespherebeyondform.GreatartsuggeststheidealformsoftheRpaloka,in termsoftheappearancesofKamaloka;butwhatisarttoonethattoilsuponthe UnshownWay,seekingtotranscendalllimitationsofthehumanintellect,toreacha planeofbeingunconditionedevenbyidealform?Forsuchanone,themostrefinedand intellectualdelightsarebutflowerymeadowswheremenmaylingeranddelay,while thestraitpathtouttertruthwaitsvainlyforthetravellersfeet.Thisthoughtexplains thebeliefthatabsoluteemancipationishardlywonbyanybuthumanbeingsyet incarnate;itisharderforthegodstoattainsuchrelease,fortheirpureandexaltedbliss andknowledgeareattachmentsevenstrongerthantheseofearth.Andsowefindsuch aninstructionasthis:
Form,sound,taste,smell,touch,theseintoxicatebeings;cutofftheyearningwhichis inherentinthem(DhammikaSutta).

Theextremeexpressionsofthisthoughtseemtousmoreterriblethaneventhe coldnessofChristianmentoexternalbeauty;wefeelthis,forinstance,inreadingthe storyoftheBuddhistmonk,ChittaGutta,whodweltinacertaincaveforsixtyyears withouteverraisinghiseyesabovethegroundsofarastoobservethebeautifully paintedroof;notwasheeverawareoftheyearlyfloweringofagreatnatreebeforehis cave,exceptthroughseeingthepollenfallenupontheground.ButIndianthoughthas neverdreamedofimposingsuchidealsuponthecitizen,whosedharmalies,notinthe renunciationofaction,butinrightactionwithoutattachmenttoitsfruits;andforsuch, whomusteverformthegreatmajorityofthepeople,artisbothanaidto,andameans of,spiritualprogress.Onethingisofimportanceforus,thatwhilewerunnoriskof confusingthesetwoideals,weshouldnotjudgeoftheirrelativevalueorrightnessfor others;eachmanmustdothatforhimself;andsowearetorespectbothmonkand citizen,peasantandking,notfortheirposition,butfortheirfulfilmentoftheirown ideals.ThissamesightednessexplainstoustheseemingparadoxthatHinduismand Buddhism,withtheiridealsofrenunciation,have,likeMediaevalChristianity,beenat oncetheinspirationandthestrongholdofart. Symbolism Indiaiswonttosuggesttheeternalandinexpressibleinfinitiesintermsofsensuous beauty.TheloveofmanforwomanorfornatureareonewithhisloveforGod.Nothing iscommonorunclean.Alllifeisasacrament,nopartofitmoresothananother,and thereisnopartofitthatmaynotsymbolizeeternalandinfinitethings.Inthisgreat samesightedness,howgreatistheopportunityforart.Butinthisreligiousartitmust notbeforgottenthatlifeisnottoberepresentedforitsownsake,butforthesakeof theDivineexpressedinandthroughit.Itislaiddown:

Itisalwayscommendablefortheartisttodrawtheimagesofgods.Tomakehumanfigures iswrong,orevenunholy.EvenamishapenimageofGodisalwaysbetterthananimageof man,howeverbeautiful(Sukrackrya).

