Autonomous Learning and Teaching Howard Cannatella Introduction A student who is unable to take his or her work seriously

will be inclined to go through life without deeply caring for anything of consequence; neither their course work nor their friendships perhaps will matter a great deal. This student appears to let things happen, holding no particular principles or overview of their choices. urthermore, the quality of this student!s work suffers when they are less than convinced of its merits, holding no specific reasons and beliefs to support its evidence. The student may produce something with intent, he or she may even follow one!s instructions to the letter but if they are not adequately motivated to produce a body of work, if they are not critical of themselves and remain apathetic to its relevance, it is likely that their work will turn out to be less than convincing. The proposal is that we need to encourage a healthier interest in making commitments, that successful learning requires this capacity in order to lift the spirit and influence a more rigorous grasp of one!s sub"ect. How far a student progresses in their studies, how far he or she develops professional skills is largely dependent on making specific commitments to what one is producing. # $hat is autonomy and independence in language learning% Autonomy and independence are used more or less as synonyms in language teaching. To me, both terms imply that students take a greater degree of control over the content and methods of learning than is usual in classroom language learning conte&ts. Taking control over learning also implies that students have or develop the capacity to learn independently and that the institutional conte&t in which they are learning allows them to do so. 't has been claimed that all learning is ultimately autonomous learning in the sense that it depends on the efforts of the learners themselves. Allowing students greater freedom in learning and helping them to become more aware of their capacities for autonomy may therefore enhance motivation and the quality of learning. Autonomy is not a synonym of !learning on your own! or !self(study!. Although autonomy was associated with the concept of individuali)ation in the early *+,-s, most researchers now prefer to emphasi)e interdependence as a dimension of autonomous learning. The term !self(direction!, or !self(directed learning!, is often used in connection with autonomy. 't implies that learners study under their own direction rather than under the direction of another. .elf(directed learning does not necessarily imply !learning without a teacher!, but in self(directed learning the teacher!s may become more that of a helper or counsellor. Although language learning has been one of the main fields in which the theory and implementation of autonomy has developed in recent years, there is also a rich literature on autonomy and self(direction in education in general. /ou can find a comprehensive survey of the field in Candy 0*++*1. Autonomy and independence are associated with several means of implementation. 2ne of the most discussed is self(access, which generally involves setting up some kind of resource centre in which language learners can work freely.

Key to Good Language Learning Introduction Becoming an Independent Language Learner This guide has been written to help you learn a foreign language more effectively and successfully. It suggests a range of learning strategies that you can adopt - whether you are a newcomer to language learning or at a more advanced stage 'n recent years, the terms learner autonomy and learner independence have gained increasing importance in the educational conte&t. They have taken on a number of associated meanings for language learning ( these include3 assuming responsibility for your own learning; acquiring key skills and learning strategies; learning according to your own needs and interests; using available resources and taking every opportunity to learn. 4esearch has shown that language learners whose approaches to learning reflect some of these characteristics are more likely to succeed in their long(term aims and ob"ectives. This is why it is important to have access to a resources or open learning centre with a wide range of materials and to belong to an institution which encourages learners to make use of these resources and develop an autonomous approach to learning. This does not mean that the teacher and the classroom no longer have a crucial role to play in the learning process, since classroom instruction, regular attendance and participation together with contact and collaboration with colleagues all contribute equally to progress5 't has also been recognised that language learners display a variety of different learning styles. The way that individual learners respond in a shared language learning situation, and the kinds of activities they engage in when working with language learning materials on their own, have been shown to vary. The language learning conte&t, therefore, also needs to accommodate differences in learning styles so that all language learners have the best chance of achieving individual success. $ith the above in mind, this guide aims to encourage you to develop an autonomous approach. 't offers a range of ideas for language learning activities which you might wish to try out and, if successful, build into your own repertoire of learning strategies. Section 1 Thinking About the $ay /ou 6earn irst Task To assess yourself and your approach to language learning, consider these questions: $hich language learning strategies do you already use 0look at the checklist below1% $hich of the learning strategies below could you add to your own repertoire of learning strategies% Can you identify some of your own strengths and weaknesses in language learning% $hich activities below do you think you do well; which don7t you do enough of% How could you organise the time you have for language learning in a more productive way% Checklist of Learning Strategies ' plan my language learning ' monitor my progress in language learning regularly

' work on language learning tasks with other people 0e.g. friends, people on my course1 as well as on my own ' try to find opportunities to practise speaking 0even to myself1 to improve my fluency ' review my independent study programme regularly and change it when ' find deficiencies ' try to motivate myself by setting weekly or monthly language learning goals, targets etc. ' try to adopt an active approach towards my language learning; ' don7t "ust study when ' have to ' reflect on what ' need to learn to meet my ob"ectives ' review what '7ve learned at regular intervals ' reflect on how ' learn so ' can improve my learning methods ' have an organised approach to my language learning and try to think about language in terms of the different categories, systems and patterns within it 0e.g. grammar, function, register, vocabulary, sound1. ' try to personalise my language learning ' am willing to take risks and be adventurous with language to try out my skills ' try to learn from the mistakes ' make Section 2 $ays to 'mprove /our 6anguage 6earning This section offers ideas for language learning activities . Try out these activities and if you find them effective, build them into your individual study programme. listening reading speaking writing learning vocabulary learning grammar general approaches to learning The activities are organised under the main skill0s1 they relate to. 6anguage learning is often seen in terms of four basic language skills3( listening, speaking, reading and writing. There can, of course, be an overlap between skill areas ( grammar and vocabulary are two e&tra areas which are frequently added to the four skills. Another useful way of looking at language is in terms of function. This involves identifying the different purposes for which language is being used. or e&ample, language items that reflect different functional areas such as apologising, introducing and greeting, or requesting can be usefully grouped together. inally, register can serve as a helpful way of looking at language. 4egister relates to the style of language found in a particular conte&t. 'n many languages, this can vary according to situation 0how formal8 informal it is1 and the relationship between users. 't is also important to ask yourself what you can learn about the society and culture of the country where the language is spoken. $ith regard to the particular te&t or language activity you are engaged with, you might ask yourself3 $hat factual information is there here about the country% How does the language reflect social relationships and conventions, for e&ample in the way people of different ages or statuses address one another, how people interrupt, show agreement, use body language, and so on% How does the language reflect beliefs, values and attitudes, for e&ample in how people talk or write about politics, social class, national traditions, entertainment, religion, and so on% $hat are the differences in the way language is used in different situations and for different purposes% How are these uses of language different from 9nglish, or your own native language%

