Ben Hammack Professor Wolcott ENC1102 10/23/13 The Second Space Race Annotated Bibliography Asteroid mining-an idea

a that was once seen as science fiction-is now becoming science fact. With the conclusion of the space shuttle program, NASAs next big plan is to wrangle one of these metallic mavericks into orbit around the Earth. But NASA is not the only party involved in the venture of asteroid capture. Startups such as Planetary Resources and Deep Space Industries plan to mine captured asteroids for rare, platinum-group metals. Just as space is infinite, the possibly net worth of this new industry is infinite. However, certain barriers are preventing the asteroid mining program from taking flight, such as geopolitical policies regarding the ownership of extraterrestrial territory and engineering problems such as how to intercept and latch on to an accelerating asteroid. Asteroid mining is a two-step process. First, an asteroid must be captured around the Earth by a spacecraft which attaches itself to the asteroid and preforms a maneuver to slow the velocity of the system. Once the asteroid is in a stable circular orbit, it can then be mined by robotic lander-miners, which will extract the material from the asteroid using drills other mining equipment. Many precious elements exist inside asteroids, such as platinum-group elements, ice, and hydrogen gas (which can be converted into rocket fuel).

This annotated bibliography will cover the economic and scientific benefits of asteroid mining, as well as the current status of the venture. Topics such as the refunding of NASA and the return of mined materials to earth are not covered under the scope of this annotated bibliography. The journals contain lexis that is used among individuals in this discourse community; therefore, the audience of this annotated bibliography includes rocket scientists and engineers, not the general public. However, some technical terms will be defined. A majority of the articles used in this annotated bibliography are academic journals. Many of the journals cite case studies which analyze and attempt to solve some of the engineering and political problems related to asteroid mining. Also, these journals evaluate the current status of asteroid mining by referencing work done over the past 15 years by both public and private space industries. Chang, Kenneth Plan to Capture an Asteroid Runs Into Politics The New York Times Online 29 July 2013. 16 October 2013. Web. <http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/30/science/space/plan-to-capture-an-asteroidruns-into-politics.html?smid=pl-share> In his report, Kenneth Chang, a journalist for the New York Times, explains the political setbacks preventing NASA from going forward with an asteroid capturing mission. Chang explains that typically, there is bipartisan support in Congress for NASAs bolder plans, but Congressional Republicans are denying NASA the opportunity and funding to fulfill the Obamas administrations highlighted plan for NASA capturing an asteroid for further study. The plan was blocked by the Republican-controlled House, but the

proposal is far from dead. The Democrat-controlled Senate plans introducing a formatted version of the bill that would allow NASA to carry on business-as-usual. The authors presentation of this article is questionable, as the New York Times is known to carry a liberal inclination when presenting topics relating to bipartisan conflict, but the facts themselves are objective. This article displays only domestic hindrances to space mining. Even when this issue is resolved, there are still geopolitical barriers, such as the U.N. laws that prohibit ownership of extraterrestrial property. Erickson, Ken R. Optimal Architecture for an Asteroid Mining Mission: System Components and Project Execution American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (2007) p.896-903. 30 January 2007. In this article, Ken Erickson, a researcher and speaker at the annual SPACE conference, presents the optimal architecture, engineering components, and methodology of an asteroid mining vessel. He states that first, asteroids should be selected based upon maximum potential resource return and minimal delta-V demands. Delta-V is the change in velocity that a spacecraft is required to complete in order to adjust its orbit; it is comparable to the amount of gas a car must burn in order to travel a distance. Erickson notes that only 10% of near-Earth asteroids have a delta-V budget less than the Moon, therefore the selection is limited to these 10%. Proper mining equipment should consist of AI-guided robotics with human telecontrol from Earth, a command-controlcommunication center in orbit around the asteroid, and four small lander-miners. These lander-miners would extract elements such as platinum and ice from the asteroid and