Thedoctrineheresosternlystatedmeans,inotherwords,thatimitationand portraiturearelesseraimsthantherepresentationofidealandsymbolicforms:theaim ofthehighestartmustalwaysbetheintimationoftheDivinitybehindallform,rather thantheimitationoftheformitself. Onemay,forinstance,depictthesportofKrishnawiththeGopis,butitmustbeina spiritofreligiousidealism,notforthemeresakeofthesensuousimageryitself.Interms ofEuropeanart,itwouldhavebeenwrongforGiottoorBotticelli,whocouldgivetothe worldanidealconceptionoftheMadonna,tohavebeencontenttoportrayobviously earthlypersonsposingastheMadonna,aswasdoneinlatertimes,whenarthadpassed downwardsfromspiritualidealismtonaturalism.SoalsoMillaislaterworkhasalower aimthanhisearlier.InIndiaalso,theworkofRaviVarma,whosegodsandheroesare butmencastinaverycommonmould,isunholycomparedwiththeidealpicturesof Tagore. FormalBeauty WhatistheidealofbeautyimplicitinIndianart?Itisabeautyoftype,impersonaland aloof.Itisnotanidealofvariedindividualbeauty,butofoneformalisedandrhythmic. ThecanonsinsistagainandagainupontheIdealastheonlytruebeauty:Animage whoselimbsaremadeinaccordancewiththeruleslaiddowninthesstrasisbeautiful. Some,however,deemthatwhichpleasesthefancytobebeautiful;butproportionsthat differfromthosegivenitthesastrascannotdelightthecultured(Sukrcarya). TheappealofformalisedidealbeautyisfortheIndianmindalwaysstrongerthanthatof beautyassociatedwiththeaccidentalandunessential.Thebeautyofart,whetherfictile orliterary,ismorecompellinganddeeperthanthatofnatureherself.Thesepureideas, thusdisentangledfromthewebofcircumstancebyart,arelessrealisedandsomore suggestivethanfactitself.Thisistheexplanationofthepassionateloveofnature expressedinIndianartandliterature,thatisyetcombinedalmostwithindifferenceto thebeauty,certainlytothepicturesqueness,ofnatureherself. Anessentialpartoftheidealofbeautyisrestraintinrepresentation:Thehandsand feetshouldbewithoutveins.The(bonesof)thewristandankleshouldnotbeshown (Sukrcrya). Overminutenesswouldbeasacrificeofbreadth.Itisnotfortheimagertospendhis timeindisplayinghisknowledgeorhisskill;foroverelaborateddetailmaydestroy ratherthanheightenthebeautyofthework;inthepresenceoftheworkof Michaelangelo,wecanneverforgethowmuchanatomyheknows.Butthisobjectionto thelaboriousrealisationofpartsofaworkofartmustnotbeconfusedwiththe

perniciousdoctrineoftheexcellenceofunfinishedwork.Orientalartisessentiallyclear anddefined;itsmysterydoesnotdependonvagueness. Adherencetotheproportionslaiddowninthesstrasiseveninculcatedby imprecations:

Ifthemeasurmentsbeoutbyevenhalfaninch,theresultwillbelossofwealth,ordeath (Sariputra). Onewhoknowsamisshiscraftafterhisdeathwillfallintohellandsuffer(Mayamataya).

Insuchphrasesweseemtoseetheframersofthecanonconsciouslyendeavouringto securethepermanenceofthetraditioninfuturegenerations,andamongstignorantor inferiorcraftsmen.WeshallseelaterwhathasbeenthefunctionoftraditioninIndian art.Itappearshereasanextensionintimeoftheideaofformalbeautyandsymbolism. BeautynottheonlyAim Butitisnotnecessaryforallarttobebeautiful,certainlynotpretty.Ifartisultimately tointerpretGodtoallofyou,itmustbenowbeautiful,nowterrible,butalwayswith thatlivingqualitywhichtranscendsthelimitedconceptionsofbeautyandugliness.The personalGod,whomaloneartcaninterpret,isinandthroughallnature;Allthis UniverseisstrunguponMeasgemsuponathread.Natureissometimessoftand smiling,sometimesalsoredintoothandclaw;inher,bothlifeanddeatharefound. Creation,preservationanddestructionareequallyHiswork.Hisimagesmaytherefore bebeautifulorterrible. Innaturetherearethreegunas,orqualities,Sattva(truth),Rajas(passion), andTamas(gloom).Thesequalitiesarealwayspresentinnature;theirrelative proportiondeterminesthecharacterofanyparticularsubjectorobject.Theymust, therefore,enterintoallmaterialandconditionedrepresentations,evenofDivinity,in which,nevertheless,sattvagunamustpreponderate.Andsowefindaclassificationof imagesintothree,sattvik,rajasik,andtamasik:
AnimageofGod,seatedselfcontained,inthepostureofayogi,withhandsturnedasif grantingboonandencouragementtohisworshippers,surroundedbyprayingand worshippingIndraandothergods,iscalledasattvikimage. Animageseatedonavhan,deckedwithvariousornaments,withhandsbearingweapons, aswellasgrantingboonandencouragment,iscalledarajasikimage. Atamasikimageisaterriblearmedfigurefightinganddestroyingthedemons(Sukrcrya).