2.1 LIS !"I"# :se an audio 0or video1 recording to practise and develop your listening strategies. 6isten to a piece, not "ust once, but several times, varying the way you do it. or e&ample, start by trying to understand general meaning or the main idea. 'n this stage it helps to listen out for key words and to stop the tape at frequent intervals and predict what is going to come ne&t. 6ater, practise listening intensively for specific information or practise note(taking. Transcripts are probably most usefully employed during later stages of listening. Try to build up an understanding of the piece through several listenings. ocus on pronunciation and notice how preceding words may influence the pronunciation of the following ones. ;ractise listening to intonation patterns and identify variations in sentence or word stress. <o these contain clues about the speaker7s emotions% :se video recordings to develop your skill at interpreting paralinguistic clues 0e.g. gestures, head and eye movements1 to enhance your understanding of the language conte&t. $hat can you learn about appropriate body language 0eye contact, physical distance, hand movements, facial e&pressions1 in the target language community% $atch a section with the sound off, trying to predict content, perhaps producing your own commentary or dialogue, then re(watch and compare your version with the original. 6isten to a recording with someone else. After each listening e&change information on what you both understood. .et yourselves questions for subsequent listenings. :se a short section of a tape recording for a self(dictation e&ercise. Check it against a transcript when you are satisfied you have listened to it enough times. Alternatively, use a short section of a video with subtitles to set yourself a dictation. Cover the subtitles while transcribing, then replay with subtitles e&posed to check your transcription. 4emember that the subtitles may not correspond e&actly to what you hear. :se a recording to practise other skills besides listening. or e&ample, practise note(taking and then write a short summary, or listen to e&tract useful vocabulary. 9&ploit satellite T= channels in different ways to improve your listening. or e&ample, switch on telete&t subtitles, if available, to aid your understanding, or spend time focusing on one aspect of communication eg. ways of interrupting, questioning and responding in the target language if you are watching a soap or chat show. Alternatively, focus on an aspect of pronunciation such as accent, trying to note differences between speakers7 accents. 2.2 $!%&I"# <evelop your skill at predicting. $hat can you predict about te&t content from title, subheadings, first and last paragraphs, the first few lines, accompanying pictures8photographs% ;ractise skim reading the te&t for gist and then ask yourself what the article is about. >ased on this, what specific information would you e&pect to find in it. Scan the te&t to see if that information is there. 'mprove your inferencing skills. Try to guess the meaning of unknown words from conte&t ( e.g. $hat part of speech is it% $hat does preceding and following information suggest the unknown word might mean% $ork on unravelling comple& ideas by breaking sentences down into more manageable units and rephrasing the ideas for yourself in simple terms. $ork on developing better te&t awareness skills. Compare several te&ts in the language you are studying from the point of view of register ( what stylistic features characterise te&ts

that share the same register% Can you identify the writer7s attitude towards his8her sub"ect% $hat linguistic clues lead you to your conclusions% Try to speed up your reading so that you are not trying to understand every word but reading as fast a you can for gist or general meaning. 2.' S(!%)I"# .ay new words and phrases aloud both to help commit them to memory and to practise pronunciation. ?roup useful items of functional language together and try to learn useful situational e&pressions by heart. Then try to find opportunities to try to use them to reinforce your learning. :se native speakers to check a correct form or pronunciation you are uncertain of. .eek opportunities to practise speaking and develop your fluency as opposed to your accuracy 4ecord yourself on tape to develop your fluency 0e.g. giving a spontaneous talk about yourself, what you have done this week or on a specialised topic you7ve been researching1 then replay it and critically analyse the recording. @ote mistakes in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and hesitations ( afterwards find out how to say what you wanted to say better. ;ractise mimicking intonation patterns and varying sentence stress in the target language to familiarise yourself with these aspects of speaking and to develop your confidence. :se the phonetic script in a print or electronic dictionary to practise the e&act pronunciation of new words and phrases in the language you are learning. Then, where available, compare your pronunciation with the recorded pronunciations in an electronic dictionary or pronunciation package. 2.* +$I I"# Try to think in the target language when you are writing. Try not to translate from your first language. Try to learn from previous mistakes and tutors7 corrections and comments. Check your writing carefully for mistakes in grammar and vocabulary use in particular. :se a dictionary or spellchecker for uncertain spellings and any other reference materials which might be useful. ;ractise writing as much as you can. 9ven informal writing activities such as keeping a language learning diary in the target language or corresponding on email with a native speaker will help to improve your writing skills. Try to put yourself in your reader7s place to test the clarity and effectiveness of your writing. 4e(read what you have written, if is an academic essay3 's it logically organised% 's there an introduction, main body and conclusion% Are the ideas clearly e&pressed% Are more e&amples or e&planations needed% 6ook at native speaker samples of writing in the target language. Try to analyse how they are written and note any useful linking e&pressions 0e.g. however, because, but1. Are there any obvious differences from a similar piece of writing in your first language% 't might be useful to discuss these differences with the language assistants or other native speakers. ;roduce an academic piece of writing in stages3 ( make notes

produce a plan, a rough draft then a redraft proof(read your final piece of writing 0perhaps a day or two later1 :se the spellchecker on a word(processing program as a learning tool. Aonitor your own mistakes in the area of misspellings. Also note the words the spellchecker groups together ( do you see words of similar spelling but different meanings which you know you tend to confuse 0e.g. quiet v. quite1. The thesaurus is another useful electronic tool which can be used to check for alternative words. 2., L!%$"I"# -.C%/0L%$1 'dentify and list any significant first language 8target language cognates. These are words which have the same historical origins. The words may still look similar or may have come to differ in spelling. amiliarise yourself with any false cognates to avoid future slip(ups. These are words that look similar but differ 0or have come to differ1 in meaning, e.g. sympathique 0 rench1 and sympathetic 09nglish1. >uild vocabulary reference grids you can refer to ( classify the words as noun, verb B ad"ective, adverb etc, and add related words, including opposites. Create word webs or mind maps 0see appendi&1 to map vocabulary into frames of reference that can help you memorise new items of vocabulary $hen noting down new vocabulary, add useful information such as the pronunciation in phonetic transcription, indicate the stressed syllable0s1, if any, put it in a conte&t8sentence, add any important details about word partnerships e.g. the preposition employed after a particular verb and other notes about usage, synonyms and antonyms. @ote also if the word is associated with a particular register or has particular connotations. ?roup vocabulary according to topic 0perhaps alongside the te&t where you found it1 for easier recall or devise your own categories for grouping new vocabulary items. 6earn to identify the basic vocabulary building blocks in the language you are studying e.g. common endings 0suffi2es1 for nouns, prefi2es commonly used to make an ad"ective an opposite etc. $hen you come across a new one try to find several e&amples that follow this pattern. 6earn to understand the abbreviations and terms used in dictionaries so you get the most out of using them. A good dictionary will also give you information about the grammar of a word, its pronunciation and stress pattern and its usage, as well as its meaning and spelling. 2.3 L!%$"I"# #$%44%$ $hen you learn a new grammatical rule try to use it actively. >y creating situations 0in speaking and writing1 where you can try out new grammar you can start to assimilate it and this will also help to reinforce it in your memory. Try to study grammar in conte&t. A conte&t can provide additional information about grammatical usage and may help you remember a point of grammar better than the isolated study of a particular rule. /ou can also study grammar more actively in conte&t by looking at several e&amples of the use of a particular point and trying to analyse and work out the rule for yourself. /ou can compare your conclusions about use with a grammar reference book afterwards. $hen you learn about a new grammatical structure, look out for e&amples of it in your target language reading. <o they broadly correspond to the rule for usage you have learnt% Collect useful e&amples of grammar in use from your reading. :se answer keys and other models 0where available1 to check your progress; this is not cheating, providing you attempt the e&ercise on your own first.

