Layers

Layers are one of the tools used to design functional ecosystems that are both sustainable and of direct benefit to humans. A mature ecosystem has a huge number of relationships between its component parts: trees, understory, ground cover, soil, fungi, insects, and animals. Because plants grow to different heights, a diverse community of life is able to grow in a relatively small space, as each layer is stacked one on top of another. There are generally seven recognized layers in a food forest, although some practitioners also include fungi as an eighth layer: citation needed!
1. The canopy: the tallest trees in the system. Large trees dominate but do not saturate the area, i.e. there exist patches barren of trees. 2. Understory layer: trees that usually grow less than 4 ! ". #hrubs: a di$erse layer that includes most berry bushes 4. %erbaceous: may be annuals, biennials or perennials& most annuals will fit into this layer . #oil surface: co$er crops to retain soil and lessen erosion, along with green manures to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil, especially nitrogen '. (hi)osphere: root crops including potatoes and other edible tubers *. +ertical layer: climbers or $ines, such as runner beans and lima beans ,$ine $arieties-

Guilds
A guild is any group of species where each provides a uni"ue set of diverse functions that work in con#unction, or harmony. $uilds are groups of plants, animals, insects, etc. that work well together. %ome plants may be grown for food production, some have tap roots that draw nutrients up from deep in the soil, some are nitrogen&fi'ing legumes, some attract beneficial insects, and others repel harmful insects. (hen grouped together in a mutually beneficial arrangement, these plants form a guild. )*! )+! ),!

Edge effect
The edge effect in ecology is the effect of the #u'taposition or placing side by side of contrasting environments on an ecosystem. -ermaculturists argue that, where vastly differing systems meet, there is an intense area of productivity and useful connections. An e'ample of this is the coast. where the land and the sea meet there is a particularly rich area that meets a disproportionate percentage of human and animal needs. %o this idea is played out in permacultural designs by using spirals in the herb garden or creating ponds that have wavy undulating shorelines rather than a simple circle or oval /thereby increasing the amount of edge for a given area0.

Zones
1ones are a way of intelligently organizing design elements in a human environment on the basis of the fre"uency of human use and plant or animal needs. 2re"uently manipulated or harvested elements of the design are located close to the house in zones ) and *. Less fre"uently used or manipulated elements, and elements that benefit from isolation /such as wild species0 are farther away. 1ones are about positioning things appropriately. 1ones are numbered from 3 to 4: citation needed!
.one / The house, or home center. %ere permaculture principles would be applied in terms of aiming to reduce energy and water needs, harnessing natural resources such as sunlight, and generally creating a harmonious, sustainable en$ironment in which to li$e and wor0. .one / is an informal designation, which is not specifically defined in 1ill 2ollison!s boo0. .one 1 The )one nearest to the house, the location for those elements in the system that re3uire fre3uent attention, or that need to be $isited often, such as salad crops, herb plants, soft fruit li0e strawberries or raspberries, greenhouse and cold frames, propagation area, worm compost bin for 0itchen waste, etc. (aised beds are often used in )one 1 in urban areas. .one 2 This area is used for siting perennial plants that re3uire less fre3uent maintenance, such as occasional weed control or pruning, including currant bushes and orchards, pump0ins, sweet potato, etc. This would also be a good place for beehi$es, larger scale composting bins, and so on. .one " The area where main4crops are grown, both for domestic use and for trade purposes. 5fter establishment, care and maintenance re3uired are fairly minimal ,pro$ided mulches and similar things are used-, such as watering or weed control maybe once a wee0. .one 4 5 semi4wild area. This )one is mainly used for forage and collecting wild food as well as production of timber for construction or firewood. .one 5 wilderness area. There is no human inter$ention in )one from the obser$ation of natural ecosystems and cycles. apart