Itisthesamewitharchitecture.Here,too,thedesignistosuggestandsymbolizethe Universe;thesiteofatempleortownislaidoutinrelationtoastrologicalobservations; everystonehasitsplaceinthecosmicdesign,andtheveryfaultsofexecutionrepresent buttheimperfectionsandshortcomingsofthecraftsmanhimself.Canwewonderthata beautifulanddignifiedarchitectureisthusdevised,orcansuchconceptionsfailtobe reflectedinthedignityandserenityoflifeitself?Undersuchconditions,thecraftsman

isnotanindividualexpressingindividualwhims,butapartoftheUniversegiving expressiontotheidealsofitsowneternalbeautyandunchanginglaw. DecorativeArt Exactlythesameideasofformalbeautyprevailinrelationtopurelydecorativeart.The aimofsuchartisnot,ofcourse,inthesamesenseconsciouslyreligious;thesimple expressionofdelightincunningworkmanship,orofthecraftsmanshumour,orhisfear orhisdesirearemotifsthatinspirethelesserartthatbelongstothecommonthingsof life.Butyetallartisreallyone,consistentwithitselfandwithlife;howshouldonepart ofitbefundamentallyopposedtoanother?AndsowefindinthedecorativeartofIndia thesameidealismthatisinseparablefromIndianthought;forart,likereligion,isreallya wayoflookingatthings,morethananythingelse.Theloveofnatureinitsinfinite beautyandvarietyhasimpelledthecraftsmantodecoratehishandiworkwiththe formsofthewellknownbirdsandflowersandbeastswithwhichheismostintimate,or whichhavemostappealedtohisimagination.Buttheseformsheneverrepresents realistically;theyarealwaysmemorypictures,combinedwithfancifulcreationsofthe imaginationintosymmetricalandrhythmicornament. Lions Take,forexample,thetreatmentoflionsindecorativeart.Versesofthecanonrelating toanimalsoftenshowthattheobjectofthecanonhasbeenasmuchtostimulate imagination,astodefinethemannerofrepresentation.
Theneighofahorseislikethesoundofastorm,hiseyeslikethelotus,heisswiftasthe wind,asstatelyasalion,andhisgaitisthegaitofadancer. Thelionhaseyeslikethoseofahare,afierceaspect,softhairlongonhischestandunder hisshoulders,hisbackisplumplikeasheepshisbodyisthatofabloodedhorse,hisgaitis stately,andhistaillong(Sariputra).

Forcomparison,Iquoteanotherdescription,fromanoldChinesecanon:
Withaformlikethatofatiger,andwithacolourtawnyorsometimesblue,thelionislike theMukuinu,ashaggydog.Hehasahugehead,hardasbronze,alongtail,foreheadfirm asiron,hookedfangs,eyeslikebendedbows,andraisedears;hiseyesflashlikelightning, andhisroarislikethunder.[6]

SuchdescriptionsthrowlightontherepresentationofanimalsinOrientaldecorative art.Theartistslionneedbelikenoliononearthorinanyzoologicalgarden;forheis notillustratingaworkonnaturalhistory.Freedfromsuchalimitation,heisableto expressthroughhislionthewholetheoryofhisnationalexistenceandindividual idiosyncracy.ThushasOrientalartbeenpreservedfromsuchpaltryandemasculated realismasthatofthelionsofTrafalgarSquare.Contrasttheabsenceofimaginationin thishandiworkoftheEnglishpainterofdomesticpetswiththevitalityoftheheraldic lionsofMediaevalEngland,orthelionsofHokusaisDailyExorcisms.Thesculptured lionsofEgypt,Assyria,orIndiaaretrueworksofart,forinthemwesee,notanylion