Try to become aware of your learning strategies. @ote them down and e&change ideas with other learners. 2.5 #!"!$%L %(($.%C6!S . L!%$"I"# <evelop an organised approach to your language learning. <raw up a weekly 8 monthly work plan; keep a work record of tutor(set tasks and self(directed tasks .tart a learner diary to practise writing in the target language and to record reflections about how your language learning is progressing and any other thoughts you have about the language you are learning. Ceep a list of your language learning achievements 0e.g. Since last week I have learnt . I am now able to...1 to encourage and motivate yourself. :se a photocopy or printout and a highlighter pen to train yourself to pick out useful language. <evelop your own personal system for highlighting items, for e&ample, underline, use different colour highlighters, draw circles and bo&es around items etc . Section ' Aaking the Aost of 6anguage 6earning 4esources 0se the Internet 0see 'nternet 6earning 4esources1 to practise reading authentic, up(to(date language material ( go to foreign language pages on the $orld $ide $eb to access on(line specialist dictionaries to study grammar in conte&t to e&tend your vocabulary in a particular area to get informal writing practice ( "oin a chatroom for rench, ?erman, .panish etc or to practise reading and writing skills using the email facility ( "oin a foreign language list, read a bulletin board in another language or strike up an email correspondence with a native speaker of the language you are studying. 0se foreign periodicals and newspapers7 to practise skim reading for gist to develop your knowledge of the target language culture0s1. to practise speaking after reading ( orally summarise an article you have read to a partner or discuss it together to develop your vocabulary in a particular area to study grammar in conte&t for note(taking and practice in writing summaries to develop your prediction skills ( using titles, subtitles, first paragraphs etc 0se the self8access laboratory7 to assess your own speaking skill ( record yourself speaking on a blank tape then listen critically to practise listening 0make use of video and satellite T= as well as audio cassettes to practise this1 ( choose one of the listening activities suggested above to develop your awareness of important aspects of the target language by studying, for e&ample, the role of body language in T= programmes or on video to share a listening8viewing e&ercise with a partner, discussing or summarising it together afterwards

to practise note(taking, e.g. watch a videotape of a lecture in the language you are learning to focus on a specific aspect of the language your are learning, e.g. grammar in use, a new area of vocabulary, accent or intonation .ection # A ?lossary of Cey $ords and Terms in 6anguage 6earning adverb a word that modifies a verb, ad"ective or another adverb antonym word of opposite meaning autonomous learning / independent learning the capacity to take charge and plan one!s own learning auxiliary (verb verbs B such as Dbe7, Dhave7 or Ddo7 in 9nglish ( used with a main verb e.g. may, can case endings the role of a noun 0as sub"ect, ob"ect1 in a sentence in some languages 0e.g. ?erman, C)ech1 is shown through changes in e.g.article, noun, ad"ective. >asic cases in ?erman are nominative, accusative, genitive and dative (language chatroom site for online informal communication in writing between users8learners of a particular language about any matter that is raised by a participant cognate words in different languages sharing the same historical root. This is sometimes but not always apparent in a similarity of spelling. collocation see word partnership collo!uial language" collo!uialism word or e&pression used in informal situations. 6ess restricted in use than slang. con#ugate to change the form of a verb in accordance with tense or with a change in the sub"ect of the verb $ALL computer assisted language learning ie. language learning materials accessible through computer $% &om ('or language learning Compact disc containing a quantity of information or program useful or specifically for language learning purposes. This can be stored on the computer hard disc or inserted into the C< drive for use as and when required. 'alse cognate words having similar form in two different languages but a different meaning 'alse 'riend see false cognate (irst language (mother tongue usually the language a person acquires first in childhood or the dominant language 'unctional language (language 'unction particular purpose for which language is being used, for e&ample, language items that reflect different functional areas such as apologising, introducing and greeting etc can be grouped together gender in some languages nouns have gender 0masc, fem. and sometimes neuter1. This can determine the endings of related parts of speech such as ad"s, articles, pronouns etc gist" reading 'or gist a rapid way of reading to grasp the general meaning or main idea of a te&t idiom" idiomatic language a group of words that has a special meaning. The meaning is not clear from the individual meanings of the words in the group imperative sentence form often following a characterstic pattern used to e&press an order eg. ECome here5E 0the sub"ect is omitted1 interactive program term loosely used for a computer program which allows the language learner to act on the language learning information it contains in some way and receive feedback from the program.

interrogative sentence a sentence which has the form of a question intransitive verb a verb which cannot take an ob"ect eg. 09ng1 rise inversion case where the order of certain words in a sentence is reversed eg. sub"ect verb inversion to create a question form eg. ?er #argon specialised words or terms characteristically used by a group of people with a shared interest or profession eg. legal "argon, computer "argon mind map see word web ob#ect noun, pronoun or noun phrase affected by action of the verb in a sentence. The verb that takes an ob"ect is called a transitive verb. .ome verbs can take both a direct and an indirect ob"ect e.g. $e sent her an invitation paralinguistic 'eatures features often occurring during verbal communication that are not spoken but carry meaning such as gestures, eye movements, facial e&pressions, body movement. These can vary from one language to another. part o' speech the name used to classify different kinds of words that can be identified in a sentence, eg. noun, adverb, preposition. possessive word used to show possession. 9nglish has possessive pronouns 0eg. mine, yours1 and possessive ad"ectives 0eg. her book, our car1 and uses Ds 0eg. Fohn7s pen1 and Dof7 0eg. the head of the company1 to show possession pre'ix letter0s1 or sound0s1 added to the beginning of a word which changes meaning or word function eg. 0?er Ab % to noun1 phonetic script system of symbols used to represent the sounds of speech in any language so that the script can be read aloud e&actly as spoken register a variety of speech or writing used by a particular group of people 0eg. internet enthusiasts, teenagers, lawyers1 or in a particular situation 0eg. formal letter, informal phone call1 re'lexive verb verbs in some languages used to convey the idea that the sub"ect is doing something to him8herself. 9g. .e lever 0 re1, .ich 0?er1 lauarse 0.pan1 root base form or stem of a word to which other units of meaning such as prefi&es, suffi&es, verb endings etc may be "oined scan rapid form of reading to e&tract particular information from a te&t s)im rapid form of reading to grasp general meaning8 gist from a te&t slang very informal word or e&pression, not appropriate to use in all situations synonym word of similar or same meaning 0cf. antonym1 su''ix letter0s1 or sound0s1 added to the end of a root word which changes meaning or word function. 9g. 0 re.vb to noun%1 (*ord stress a syllable which receives more force when the word is voiced. .ome longer words contain a syllable which receives the primary 0main1 stress and one which receives secondary stress (sentence stress the part0s1 of a sentence which are emphasi)ed either naturally or in order to draw particular attention to them syllable individual part0s1 of a word composed of a vowel sound or consonant and vowel together sentence structure the basic grammatical pattern of sentences in a language showing order of key components eg. re% article G noun 0sub"ect1 G verb G article G noun 0ob"ect1 sub#ect the person or thing carrying out the verb action in a sentence target language the language you are learning8studying, also known as 6H second language or foreign language

transitive verb a verb which can take an ob"ect vocabulary grid table of related vocabulary items functioning as different parts of speech. .ee Appendi& *ord partnership words often used together, eg. verbs with particular prepositions *ord *eb or mind map. Aethod of recording ideas, new vocabulary etc to aid understanding of links between items or memory. http388www.lang.soton.ac.uk8students8keylang8cont.htm