convert them into useable materials, such as O2 and H2 (rocket fuel). Ericksons presentation of the necessary components is a vital step towards actual implementation. Questionably though, the author does not specify how certain rare elements, such as platinum, could be transferred back to Earth. Forgan, Duncan H. and Martin Elvis Extrasolar asteroid mining as forensic evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence International Journal of Astrobiology 10.4 (2011) p. 307-313 Cambridge University Press. 16 October 2013. In this article, Duncan Forgan and Martin Elvis, two scientists studying at the Institute for Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh, propose a unique scientific reason for asteroid mining: to study for extraterrestrial intelligence. They state that advanced, space-faring civilizations may utilize comets and asteroids as sources of resources. By studying near-Earth asteroids, these scientists hope to find some signature of extraterrestrial life. This article is on the line as to whether it is covered under the scope of this annotated bibliography. Essentially, it covers an entirely different field of science, but at the same time, it is a specific scientific reason for the capture and mining of asteroids. Geggel, Laura and Katie Peek Space Metal Popular Science (2012) Infographic p.60-61. Laura Geggel and Katie Peak, illustrators of Popular Science magazine, created this infographic, which displays the distribution and makeup of asteroids that contain platinum-group elements. These elements are primarily used in industrial chemical reactions and electronics, and the demand for these elements is increasing, as there are

only four major deposits of platinum-group elements on Earth. Fortunately, many asteroids contain at least one of the six elements in the platinum group. The author notes that Planetary Resources will begin mining asteroids for water and PGEs in 2020. This article reinforces the reasoning behind the need to mine asteroids, as the author also points out that Earth only contains four PGE deposits. When these deposits run dry, the only way to obtain platinum-group elements will be through asteroid mining. As a result, the asteroid mining business will economically explode, comparable to-as Michael Slezak put it-the famous California Gold Rush. Hasnain, Zaki, Christopher A. Lamb, and Shane D. Ross Capturing near-Earth asteroids around Earth Acta Astronautica 81 (2012) p.523-531. 12 October 2013. In this paper, Zaki Hasnain and his team-researchers in the Engineering Science and Mechanics department of Virginia Tech-present their algorithm that determines the trajectory characteristics necessary to move asteroids into capture orbits around Earth. Because an asteroid will naturally enter and depart from Earths sphere of influence, an impulsive force is required to slow down the asteroid in order to circularize its orbit around Earth. This model is essentially a delta-V budget, similar to the model created by J.P. Sanchez. The authors analyzed catalogued asteroids over the past 10 years with an eccentricity less than 0.1 to develop the algorithm, and concluded that 23 observed asteroids are prime candidates for capture in the future. When compared with an economic feasibility analysis, this algorithm could be put into practical application by an asteroid mining venture to determine which asteroids to mine.

Kerr, Richard Planetary Scientists Casting Doubt on Feasibility of Plan to Corral Asteroid AAAS Science 340.6133 (2013) p.668-669, 10 May 2013. Richard Kerr, a journalist for the American Association for the Advancement of Science, highlights the opposing viewpoint to the romanticism behind capturing an asteroid. Kerr reports that many planetary scientists are dubious about the success of NASAs asteroidcapturing mission. The main two problems are the number of potential candidates for capture, and the limited launch opportunity to capture the selected asteroid. A study done by the Keck Institute for Space Studies found that there are only about five candidates per year that could be retrieved by NASAs current plan. After the asteroid is classified as a potential candidate, the launch window is very slim, as there are only a few days or weeks before the asteroid shoots back off into space. Critics of the plan to capture asteroids also claim that it is purposeless. NASAs original goal sending astronauts to an asteroid was to prepare astronauts for long term space missions far from home. By bringing the asteroid to home, it defeats the purpose. Knapp, Alex Asteroid Mining Startup Planetary Resources Teams With Virgin Galactic Forbes Business Source Premier 11 July 2012. 16 October 2013. Web <http://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2012/07/11/asteroid-mining-startupplanetary-resources-teams-with-virgin-galactic/> In this article, Alex Knapp, a reporter for Forbes news, explains the partnership between private space giant Virgin Galactic and asteroid mining startup Planetary Resources. Under the partnership, Virgin Galactic will launch Planetary Resources asteroid