thatcouldtodaybeshotorphotographedinadesert,butthelionasheexistedinthe mindsofapeople,alionthattellsussomethingofthepeoplewhorepresentedhim.In suchartisticsubjectivityliesthesignificanceofAncientandEasterndecorativeart:itis thiswhichgivessomuchdignityandvaluetothelesserartsofIndia,andseparates themsoentirelyinspiritfromtheimitativedecorativeartofmodernEurope. Jewellery TakeIndianjewelleryasanotherillustrationofidealismindecorativeart.Thetraditional formshavedistinctivenames,justasacurbbraceletoragypsyringmaybespoken ofinEngland.InIndiathenamesareusuallythoseofspecialflowersorfruits,orgeneric termsforflowersorseeds,asruiflowerthread,coconutflowergarland,petal garland,stringofmilletgrains,earflower,hairflower.Thesenamesare reminiscentofthegarlandsofrealflowers,andtheflowersinthehair,thatplayso importantapartinIndianfestaldress.These,withtheflowersandfruitswornas talismansorasreligioussymbols,aretheprototypesoftheflowerformsofIndian jewellery,whichthus,likeallotherIndianart,reflectsthethought,thelifeandthe historyofthepeoplebyandforwhomitissobeautifullymade. Thetraditionalforms,then,arenamedafterflowers;butitishighlycharacteristicthat thegarlandsandflowersareindesignpurelysuggestive,notatallimitativeofthe prototypes.TherealismwhichissocharacteristicofnearlyallmodernWesternart,in jewelleryproducingtheunimaginativeimitationsofflowers,leaves,andanimalsofthe schoolofLalique,isneverfoundinIndiandesign. ImitationandDesign Thepassionforimitationmaybetakenasdirectevidenceofthelackoftrueartistic impulse,whichisalwaysadesire,consciousorsubconscious,toexpressor manifestIdea.Whyindeedimitatewhereyoucanneverrival?Norisitbyaconscious intellectualeffortthatafloweristobeconventionalisedandmadeintoapplied ornament.NotrueIndiancraftsmansetsaflowerbeforehimandworriesoutofitsome sortofornamentbytakingthought;hisartismoredeeplyrootedinthenationallife thanthat.Iftheflowerhasnotmeantsomuchtohimthathehasalreadyaclear memorypictureofitsessentialcharacters,hemayaswellignoreitinhisdecoration;for adecorativeartnotintimatelyrelatedtohisownexperience,andtothatofhisfellow men,couldhavenointrinsicvitality,normeetwiththatimmediateresponsewhich rewardstheprophetspeakinginamothertongue.Itis,ofcourse,truethattheoriginal memorypicturesarehandedonascrystallisedtraditions;yetaslongastheartisliving, thetraditionremainsalsoplastic,andismouldedimperceptiblybysuccessive generations.Theforceofitsappealisstrengthenedbytheassociationofideasartistic, emotionalandreligious. Traditionalformshavethusasignificancenotmerelyforeigntoanyimitativeart,but dependentonthefactthattheyrepresentraceconceptions,ratherthantheideasof oneartistorofasingleperiod.Theyareavitalexpressionoftheracemind:toreject

them,andexpectgreatarttoliveonasbefore,wouldbetosevertherootsofaforest treeandstilllookforflowersandfruituponitsbranches. Patterns Consider,also,patterns.Ihavefoundthattomostpeoplepatternsmeanextremely little;theyarethingstobemadeandcastasidefornew,onlyrequiringtobepretty, perhapsonlytobefashionable;whereastheyarethingswhichliveandgrow,andwhich nomancancreate,allhecandoistousethem,andtoletthemgrow.Everyrealpattern hasalongancestryandastorytotell.Forthosethatcanreaditslanguage,eventhe moststrictlydecorativearthascomplexandsymbolicalassociationsthatenhancea thousandfoldthesignificanceofitsexpression,asthecomplexassociationsthatbelong towords,enrichthemeasuredwebofspokenverse.Thisisnot,ofcourse,tosuggest thatsucharthasadidacticcharacter,butonlythatithassomemeaningandsomething tosay;butifyoudonotwanttolisten,itisstillapieceofdecorationfarbetterthan somenewthingthathasbrokenwithtraditionandisoriginal.MayHeavenpreserve usfromthedecorativeartoftodaythatprofessestobenewandoriginal.Thetruthis expressedbyRuskininthefollowingwords:
Thatvirtueoforiginalitythatmensostrainafterisnotnewness(astheyvainlythink),itis onlygenuineness;italldependsonthissinglegloriousfacultyofgettingtothespringof thingsandworkingoutfromthat.