+hat is Learner Autonomy and ,o* $an It Be (ostered1. Introduction learner autonomy does not mean that the teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his8her control over what is transpiring in the language learning process. 'n the present study, it will be shown that learner autonomy is a perennial dynamic process amenable to !educational interventions! 0Candy, *++*1, rather than a static product, a state, which is reached once and for all. >esides, what permeates this study is the belief that !in order to help learners to assume greater control over their own learning it is important to help them to become aware of and identify the strategies that they already use or could potentially use! 0Holmes I 4amos, *++*, cited in Fames I ?arrett, *++*3 *+,1. At any rate, individual learners differ in their learning habits, interests, needs, and motivation, and develop varying degrees of independence throughout their lives 0Tumposky, *+,H1. 2. +hat is %utonomy9 or a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec 0*+,*3 J, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 *1 who describes it as !the ability to take charge of one!s learning!. 2n a general note, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways 0see >enson I =oller, *++K3 H13 for situations in which learners study entirely on their own; for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self(directed learning; for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education; for the e&ercise of learners! responsibility for their own learning; for the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning. 't is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a departure from education as a social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending the construction of knowledge and the roles of the participants in the learning process. The relevant literature is riddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and other synonyms for it, such as !independence! 0.heerin, *++*1, !language awareness! 06ier, *++L;Fames I ?arrett, *++*1, !self(direction! 0Candy, *++*1, !andragogy! 0Cnowles, *+,-; *+,J etc., which testifies to the importance attached to it by scholars. 6et us review some of these definitions and try to gain insights into what learner autonomy means and consists of. As has been intimated so far, the term autonomy has sparked considerable controversy, inasmuch as linguists and educationalists have failed to reach a consensus as to what autonomy really is. or e&ample, in <avid 6ittle!s terms, learner autonomy is !essentially a matter of the learner!s psychological relation to the process and content of learning((a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision(making, and independent action! 06ittle, *++*3 #1. 't is not something done to learners; therefore, it is far from being another teaching method 0ibid.1. 'n the same vein, 6eni <am 0*++-, cited in ?athercole, *++-3 *L1, drawing upon Holec

0*+,J1, defines autonomy in terms of the learner!s willingness and capacity to control or oversee her own learning. Aore specifically, she, like Holec, holds that someone qualifies as an autonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and sets goals; chooses materials, methods and tasks; e&ercises choice and purpose in organising and carrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for evaluation. To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a 0pro(1 active role in the learning process, generating ideas and availing himself of learning opportunities, rather than simply reacting to various stimuli of the teacher 0>oud, *+,,; Cohonen, *++H; Cnowles, *+KM1. As we shall see, this line of reasoning operates within, and is congruent with, the theory of constructivism. or 4athbone 0*+K*3 *--, *-#, cited in Candy, *++*3 HK*1, the autonomous learner is a self(activated maker of meaning, an active agent in his own learning process. He is not one to whom things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to happen. 6earning is seen as the result of his own self(initiated interaction with the world. $ithin such a conception, learning is not simply a matter of rote memorisation; !it is a constructive process that involves actively seeking meaning from 0or even imposing meaning on1 events! 0Candy, *++*3 HK*1. .uch EinventoriesE of characteristics evinced by the putative autonomous learner abound, and some would say that they amount to nothing more than a romantic ideal which does not square with reality. This stands to reason, for most of the characteristics imputed to the Eautonomous learnerE encapsulate a wide range of attributes not commonly associated with learners. or instance, >enn 0*+KL, cited in Candy, *++*3 *-H1 likens the autonomous learner to one !NwOhose life has a consistency that derives from a coherent set of beliefs, values, and principles((Nand who engages in aO still(continuing process of criticism and re( evaluation!, while 4ousseau 0N*KLHO *+**, cited in Candy, *++*3 *-H1 regards the autonomous learner as someone who !is obedient to a law that he prescribes to himself!. $ithin the conte&t of education, though, there seem to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous learners 0see 2maggio, *+K,, cited in $enden, *++,3 #*(#H13 Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies; take an active approach to the learning task at hand; are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs; are good guessers; attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well as appropriacy; develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to revise and re"ect hypotheses and rules that do not apply; and have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language. Here, some comments with respect to the preceding list are called for. The points briefly touched upon above are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development of learner autonomy, and many more factors such as learner needs, motivation, learning strategies, and language awareness have to be taken into consideration. or e&ample, the first point hinges upon a metalanguage that learners have to master in order to be regarded as autonomous, while points #1 and K1 pertain to learner motivation. 'n view of this, an attempt will be made, in subsequent sections, to shed some light on some of the parameters affecting, and interfering with, learners! self(image as well as their capacity and will to learn. 't is of consequence to note that autonomy is a process, not a product. 2ne does not become autonomous; one only works towards autonomy. 2ne corollary of viewing

autonomy in this way is the belief that there are some things to be achieved by the learner, as well as some ways of achieving these things, and that autonomy !is learned at least partly through educational e&periences Nand interventionsO! 0Candy, *++*3 **M1. >ut prior to sifting through the literature and discussing learning strategies, motivation, and attitudes entertained by learners, it would be pertinent to cast learner autonomy in relation to dominant philosophical approaches to learning. The assumption is that what is dubbed as learner autonomy and the e&tent to which it is a permissible and viable educational goal are all too often !based on Nand thus constrained byO particular conceptions of the constitution of knowledge itself! 0>enson, *++K, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 H-1. '. Learner %utonomy and &ominant (hilosophies of Learning 'n this section, three dominant approaches to knowledge and learning will be briefly discussed, with a view to e&amining how each of them connects up with learner autonomy. ;ositivism, which reigned supreme in the twentieth century, is premised upon the assumption that knowledge reflects ob"ective reality. Therefore, if teachers can be said to hold this Eob"ective reality,E learning can only !consist((in the transmission of knowledge from one individual to another! 0>enson I =oller, *++K3 H-1. Congruent with this view, of course, is the maintenance and enhancement of the Etraditional classroom,E where teachers are the purveyors of knowledge and wielders of power, and learners are seen as !containerNsO to be filled with the knowledge held by teachers! 0ibid.1. 2n the other hand, positivism also lends support to the widespread notion that knowledge is attained by dint of the !hypothesis(testing! model, and that it is more effectively acquired when !it is discovered rather than taught! 0ibid.1 0my italics1. 't takes little perspicacity to realise that positivism is incongruent with, and even runs counter to, the development of learner autonomy, as the latter refers to a gradual but radical divorce from conventions and restrictions and is ine&tricably related to self(direction and self(evaluation. Constructivism is an elusive concept and, within applied linguistics, is strongly associated with Halliday 0*+K+, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 H*1. As Candy 0*++*3 HM#1 observes, !NoOne of the central tenets of constructivism is that individuals try to give meaning to, or construe, the perple&ing maelstrom of events and ideas in which they find themselves caught up!. 'n contrast to positivism, constructivism posits the view that, rather than internalising or discovering ob"ective knowledge 0whatever that might mean1, individuals reorganise and restructure their e&perience. 'n Candy!s terms 0Candy, *++*3 HK-1, constructivism !leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but only learned 0that is, constructed1!, because knowledge is something !built up by the learner! 0von ?lasersfeld I .mock, *+K#3 &vi, cited in Candy, *++*3 HK-1. >y the same token, language learning does not involve internalising sets of rules, structures and forms; each learner brings her own e&perience and world knowledge to bear on the target language or task at hand. Apparently, constructivism supports, and e&tends to cover, psychological versions of autonomy that appertain to learners! behaviour, attitudes, motivation, and self(concept 0see >enson I =oller, *++K3 HJ1. As a result, constructivist approaches encourage and promote self(directed learning as a necessary condition for learner autonomy. inally, critical theory, an approach within the humanities and language studies, shares with constructivism the view that knowledge is constructed rather than discovered or learned. Aoreover, it argues that knowledge does not reflect reality, but rather comprises !competing ideological versions of that reality e&pressing the interests of different social groups! 0>enson I =oller, *++K3 HH1. $ithin this approach, learning concerns issues of power and ideology and is seen as a process of interaction with social conte&t, which can bring about

