Lectures Weeks 10-14

v
o

R
1

R
2

v
S

Used to scale
down
voltages and
to convert
changes in
resistance to
voltage
0
2 2 1 1
1 1
0
2 2 1 1
1 1
0 0
2 1
2 1
1
2
2 1
1
0
tage output vol new The
ly. respective and
by change and s resistance the Assume
ratio resistance is
age input volt is where
1
1
ltage circuit vo open The
v v
R R R R
R R
v
v
R R R R
R R
v v
R R
R R
R
R
r
v v
r
v
R R
R
v
S
S
S S S

+ + +
+
=
+ + +
+
= +
=
+
=
+
=
( )( ) ( )
( )( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
S
S
S
S
S
v
R R R R R R R R
R R R R
v
R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
v
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
v
R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R
v
R R
R
R R R R
R R
v
(

+ A + + A + +
A A
=
(

A + A + A + A + + +
A A A + A + +
=
(

A + + A + + A + + A +
A + + A + A + A + +
=
(

+ + + +
+ + + + +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+ + +
+
=
2 1 2 2 1 1
2
2 1
2 1 1 2
2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1
2
2
2
1
2 1 2 1 1 1
2
1 1 2 1 1 2 1
2
1
2 2
2
2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1
2
1
2 1 2 1 1 1
2
1 1 2 1 1 2 1
2
1
2 1 2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
2 1
1
2 2 1 1
1 1
0
2
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
S S
S
S
v
R
R
R R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R
R R
v
R R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R
R R
v
R R
R R
R R
R R R R
v
R R
R
R R
R
R R
R R R R
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
| A
+ A
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
| A

A
+
=
(
(
(
(
(

A + A
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
| A

A
+
=
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
A + A
+
+ +
A A
=
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
A
+
+
A
+ +
A A
=
2
2
2 1
2 1
2
2
1
1
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
2
1
1
2
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
2 1
2 1 1 2
2 1
2
2 1
1
2
2 1
2 1 1 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
( )
( )
( )
S
S
v
R
R
R
R
r
r
v
R
R
r
R
R
r
v
R
R
r
R
R
r
R
R
R
R
r
r
v
R
R
r
q
q
q

|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
= A
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
+
A
+
+
=
(
(
(
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
A
+
A
+
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
= A =
1
1
effects linear - non represents where

1
1
1
1
1 letting
1
1
1
1
g Introducin
2
2
1
1
2
0
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
0
1
2
C
1

C
2

v
s

v
out

Capacitor voltage divider
Scales down
voltages,
preferred because of
low active power
losses
1
) (
given is of value when the find To
1
1
1 1
1
v
tage output vol The
1 1
2
1 2 2
2 2 1
1 2
2 1
2
2
1
2 1
1
out

=
=
= +
+
=
+
=
+
=
out
S
out
out S
out out S
S out
S S S
v
v
C
v
v v
C
C
v C v C v C
v C C C v
C C
v
C C
C
v
C
C
v
C j C j
C j
e e
e
1 1 2
1 1 2
1 2 1
1 2
1
2
2 1
1
out
1
) (
given is of value when the find To
1
1
v
divider voltage
resistive a for tage output vol The c.f.
R
v
v
R
v
v v
R
v R v R v R
v R R R v
R R
v
R
R
v
R R
R
out
S
out
out S
out S out
S out
S S
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
=
= +
+
=
+
=
Used primarily to
determine the value of
an unknown resistance.

It can also be used to
find the change in
resistance.


( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( )
4 3 2 1
4 2 3 1
4 3 2 1
2 1 4 4 3 1
4 3
4
2 1
1
out
4 3
4
AD
2 1
1
AB
v tage output vol The
v AD across Voltage
v AB across Voltage
R R R R
R R R R
R R R R
R R R R R R
v
R R
R
v
R R
R
v v
v
R R
R
v
R R
R
S S AD AB
S
S
+ +

=
+ +
+ +
=
+

+
= =
+
=
+
=
balanced is bridge the happens When that
equal. are s resistance opposite
the of product When the i.e
R R R R
0 R R - R R
when zero be will voltage The
4 2 3 1
4 2 3 1
=
=
In a Wheatstone bridge ABCD, a galvanometer is
connected between A and C, and a battery between B
and D. A resistor of unknown value is connected between
A and B. When the bridge is balanced, the resistance
between B and C is 100 , that between C and D is 10
and that between D and A is 400 .

Calculate the value of the unknown resistance.
10
1
R
R
R
R
Note
k 4 4000
10
100 x 400
100 x 400 10
balance At
3
4
2
1
= =
O = O =
O =
=
x
x
R
R
1
R
4
R
3
R
2
R
Consider changes from the
balance condition of R
1
,
R
2
, R
3
and R
4

respectively.

Find the change in the
output voltage.
R
1

R
4

R
2

R
3

V
s

B
D
A
C
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
S
4 3 2 1
2 4 4 2 1 3 3 1
out
S
4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1
4 2 2 4 4 2 1 3 3 1 4 2 3 1
S
4 4 3 3 2 2 1 1
4 4 2 2 3 3 1 1
out
v v
r denominato in incerments neglecting and numerator in
order term higher neglecting condition, balance Applying
v
v v
tage output vol in change The
R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
+ +
A A A + A
= A
A + + A + A + + A +
A A A A A + A +
=
A + + A + A + + A +
A + A + A + A +
= A
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )
S
S
S
S
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R
R R
R R R R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R R R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R R R R
R R R
R
R R R
R
R R R
R
R R R
R
v
1
v
R by r denominato g Factorisin
R R since v
R R

v
R R
v
R R R R
v
R R R R by numerator dividing and Multplying
3
4
2 1
2
2
4
4
1
1
3
3
3
3 1
out
3
4 2 3 1
4 3 2 1
2
2
4
4
1
1
3
3
3 1
4 3 2 1
2
2
4
4
4 2
1
1
3
3
3 1
4 3 2 1
3 2 1
2
4 3 1
4
4 2 1
1
4 3 2
3
4 3 2 1
out
4 3 2 1
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
A
=
=
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
A
=
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
| A
+
A

|
|
.
|

\
|
A
+
A
=
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
A
=
( )
( )
S
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
2
out
1
2
S
2
2 1
2
2
4
4
1
1
3
3
2 1
out
2
1
3
4
v
1
v