ObservethatherewehavecomebacktotheessentiallyIndianpointofview,gettingto thespringofthings,andworkingoutfromthat.Youwillgetallthefreshnessand individualityyouwantifyoudothat.Thisistobeseeninthevigourandvitalityofthe designsofWilliamMorris,comparedwiththeworkofdesignerswhohavedeliberately striventobeoriginal.Morristriedtodonomorethanrecoverthethreadofa losttraditionandcarryiton;andyetnoonecouldmistaketheworkofMorrisforthat ofanyothermanoranyothercenturyorcountryandisthatnotoriginalityenough? Convention Conventionmaybedefinedasthemannerofartisticpresentation, whiletraditionstandsforahistoriccontinuityintheuseofsuchconventionalmethods ofexpression.Manyhavethoughtthatconventionandtraditionarethefoesofart,and deemtheepithetsconventionalandtraditionaltobeinthemselvesofthenatureof destructivecriticism.Conventionisconceivedofsolelyaslimitation,notasalanguage andameansofexpression.Buttoonerealisingwhattraditionreallymeans,aquite contraryviewpresentsitself;thatoftheterribleandalmosthopelessdisadvantagefrom whichartsufferswheneachartistandeachcraftsmen,oratthebest,eachlittlegroup andschool,hasfirsttocreatealanguage,beforeideascanbeexpressedinit. Fortraditionisawonderful,expressivelanguage,thatenablestheartistworking throughittospeakdirectlytotheheartwithoutthenecessityforexplanation.Itisa mothertongue,everyphraseofitrichwiththecountlessshadesofmeaningreadintoit bythesimpleandthegreatthathavemadeanduseditinthepast.

Itmaybesaidthattheseprinciplesholdgoodonlyinrelationtodecorativeart.Letus thenenquireintotheplaceandinfluenceoftraditioninthefineartofIndia.Thewritten traditions,onceorallytransmitted,consistmainlyofmemoryverses,exactly correspondingtothemnemonicversesofearlyIndianliterature.Inbothcases,the artist,imagerorstoryteller,hadalsoafullerandmorelivingtradition,handeddownin theschoolsfromgenerationtogeneration,enablinghimtofilloutthemeagredetailsof thewrittencanon. Sometimes,inadditiontotheversesofthecanon,booksofmnemonicsketcheswerein use,andhandeddownfrommastertopupilinthesameway.Thesegiveusan opportunityofmoreexactlyunderstandingthenatureandmethodoftradition. Nataraja TheaccompanyingillustrationisreproducedfromanoldTamilcraftsmanssketchbook, afigureofSivaasNataraja.Inordertounderstandthis,itisnecessaryfirsttoexplainthe legendandconceptionofSivasappearanceastheDancingLord.Thestoryisgivenin theKoyilPuranam,andisfamiliartoallSaivites.Sivasappearedindisguiseamongsta congregationoftenthousandsagesand,inthecourseofdisputation,confutedthem andsoangeredthemthereby,thattheyendeavouredbyincantationstodestroyHim.A fiercetigerwascreatedinsacrificialflames,andrusheduponHim,butsmilinggently,He seizeditwithHissacredhands,

Nataraja:fromaTamil craftsman'snotebook

andwiththenailofHislittlefinger strippedoffitsskin,whichHe wrappedaboutHimselfasifithadbeenasilkencloth.Undiscouragedbyfailure,thesages renewedtheirofferings,andtherewasproducedamonstrousserpent,whichHeseizedand wreathedaboutHisneck.ThenHebegantodance;butthererusheduponHimalast monsterintheshapeofahideousmalignantdwarf.UponHimtheGodpressedthetipof Hisfoot,andbrokethecreaturesback,sothatitwrithedupontheground;andso,Hislast foeprostrate,Sivaresumedthedanceofwhichthegodswerewitnesses.Oneinterpretation ofthislegendexplainsthatHewrapsaboutHimasagarment,thetigerfuryofhuman passion;theguileandmaliceofmankindHewearsasanecklace,andbeneathHisfeetisfor evercrushedtheembodimentofevil.MorecharacteristicofIndianthoughtisthe symbolism,intermsofthemarvellousgraceandrhythmofIndiandancing,theeffortless easewithwhichtheGodinHisgracesupportsthecosmos;itisHissport.Thefiveactsof creation,preservation,destruction,embodimentandgraciousreleaseareHisceaseless mysticdance.InsacredTillai,theNewJerusalem,thedanceshallberevealed;andTillaiis theverycentreoftheUniverse,thatis,Hisdanceiswithinthecosmosandthesoul.[7] (earlyXIXcentury) Thenecessityforsuchanexplanationemphasizestheapparentdifficultyofunderstanding Indianart;butitmustberememberedthattheelementofstrangenessinIndianartisnot thereforitsmakersandthoseforwhomtheyworked;itspeaks,asallgreatnationalart mustspeak,inalanguageofitsown,anditisevidentthatthegrammarofthisartlanguage mustbeunderstoodbeforethemessagecanbeappreciated,orthemindleftfreeto considerwhatshallbeitsestimateoftheartisticqualitiesofaworkbeforeit.