social change. $hat is more, linguistic forms are bound up with the social meanings they convey, in so far as language is power, and vice versa. Certainly, learner autonomy assumes a more social and political character within critical theory. As learners become aware of the social conte&t in which their learning is embedded and the constraints the latter implies, they gradually become independent, dispel myths, disabuse themselves of preconceived ideas, and can be thought of as !authors of their own worlds! 0ibid.3 MJ1. *. Conditions for Learner %utonomy The concern of the present study has so far been with outlining the general characteristics of autonomy. At this "uncture, it should be reiterated that autonomy is not an article of faith, a product ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait. 4ather, it should be clarified that autonomous learning is achieved when certain conditions obtain3 cognitive and metacognitive strategies on the part of the learner, motivation, attitudes, and knowledge about language learning, i.e., a kind of metalanguage. To acknowledge, however, that learners have to follow certain paths to attain autonomy is tantamount to asserting that there has to be a teacher on whom it will be incumbent to show the way. 'n other words, autonomous learning is by no means Eteacherless learning.E As .heerin 0*++K, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 LJ1 succinctly puts it, !NtOeachers((have a crucial role to play in launching learners into self(access and in lending them a regular helping hand to stay afloat! 0my italics1. ;robably, giving students a Ehelping handE may put paid to learner autonomy, and this is mainly because teachers are ill(prepared or reluctant to !wean NstudentsO((away from teacher dependence! 0.heerin, *++K, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 LJ1. After all, !it is not easy for teachers to change their role from purveyor of information to counsellor and manager of learning resources((And it is not easy for teachers to let learners solve problems for themselves! 06ittle, *++-, cited in ?athercole, *++-3 **1. .uch a transition from teacher( control to learner(control is fraught with difficulties but it is mainly in relation to the former 0no matter how unpalatable this may sound1 that the latter finds its e&pression. At any rate, learner(control((which is ancillary to autonomy((!is not a single, unitary concept, but rather a continuum along which various instructional situations may be placed! 0Candy, *++*3 H-M1. 't is to these !instructional situations! that we will turn in the ne&t section. 'n this section, it is of utmost importance to gain insights into the strategies learners use in grappling with the ob"ect of enquiry, i.e., the target language, as well as their motivation and attitude towards language learning in general. A question germane to the discussion is, what does it mean to be an autonomous learner in a language learning environment% *.1. Learning Strategies A central research pro"ect on learning strategies is the one surveyed in 2!Aalley and Chamot 0*++-1. According to them, learning strategies are !the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information! 02!Aalley and Chamot, *++-3 *, cited in Cook, *++J3 **J1((a definition in keeping with the one provided in $enden 0*++,3 *,13 !6earning strategies are mental steps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate their efforts to do so!. To a greater or lesser degree, the strategies and learning styles that someone adopts !may partly reflect personal preference rather than innate endowment! 0.kehan, *++,3 HJK1. $e will only briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies, refraining from mentioning communication or compensatory strategies 0see Cook, *++J for more details1. *.1.1. Cognitive Strategies

According to 2!Aalley and Chamot 0*++-3 ##1, cognitive strategies !operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning!. 6earners may use any or all of the following cognitive strategies 0see Cook, *++J3 **#(**M13 repetition, when imitating others! speech; resourcing, i.e., having recourse to dictionaries and other materials; translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for understanding and8or producing the target language; note(taking; deduction, i.e., conscious application of 6H rules; conte&tualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful sequence; transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the 6* to remember and understand facts and sequences in the 6H; inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available information 0a new word etc1; question for clarification, when asking the teacher to e&plain, etc. There are many more cognitive strategies in the relevant literature. 2!Aalley and Chamot 0*++-1 recognise *L. *.1.2. 4etacognitive Strategies According to $enden 0*++,3 J#1, !metacognitive knowledge includes all facts learners acquire about their own cognitive processes as they are applied and used to gain knowledge and acquire skills in varied situations!. 'n a sense, metacognitive strategies are skills used for planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; !they are strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves! 0Cook, *++J3 **#1. 6et us see some of these strategies3 directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of a task; selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task; self(monitoring, i.e., checking one!s performance as one speaks; self(evaluation, i.e., appraising one!s performance in relation to one!s own standards; self(reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success. At the planning stage, also known as pre(planning 0see $enden, *++,3 HK1, learners identify their ob"ectives and determine how they will achieve them. ;lanning, however, may also go on while a task is being performed. This is called planning(in(action. Here, learners may change their ob"ectives and reconsider the ways in which they will go about achieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as !participant observers or overseers of their language learning! 0ibid.1, asking themselves, EHow am ' doing% Am ' having difficulties with this task%E, and so on. inally, when learners evaluate, they do so in terms of the outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy. According to $enden 0*++,3 H,1, evaluating involves three steps3 *1 learners e&amine the outcome of their attempts to learn; H1 they access the criteria they will use to "udge it; and J1 they apply it. *.2. Learner %ttitudes and 4otivation 6anguage learning is not merely a cognitive task. 6earners do not only reflect on their learning in terms of the language input to which they are e&posed, or the optimal strategies they need in order to achieve the goals they set. 4ather, the success of a learning activity is, to some e&tent, contingent upon learners! stance towards the world and the learning activity in particular, their sense of self, and their desire to learn 0see >enson I =oller, *++K3 *J#( *JL1. As Candy 0*++*3 H+M(H+L1 says, !the how and the what of learning are intimately interwoven((NTOhe overall approach a learner adopts will significantly influence the shape