prospecting satellites into low Earth orbit using Virgin Galactics satellite launching rocket. These satellites will scan asteroids for precious minerals, and record them for future mining missions. The contract will most likely continue into the future until Planetary Resources is able to launch mining vessels into orbit without the need for another private space corporation. Nevertheless, this is a huge leap forward for asteroid mining, as it demonstrates initiative by private space industry, rather than NASA, to be the first to accomplish the feat of capturing and mining an asteroid. Llado, Neus et al. Capturing Small Asteroids into Sun-Earth Lagrangian Points for Mining Purposes International Astronautical Congress (2012) In this article, Neus Llado and his fellow researchers of the International Aeronautical Federation present their findings regarding maneuvering and capturing asteroids around Lagrangian points in the solar system. These points are essentially balancing points in space, in which any object placed at these points will remain there due to the balanced force of gravity acting upon the object. Therefore, by placing an asteroid at one of these points, it will remain there indefinitely until another force acts upon it. In order to fulfill NASAs future mission of studying an asteroid, a spacecraft could tow an asteroid into one of the five Sun-Earth Lagrangian points. As a result, the asteroid would remain there until NASA was prepared to embark on the mission. These naturally occurring points in space would be of use to asteroid mining companies who wish to mine an asteroid in the future. Marks, Paul Uncharted Territory New Scientist 214.2867 (2012) p.3-13 2 June 2012.

In this article, Paul Marks, an investigative journalist for New Scientist, highlights the geopolitical barricades and limitations to the current operation of space mining. The United Nations Outer Space Treaty of 1967 specifically prohibits states from making territorial claims in space, yet the author points out that this law is not enforceable and can be disregarded due to its vagueness. Another law, the Moon Agreement, which seeks to preserve the Moons resources, has not been passed by any space -faring countries. The author also questions whether private space mining ventures such as Planetary Resources could be held responsible for an event that damages the Earth or other space property, as discussed in the U.N.s Space Liability treaty. In his conclusion, the author states that the current policies in place cannot dictate nor determine the consequences of space mining and asteroid capture. McKay, David Asteroid mining: no pie in the sky Finweek (2013) p.29. 7 February 2013. In this article, David McKay, a reporter for Finweek, highlights the possibility of mining asteroids. McKay states that two U.S. companies Planetary Resources and Deep Space Industries believe it will soon be possible to extract materials, such as methane, out of asteroids. The author believes that the risks of asteroid mining are less political than they are technical. Regardless of the bias, the author is still correct according to Paul Marks analysis of geopolitical laws and treaties. McKay describes Firefly, a satellite built by Deep Space Industries that will be launched to survey an asteroid for potential rare elements. The author interviews John Mankins, a former NASA Jet Propulsion laboratory manager, who states that asteroid mining is possible with the current level of

technology. This article reinforces some of the key profits and problems of asteroid mining, as discussed in Michael Slezaks Gold Rush, but is much less detailed. Reinstein, Ezra J. Owning Outer Space Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business 59 (1999) p.59-98. In this article, legal analyst Ezra Reinstein examines the future need to append current space-ownership laws. Reinstein begins by stating that Helium-3, an extremely rare, fusion reactor element, was found abundantly on the moon during the Apollo 17 mission. He states that therefore, in the future there will be conflict as to who owns this rare element. At the time of this article, the author states that it cost roughly $10,000 per pound to launch material into space; making space mining-at the time-unfeasible. But now that it is feasible to launch robots into space, the only barrier preventing asteroid mining from taking flight is political. The Outer Space Treaty, signed in the Cold War era, prohibited ownership of territory beyond Earth. The author points out that this treaty did not specifically prohibit individuals or corporations from owning territory beyond Earth. Therefore, a loophole exists for future modification of the law. There is also the fact that the OST states that space activities must benefit all of mankind, yet private industries would only be benefitting themselves. This legalistic dissonance is a serious barrier that will prevent future space mining endeavors, and should be resolved before the industry takes flight. Sanchez, J.P. and C.R. McInnes Assessment on the feasibility of future shepherding of asteroid resources Acta Astronautica 73 (2012) p.49-66, 23 December 2012.