Herethenisaroughsketch,drawnbyaninferiorcraftsman,andrepresentingveryfairly justthatamountofguidancewhichtraditionsomewhatpreciselyhandsonforthe behoofofeachsucceedinggenerationofimagers.Thisconceptionisfairlyoftenmet withinSouthernIndia,sculpturedinstoneorcastinbronze.Someofthese representationshavenoespecialartisticexcellence;butsosubjectiveisappreciationof art,sodependentonqualitiesbelongingentirelytothebeholder,andtransferredby himintotheobjectbeforehim,thatthesymbolicandreligiousaimisstillattained.Such isoneofthefunctionsoftradition,makingitpossibleforordinarycraftsmentowork acceptablywithinitslimits,andavoidingalldangerofthegreatandsacredsubjects beingtreatedwithlossofdignityorreverence.Buttraditionhasanotheraspect,as enablingthegreatartist,themanofgenius,tosayinthelanguageunderstoodbythe people,allthatthereisinhimtoexpress. AbronzefigureofNataraja,perhapsoftheseventeenthcenturyorevenolder,isinthe MadrasMuseum.Itwouldbesuperfluoustopraiseindetailthisbeautifulfigure;itisso alive,andyetsobalanced,sopowerfulandyetsoeffortless.Thereishererealismfor therealist,butrealismthatisduetokeennessofmemoryforfamiliarthings,notto theirimitation.TheimagergrewupundertheshadowofaSivantempleinoneofthe greatcathedralcitiesoftheSouth;perhapsTanjore;hehadworkedwithhisfatherat thecolumnsoftheThousandPillaredHallatMadura,andlaterattheChoultry,whenall thecraftsmenofSouthernIndiaflockedtocarryoutthegreatbuildingsofTirumala Nayaka;himselfaSaivite,heknewallitsfamiliarritual,anddayafterdayhehadseen

thedancingofthedevadasisbeforetheshrine,perhapsinhisyouthhadbeenthelover ofonemoreskilledandgracefulthantherest;andallhismemoriesofrhythmicdance, andmingleddevotionfordevadasiandforDeity,heexpressedinthegraceandbeauty ofthisdancingSiva.Forsoarereligionandculture,lifeandart,bounduptogetherin thewebofIndianlife.Isthetraditionthatlinksthatarttolifeoflittlevalue,orlessthan none,tothegreatgenius?Shallherejecttheimageryreadytohishand,becauseitis notnewandunfamiliar?Lookwellatthefigure,withitsfirstandsimplestmotifof victoryoverevil;observetheringofflamingfire,theauraofHisglory;thefourhands withtheelaboratesymbolismoftheirattitude;theflutteringangavastiram,andthe serpentgarland,andthinkwhetheranyindividualartist,creatinghisownconvention andinventingnewersymbolisms,couldspeakthustotheheartsofmen,amongstwhom thestoryofSivasdanceisagospelandacradletale. Buddha TheseatedBuddhaisamorefamiliartype.Here,too,conventionandtraditionareheld tofetterartisticimagination.Indianartissometimescondemnedforshowingno development,becausethereis,orissupposedtobe,nodifferenceinartisticconception betweenaBuddhaofthefirstcenturyandoneofthenineteenth.Itis,ofcourse,not quitetruethatthereisnodevelopment,inthesensethattheworkofeachperiodis altogetheruncharacterised,forthosewhoknowsomethingofIndianartareableto estimatewithsomeconfidencethecenturytowhichastatuebelongs.Butitistruethat theconceptionisreallythesame;themistakeliesinthinkingthisanartisticweakness.It isanexpressionofthefactthattheIndianidealhasnotchanged.Whatisthatidealso passionatelydesired?Itisonepointedness,samesightedness,control:littlebylittleto controlthefickleandunsteadymind;littlebylittletowinstillness,toreinin,notmerely thesenses,butthemind,thatisashardtocheckasisthewind.Asalampthatflickers notinawindlessspot,soisthemindtobeatrest.Onlybyconstantlabourand passionlessnessisthispeacetobeattained.Whatistheattitudeofmindandbodyof onethatseeksit?Heshallbeseatedliketheimage,forthatposture,onceacquired,is oneofperfectbodilyequipoise: Heshallseathimselfwiththoughtintentandtheworkingsofmindandsense instrumentsrestrained,forpurificationofspiritlabourontheyoga. Firm,holdingbody,head,andneckinunmovingequipoise,gazingontheendofhis nose,andlookingnotroundabouthim. Calmofspirit,voidoffear,abidingunderthevowofchastity,withmindrestrainedand thoughtsetonMe,soshallhesitthatisundertheRule,givenoveruntoMe. InthiswisetheyogicomestothepeacethatendsinnirvanaandthatabidesinMe (BhagavadGita,VI,1215). HowthenshouldthegreatestofIndiasteachersberepresentedinart?Howotherwise thanseatedinthisposturethatisintheheartofIndiaassociatedwitheverystriving afterthegreatIdeal,andinwhichtheBuddhahimselfwasseatedonthenightwhenthe