of his or her learning outcomes! 0my italics1. 'n other words, language learning((as well as learning, in general((has also an affective component. !Aeeting and interiorising the grammar of a foreign language is not simply an intelligent, cognitive act. 't is a highly affective one too((! 04involucri, *+,#3 M, cited in Fames I ?arrett, *++*3 *J1. ?ardner and Aac'ntyre 0*++J3 *, cited in ?raham, *++K3 +H1 define !affective variables! as the !emotionally relevant characteristics of the individual that influence how she8he will respond to any situation!. 2ther scholars, such as .humann 0*+K,1 and 6arsen( reeman and 6ong 0*++*1 attach less importance to learners! emotions, claiming that !social and psychological factors! give a more suitable description for students! reactions to the learning process. Amongst the social and affective variables at work, self(esteem and desire to learn are deemed to be the most crucial factors !in the learner!s ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakes in the process of learning a second Nor foreignO language! 0Tarone I /ule, *+,+3 *J+1. 'n this light, it is necessary to shed some light on learner attitudes and motivation. $enden 0*++,3 MH1 defines attitudes as !learned motivations, valued beliefs, evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approaching or avoiding!. or her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial3 attitudes learners hold about their role in the learning process, and their capability as learners 0ibid.3 MJ1. 'n a sense, attitudes are a form of metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, !learner beliefs about their role and capability as learners will be shaped and maintained((by other beliefs they hold about themselves as learners! 0ibid.3 M#1. or e&ample, if learners believe that certain personality types cannot learn a foreign language and they believe that they are that type of person, then they will think that they are fighting a Elosing battle,E as far as learning the foreign language is concerned. urthermore, if learners labour under the misconception that learning is successful only within the conte&t of the Etraditional classroom,E where the teacher directs, instructs, and manages the learning activity, and students must follow in the teacher!s footsteps, they are likely to be impervious or resistant to learner(centred strategies aiming at autonomy, and success is likely to be undermined. 'n a way, attitudes are !part of one!s perception of self, of others, and of the culture in which one is living Nor the culture of the target languageO! 0>rown, *+,K3 *HL1, and it seems clear that positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while negative attitudes have the opposite effect. >ut let us e&amine the role of motivation. Although the term !motivation! is frequently used in educational conte&ts, there is little agreement among e&perts as to its e&act meaning. $hat most scholars seem to agree on, though, is that motivation is !one of the key factors that influence the rate and success of second or foreign language 06H1 learning. Aotivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning the 6H and later the driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process! 0<ornyei, *++,3 **K1. According to ?ardner and Aac'ntyre 0*++J3 J1, motivation is comprised of three components3 !desire to achieve a goal, effort e&tended in this direction, and satisfaction with the task!. 't is manifest that in language learning, people are motivated in different ways and to different degrees. .ome learners like doing grammar and memorising; others want to speak and role(play; others prefer reading and writing, while avoiding speaking. urthermore, since !Nthe learning of a foreign languageO involves an alteration in self(image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being, and therefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner! 0$illiams, *++#3 KK, cited in <ornyei, *++,3*HH1, an important distinction should be made between instrumental and integrative motivation.

6earners with an instrumental orientation view the foreign language as a means of finding a good "ob or pursuing a lucrative career; in other words, the target language acts as a !monetary incentive! 0?ardner I Aac'ntyre, *++J3 J1. 2n the other hand, learners with an integrative orientation are interested in the culture of the target language; they want to acquaint themselves with the target community and become integral parts of it. 2f course, this approach to motivation has certain limitations 0see Cookes and .chmidt, *++*, cited in 6ier, *++L3 *-#(*-M1, but an in(depth analysis is not within the purview of this study. The bottom line is that motivation is !a central mediator in the prediction of language achievement! 0?ardner I Aac'ntyre, *++J3 J1, as various studies have shown 0see Craemer, *++-; Aachnick and $olfe, *+,H; et al.1. *.'. Self8esteem Closely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self(esteem, that is, the evaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning in general. !N.Oelf(esteem is a personal "udgement of worthiness that is e&pressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself! 0Coopersmith, *+LK3 #(M, cited in >rown, *+,K3 *-*(*-H1. 'f the learner has a !robust sense of self!, to quote >reen and Aann 0*++K, cited in >enson I =oller, *++K3 *J#1, his relationship to himself as a learner is unlikely to be marred by any negative assessments by the teacher. Conversely, a lack of self(esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards his capability as a learner, and to !a deterioration in cognitive performance!, thus confirming his view of himself as incapable of learning 0<iener and <weck, *+K,, *+,-, cited in $enden, *++,3 MK1. @ow that we have e&amined some of the factors that may enhance, or even militate against, the learner!s willingness to take charge of her own learning and her confidence in her ability as a learner, it is of consequence to consider possible ways of promoting learner autonomy. To say, though, that learner autonomy can be fostered is not to reduce it to a set of skills that need to be acquired. 4ather, it is taken to mean that the teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by creating a friendly atmosphere characterised by !low threat, unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback, respect for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self(improvement as a goal, collaboration rather than competition! 0Candy, *++*3 JJK1. 'n the ne&t section, some general guidelines for promoting learner autonomy will be given, on the assumption that the latter does not mean leaving learners to their own devices or learning in isolation. ,. 6ow Can Learner %utonomy be (romoted9 To posit ways of fostering learner autonomy is certainly to posit ways of fostering teacher autonomy, as !NtOeachers! autonomy permeates into Nlearners!O autonomy! 0Fohnson, ;ardesi and ;aine, *++-, cited in ?athercole, *++-3 M*1. @evertheless, our main focus will be on what the learner can do in order to attain a considerable degree of autonomy, even though the success of the learner is, to a great e&tent, determined((alas5 vitiated((by the educational system and the requisite role of the teacher. M.*. .elf(reports According to $enden 0*++,3 K+(+M1, a good way of collecting information on how students go about a learning task and helping them become aware of their own strategies is to assign a task and have them report what they are thinking while they are performing it. This self( report is called introspective, as learners are asked to introspect on their learning. 'n this case, !the NintrospectiveO self(report is a verbali)ation of one!s stream of consciousness! 0$enden, *++,3 ,*1. 'ntrospective reports are assumed to provide information on the strategies learners are using at the time of the report. However, this method suffers from