This article summarizes the findings of J.P. Sanchez and C.R. McInnes, two scientists working in the Advanced Space Concepts Laboratory at the University of Strathclyde in the U.K. They have created a model that can be mapped on to a matrix of NEOs (near earth objects) in order to calculate a v (delta-v) budget per asteroid mass. The authors state that asteroids can be captured into Earth orbit using a series of ipulsive maneuvers generated from a capturing spacecraft. The authors also found that asteroids, rather than moons, are a more likely target for resource extraction because the gravity well around Earth is greater than the gravity well around the moon. Therefore, less v is required to transfer an asteroid into Earth orbit than to transfer to a lunar orbit. Ultimately, their model is a huge step towards locating asteroids to capture and mine. If this model is acquired by an agency such as Planetary Resources, it could mean practical application and implementation of the algorithm, leading to the possibility of asteroid mining within a decade. Slezak, Michael Space Mining: the next gold rush? New Scientist 217.2906 (2013) p.8-10 2 March 2013. Michael Slezak, a correspondent for New Scientist, summarizes the main points of a forum about space mining at the Australian Centre for Space Engineering Research. He states that commercial space mining ventures, such as Planetary Resources, plan to capture asteroids into an Earth orbit and extract the rare, precious metals. Although this may appear as a plot to a science fiction movie, Slezak reports that asteroid capture and space mining can be done with our current level of technology. This would lead to a

brand new, billion dollar market, comparable in scale to the California Gold Rush. Though there are some setbacks, such as the 1979 Moon agreement, which prohibits claims of extraterrestrial territory, these laws will likely be modified to accommodate the extremely profitable industry. Sonter, Mark J. The Technical and Economic Feasibility of Mining the Near-Earth Asteroids Acta Astronautica 41.4 (1997) p.637-647. Elsevier Science Ltd. 17 October 2013. Mark Sonter, an engineering consultant for Asteroid Enterprises, discusses the economic and technical feasibility of mining asteroids. Sonter states that in the future, there will be a high demand for precious metals to be used in pharmaceuticals and electronics. He proposes that capturing vessels utilizing solar power will be the best option for long term corralling of asteroids, as the required delta-V to tow asteroids into Earth orbit is significantly lower than the delta-V required to lift a spacecraft into orbit. Sonter then lists six economic requirements in order to make asteroid mining a profitable venture, which include: a market for the products, asteroids that carry said profitable products, a valid launch window to capture said asteroids, a feasible method to extract materials from said asteroids, a feasible retrievable concept for returning extracted materials to Earth, and finally a positive net value for the entire operation. Sonters economic analysis of the feasibility of asteroid mining is crucial to the development of mining spacecraft. In order for asteroid mining to be successful in the future, mining vessels must be able to return more than theyre worth.

Sonter, Mark Asteroid Mining: Key to the Space Economy Ad Astra Online (2006) 09 February 2006. 19 October 2013. Mark Sonter, an independent scientific consultant working in the Australian mining industry, makes a stand in this article as to why technologies should be developed in order to mine and return asteroidal resources to Earth orbit. He begins by reinforcing that only 10% of asteroids require less delta-V than a Lunar transfer, and that the available asteroids contain rare platinum-group elements. Sonter exclaims that metals such as radium have sold for $200,000 dollars a gram, and whoever retrieves an asteroid first is going to be very wealthy. In order for the space mining business to take off, the author states that NASA must tone down the space monopoly that it currently holds, and allow private industry to compete for asteroids.