attacksofMarawereforeverfoiled,andthatinsightcameatlast,togainwhichthe Buddhahadincountlesslivessacrificedhisbodyforthesakeofcreatures?Itwasthe greatestmomentinIndiasspiritualhistory;andasitlivesintheracememory,soisitof necessitypresentedintheraceart. Conclusion Such,then,havebeentheaimsandmethodofIndianartinthepast.Twotendencies aremanifestedintheIndianartoftoday,theoneinspiredbythetechnicalachievement ofthemodernWest,theotherbythespiritualidealismoftheEast.Theformerhas sweptawayboththebeautyandthelimitationoftheoldtradition.Thelatterhasbut newlyfoundexpression;yetifthegreatestartisalwaysbothnationalandreligious(and howemptyanyotherartmustbe),itistherealonethatweseethebeginningsofanew andgreaterart,thatwillfulfilandnotdestroythepast.WhenalivingIndianculture arisesoutofthewreckofthepastandthestruggleofthepresent,anewtraditionwill beborn,andnewvisionfindexpressioninthelanguageofformandcolour,nolessthan inthatofwordsandrhythm.Thepeopletowhomthegreatconceptionscamearestill theIndianpeople,andwhenlifeisstronginthemagain,strongalsowillbetheirart.It maybethatthefruitofadeepernationallife,awiderculture,andaprofounderlove, willbeanartgreaterthananyinthepast.Butthiscanonlybethroughgrowthand development,notbyasuddenrejectionofthepast.Aparticularconventionisthe characteristicexpressionofaperiod,theproductofparticularconditions;itresumesthe historicevolutionofthenationalculture.Theconventionofthefuturemustbesimilarly relatedtothenationallife.Westandinrelationbothtopastandfuture;inthepastwe madethepresent,thefuturewearemouldingnow,andourdutytothisfutureisthat weshouldenrich,notdestroy,theinheritancethatisnotIndiasalone,butthe inheritanceofallhumanity. NOTES [1]FirstpublishedbytheEssexHousePressinalimitededition,1908. [2]i.e.,ridinguponasnowwhitebull. [3]Inotherwords:TheartistshouldattaintotheimagesofGodsbymeansofspiritual contemplationonly.Thisspiritualvisionisthebestandtrueststandardforhim.He shoulddependuponit;andnot,indeed,uponthevisibleobjectsperceivedbythe externalsenses. [4]QuotationsfromMemorialofEdwardBurneJones,byLadyBurneJones,1904. [5]Okakura,IdealsoftheEast,p.65. [6]QuotedinTheKokka,No.198,1906. [7]Pope,Tiruvcagam,p.lxiii;NallasawmiPillai,SivagnanaBotham,Madras,1895,p. 74.www.studiesincomparativereligion.com