one limitation3 !NtOhe concentration put on thinking aloud might detract from Nlearners!O ability to do the task efficiently! 0ibid.3 ,J1, thus rendering the outcome of the report spurious and tentative. Another type of self(report is what has been dubbed as retrospective self(report, since learners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. 4etrospective self(reports are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say in response to a question or statement that points to a topic in a general way. There are two kinds of retrospective self(reports3 semi(structured interviews and structured questionnaires. A semi( structured interview may focus on a specific skill with a view to e&tracting information about learners! feelings towards particular skills 0reading, listening, etc.1, problems encountered, techniques resorted to in order to tackle these problems, and learners! views on optimal strategies or ways of acquiring specific skills or dealing with learning tasks. A structured questionnaire seeks the same information but in a different way3 by dint of e&plicit questions and statements, and then asking learners to agree or disagree, write true or false, and so forth. 't could be argued that self(reports can be a means of raising awareness of learners! strategies and the need for constant evaluation of techniques, goals, and outcomes. As $enden 0*++,3 +-1 observes, !without awareness NlearnersO will remain trapped in their old patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous!. M.H. <iaries and 9valuation .heets ;erhaps one of the principal goals of education is to alter learners! beliefs about themselves by showing them that their putative failures or shortcomings can be ascribed to a lack of effective strategies rather than to a lack of potential. After all, according to =ygotsky 0*+K,1, learning is an internalised form of a formerly social activity, and !a learner can reali)e NhisO potential interactively((through the guidance of supportive other persons such as parents, teachers, and peers! 0$enden, *++,3 *-K1. Herein lies the role of diaries and evaluation sheets, which offer students the possibility to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, identifying any problems they run into and suggesting solutions. 6et us have a look at the following diaries based on authentic student accounts of their language learning3 %. <ear <iary, These first few days have been terrible. ' studied 9nglish for eight yearsP"ust think, eight years, but ' only learned a lot of grammar. ' can!t speak a word. ' don!t dare. ' can!t e&press myself in the right way, so ' am afraid to speak. The other day ' started watching T=, so ' could get accustomed to the sound. ' don!t understand T= news very wellPonly a few words. ' can!t get the main point. 'n school it!s easy to understand, but ' can!t understand the people in the stores. $hat can ' do% /ours Truly, 'mpatient 0from $enden, *++,3 *-H1 /. <ear <iary, ' read the @ew /ork Times every day. 9very day ' learn many new e&pressions(a lot of vocabulary. >ut ' can!t use this vocabulary in conversation. The same thing happens with what ' learn at school. ' can!t use it when ' want to talk to Americans or even with my own .panish friends.

' need some help. /ours Truly, Confused 0from $enden, *++,3 *-H1 Alongside diaries, students can also benefit from putting pen to paper and writing on their e&pectations of a course at the beginning of the term, and then filling in evaluation sheets, or reporting on the outcomes of a course, at the end of the term. These activities are bound to help learners put things into perspective and manage their learning more effectively. 6et us consider two such reports3 1. $hat do ' want to do this year% E' want to speak more 9nglish and '!d like to spell better that ' do now. ' would like to work with another boy or girl who is willing to speak 9nglish with me and make some activities in 9nglish. Aaterials3 Challenge to think and crosswords. ' would like to get a more varied language and ' would like to be better at spelling, especially the words used in everyday situations. How3 ' will prepare Qtwo minutes! talk! for every lesson, ' will write down new words five times and practise pronouncing them. ' will get someone or myself to correct it. ' will read at least two booksRdifficult onesRand make book(reviews.S 0>eginning of termR#th year of 9nglish Nfrom <am, *++-, cited in ?athercole, *++-3 J-O1 2. $hat do you feel you know now that you didn!t know before% E' think that we have grown better at planning our own time. $e know more about what we need to do and how to go about it. $e try all the time to e&tend our vocabulary and to get an active language. 9valuation also helped us. 't is like going through things again.S 09nd of termR#th year of 9nglish Nfrom <am, *++-, cited in ?athercole, *++-3 JHO1 .o far, one of the assumptions underlying this discussion on learner autonomy has been that the teacher has not relinquished his EauthorityE; rather, that he has committed himself to providing the learners with the opportunity to e&periment, make hypotheses, and improvise, in their attempt to master the target language and, along with it, to learn how to learn in their own, individual, holistic way 0see ;apaconstantinou, *++K1. 't may be the case that learner autonomy is best achieved when, among other things, the teacher acts as a facilitator of learning, a counsellor, and as a resource 0see =oller, *++K, cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 ++(*-L1. 'n other words, when she lies somewhere along a continuum between what >arnes 0*+KL, cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 ++1 calls transmission and interpretation teachers. As $right 0*+,K3 LH, cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 *--1 notes, transmission teachers believe in sub"ect disciplines and boundaries between them, in content, in standards of performance laid down by these disciplines that can be ob"ectively evaluated(( that learners will find it hard to meet the standards; interpretation teachers believe that knowledge is the ability to organi)e thought, interpret and act on facts; that learners are intrinsically interested and naturally inclined to e&plore their worlds((that learners already know a great deal and have the ability to refashion that knowledge.

The interpretation teacher respects learners! needs and is !more likely to follow a fraternalpermissive model! 0emphasis added1 0.tevick, *+KL3 +*(+J, cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 *--1. 't is with this type of teacher that the role of persuasive communication is most congruent. ,.'. (ersuasive Communication as a 4eans of %ltering Learner /eliefs and %ttitudes 'nasmuch as the success of learning and the e&tent to which learners tap into their potential resources in order to overcome difficulties and achieve autonomy are determined by such factors as learners! motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefs they hold about themselves as learners and learning per se, it is manifest that changing some negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate learning. !Attitude change Nis assumed toO be brought about through e&posure to a persuasive communication Nbetween the teacher and the learnersO! 0$enden, *++,3 *HL1. According to the 9laboration 6ikelihood Aodel 096A1 of attitude change developed by ;etty and Cacciopo 0*+,L, cited in $enden, *++,3 *HL1, there are several ways of bringing about this change, however, our concern will only be with persuasive communication. A persuasive communication is a discussion presenting information and arguments to change a learner!s evaluation of a topic, situation, task, and so on. These arguments could be either e&plicit or implicit, especially when the topic is deemed of importance. 'f, for instance, a deeply ingrained fear or belief precludes the learner from engaging in the learning process, persuasive communication purports to help bring these facts to light and identify the causes that underlie them. 't should be noted, though, that no arguments to influence students! views are given. 4ather, the communication comprises facts that show what learners can do to attain autonomy and that learners who do so are successful 0see $enden, *++,3 *HL1. This approach is based on the assumption that when learners are faced with convincing information about a situation, !they can be led to re(e&amine e&isting evaluations they hold about it and revise or change them completely! 0ibid.3 *HK1. 3. Conclusion This study is far from comprehensive, as we have only skimmed the surface of the sub"ect and the pu))le called learner autonomy. Aany more pieces are missing. or instance, no mention has been made of the role of the curriculum in promoting learner autonomy, despite the debate on the relationship between classroom practice and ideological encoding 06ittle"ohn, *++K, cited in >enson and =oller, *++K3 *,*(*,H1. At any rate, the main point of departure for this study has been the notion that there are degrees of learner autonomy and that it is not an absolute concept. 't would be nothing short of ludicrous to assert that learners come into the learning situation with the knowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, or to make decisions on content or ob"ectives. @evertheless, learner autonomy is an ideal, so to speak, that can, and should, be realised, if we want self( sufficient learners and citi)ens capable of evaluating every single situation they find themselves in and drawing the line at any inconsistencies or shortcomings in institutions and society at large. Certainly, though, autonomous learning is not akin to Eunbridled learning.E There has to be a teacher who will adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners! needs and even abandon all this if need be. 6earner autonomy consists in becoming aware of, and identifying, one!s strategies, needs, and goals as a learner, and having the opportunity to reconsider and refashion approaches and procedures for optimal learning. >ut even if learner autonomy is amenable to educational interventions, it should be recognised that it !takes a long time to develop, and((simply removing the barriers to a person!s ability to think and behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away

from old habits or old ways of thinking! 0Candy, *++*3 *H#1. As Holyoake 0*,+H, vol. *, p. #1 succinctly put it, !NkOnowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think!.