R
R
r g Introducin
v
R R
v
g rearrangin and by Replacing
|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
A

A
+
=
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
A
=
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
r
r
R R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
( )
( )
power. maximum r transduce by the
limited be will tage supply vol e However th
tage. supply vol with increases y sensitivit The
v
1
v S
bridge the of y sensitivit The
. resistance in change the to
al proportion is in voltage change the i.e
v
1
v
changes R only if particular In
S
2
1
1
C
S
1
1
2
out
1
r
r
R
R
v
R
R
r
r
S
out
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
A
+
=
( )
( )
2
R R R R When
1
1
1
Where
1
1
v
is in voltage change the the
neglected not are s order term higher When the
4
1
4
1
4 3 2 1
3
3
2
2
4
4
1
1
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
2
out
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
= = = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
+
A
+
A
+
A
+
+
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
A

A
+
A

A
+
=

=
=
i
i
i
i
i
i
s
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
r
R
R
R
R
r
v
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
r
r
q
q
q
~
Z
4
Z
3

Z
2

Z
1

voltages small pick
can hat detector t Any - headphones
or CRT a meter, a be can detector The
s. resistance and es capacitanc
s, inductance particular In
standards. known against usually
, impedances unknown determine
to used be can bridge The
Z Z Z Z
equal are angles and magnitudes
ge both volta when balance, At
4 2 3 1
=
resistance known A
C j 1
C j
1
C j
1
R
known are C and R where
C j
1
// R Z
resistance adjustable an Z
unknown L and r both with Z
when case he Consider t
4 4
3 3
3
3
3
3
3
3 3
3
3 3
2 2
1
R Z
R
R
R
R
L j r
=
+
=
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
+ =
e
e
e
e
e
( )
( )
( )
( )
4 2 3
4 3 2 3 3
3
4 2
4 2 3
4 3 2 3 4 2
3 3 4 2 3 3
4 2
3 3
3
parts Imaginary
R R rR
parts Real
parts imaginary and real equating
1
1
R R C L
R R R C LR
R
R R
r
R R R C j R R
R C j R R LR j rR
R R
R C j
R
L j r
=
=
=
=
+ =
+ = +
=
+
+
e e
e
e e
e
e
Inductance
Capacitance
Maxwell Wein Bridge for inductance measurement
Wein Bridge for capacitance measurement - C
x
and R
x
Without ground
With one side grounded
effect is more severe
Wagner earth for ac supply minimises effect of stray
capacitances. Potential of null detector is at ground potential
Provision for adjustment of Wagner earth the detector can be
selected to the Wagner earth to check if its potential is at ground
Consider Wheatsone bridge
with R
a
and R
x
very small
resistances.

R
M
and R
N
form the other arm
of the bridge.

The resistances of the wires
to R
a
and R
x
are significant as
their voltage drops may be of
the same order as that in R
a

and R
x
.
The resistances of
lead wires will
introduce errors due
to the appreciable
currents through
them
Some of the resistances of lead wires have been bypassed
The ratio of R
m
to R
n
is the
same as that of R
M
to R
N
M
N
M
N
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
m
n
M
N
wire n m
M
a
wire
a
X
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
+ =
=
is equation balance full The
R
R
R R
balance At
bridge balance to adjusted is R
M
N
a x
a
R
M

R
N

R
m

R
X

R
n

R
a

R
Wire
/2
R
Wire
/2
R
1

R
2

zero. is R in current the balance At
detector. null with the series in ,
and with series in
with series in ,
. and , of
ones connected - star into and ,
s resistance connected - delta the Resolving
3
3
2
1
3 2 1
n m Wire
n m
X
n m Wire
n Wire
A
n m Wire
m Wire
n m Wire
R R R
R R
R
R
R R R
R R
R
R
R R R
R R
R
R R R
R R R
+ +
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
+ = +
N M a
M
M
a N
N
M
a a M
a N
N
M
a
M
N
M
N
a X
M X N A
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R R R
R
R
R
R
R
) R (R R
)R R (R )R R (R
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
1
1
balanced is bridge When the
( ) ( )
( )
M
N
a
X
M
a N
X
N
n
M
m
N
n
M
m
n m Wire a
Wire M
M
a N
n m Wire N
n Wire
n m Wire M
m Wire
a
M
M
a N
X
R
R
R
R
R
R R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
R R R R
R R
R
R R
R R R R
R R
R R R R
R R
R
R
R
R R
R
= =
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

+ +
+ =
)
`

+ +

+ +
+ =
and
to simplifies expression the equal are and When
1
1
R and R for ng Substituti
2 1
Q
L f
C
r I
V
V
V
r
C
r
C
t
t
2
R
frequency resonant is f Where
f 4
1
L
resonance at circuit
C L R an of ion magnificat
voltage the of measure A

tage Supply vol
capacitor across Voltage
Factor Q
r
2
r
2
=
=
= =
=