Autonomy and independence are used more or less as synonyms in language teaching. To me, both terms imply that students take a greater degree of control over the content and methods of learning than is usual in classroom language learning conte&ts. Taking control over learning also implies that students have or develop the capacity to learn independently and that the institutional conte&t in which they are learning allows them to do so. 't has been claimed that all learning is ultimately autonomous learning in the sense that it depends on the efforts of the learners themselves. Allowing students greater freedom in learning and helping them to become more aware of their capacities for autonomy may therefore enhance motivation and the quality of learning. Autonomy is not a synonym of !learning on your own! or !self(study!. Although autonomy was associated with the concept of individuali)ation in the early *+,-s, most researchers now prefer to emphasi)e interdependence as a dimension of autonomous learning. The term !self(direction!, or !self(directed learning!, is often used in connection with autonomy. 't implies that learners study under their own direction rather than under the direction of another. .elf(directed learning does not necessarily imply !learning without a teacher!, but in self(directed learning the teacher!s may become more that of a helper or counsellor. or a clear and readable introduction to the concept of autonomy in language learning, ' would recommend two short books by 6ittle 0*+,+1 and <am 0*++#1 before my own longer overview of the field 0>enson, H--*1. /ou could then turn to one of several recent collections of papers3 <ickinson I $enden 0*++M1, ;emberton, et al 0*++L1, >enson I =oller 0*++K1, Cotterall I Crabbe 0*+++1, .inclair, et al. 0H---1. Although language learning has been one of the main fields in which the theory and practice of autonomy has developed in recent years, there is also a rich literature on autonomy and self(direction in education in general. /ou can find a comprehensive survey of the field in Candy 0*++*1. Autonomy and independence are associated with several means of implementation. 2ne of the most discussed is self(access, which generally involves setting up some kind of resource centre in which language learners can work freely. 'f you are thinking of setting up a self( access centre, ?ardner I Ailler 0*+++1 is essential reading. ;apers by .heerin 0*++K1 and .turtridge 0*++K1 and the collection of papers by 9sch 0*++#1 are also highly recommended. 6earner training and strategy training refer to methods of developing the skills learners need for autonomy. <ickinson 0*++H1 and Cohen 0*++,1 are good introductions to these closely related fields.

$hat is 'ndependent 6anguage 6earning%

%ims7 'ndependent 6anguage 6earning aims to give learners more control over what, how and when they learn languages. 6earners decide on their aims, make plans of what to learn, develop their own methods of learning 0learning strategies1, assess their own learning, and plan what to learn ne&t. Click here for a @eeds Analysis 8 ;lanning 8 .tudying 8 Assessment orm that you can print out and fill in.They can choose whether to use a teacher to help them in this process. +hy9 !evel3 'n a class the teacher usually decides what to teach based on the average level of the students. >ut this may not be the right level for most of the students. or advanced students it will be too easy. or lower level students it will be too hard. 'n independent language learning the learner decides what level to work at. Topic3 The topic of the lesson is also usually based on the needs of the average students in the class, but other students may know the material already if they are higher level, or not have the basic knowledge needed to understand the lesson if they are lower level. 'n independent learning, learners can choose what they want to study, and can change it any time they like. Time3 The time of a lesson is usually fi&ed by the school or the university, and very rarely by the students. 'n independent learning the learner chooses when he or she wants to learn. :sing the 'nternet, learning can be done at any time. "ace3 'n classroom lessons, the pace of the the lesson goes either at the pace of the slowest student, which is boring for the others, or at a pace somewhere in the middle, which is too fast for some students and too slow for others. 'n independent learning the learners can go at any pace they like. !ife3 'ndependent learning at university is preparation for learning after university, when learners may not have teachers or courses to help them. or e&ample, if someone wants to invest in shares, they will need to find out what they need to learn 0@eeds Analysis1, plan what to learn 0;lanning1, study the stock market and the causes of rises and falls in share prices 0.tudying1, then practice by buying and selling

shares, then review their performance and their profit or loss, and finally decide what to learn ne&t to improve their performance 0 urther ;lanning1.
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he $ole of the eacher The role of the teacher in independent language learning is a bit different from classroom teaching. ;ut very simply, in independent language learning the teacher teaches the learners to be independent and teach themselves, for e&ample how to plan, study and assess themselves.

;lanning orm
"eeds %nalysis : (lanning : Studying : Self8assessment ;orm
"eeds %nalysis7 ' want to improve

*. myTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT my studies my career my general ability 8 #other reason$3TTTTTTTTTTT H. myTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT my studies my career my general ability 8 #other reason$3TTTTTTTTTTT J. myTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT my studies my career my general ability 8 #other reason$3TTTTTTTTTTT

(lanning7 to improve my TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT in these J areas3 0put this in the !Aims! sectio your diary1

*. TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT using these materials3 TTTTTTTTTTTTTTT

TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT working alone in a group and finishing by TTTT 8 TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT 8 H- TT. ' will test myself by

TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT ' have finished successfully will do more soon will do more later.

H. TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT using these materials3 TTTTTTTTT and

TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT , working alone in a group and finishing by TTTT 8 TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT 8 H- TT. ' will test myself by TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT ' have finished successfully will do more soon will do more later.

J. TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT using these materials3 TTTTTTTTTTTTT and

TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT working alone in a group and finishing by TTTT 8 TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT 8 H- TT. ' will test myself by TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT ' have finished successfully will do more soon will do more later.

How Can ' ;lan Ay $ork%

;lanning your work has J stages3
*. Analysing your @eeds H. ;lanning what to learn J. Testing yourself and planning what to learn

ne&t.

1. "eeds %nalysis There are four ways that you can analyse your needs3

think of problems you have when you speak, read, write or listen to 9nglish, and the situations that cause these problems think of what 9nglish you will need in future, for e&ample for your career or for studying think about what you need to know to speak a language if you are studying a course, think of the contents of the course and what 9nglish you need to understand those contents 0 click here to see the 9nglish courses that most full(time HC;: students do1 use a !.tudy .kills! book 0we have some in C'661 to help you analyse your needs.

Click here for a @eeds Analysis 8 ;lanning 8 .tudying 8 Assessment orm that you can print out and fill in.

"e2t...... >ack to Top

2. (lanning what to learn. /ou need to decide3

what materials and resources you want to use whether you want to work alone or with other people when you want or need to finish studying; eg. in time for an assignment deadline how much improvement is necessary

4aterials and $esources Aaterials can be books, maga)ines, newspapers, videos, audio tapes, etc. 4esources can be teachers, classmates, computers, learner pathways, etc. 6ow to choose materials7

level3 is the material the right level for you% time3 can you finish in time for any assignments etc. you need to hand in

quantity3 the C'66 inde&es and materials lists tell you the :nit of the material you should look at. 'f this says, !All!, then all of that material is about the topic you are looking for. support3 if you are using a book, is there a tape, model answers 0eg. in a teachers book or the back of the students! book1, a video, a computer program or a workbook for e&tra practice% does the material suggest using one of the ways of learning 0study strategies1 that you know and like% Click here for ways of studying. does the material suit your learning style% .ome people like to work quietly on their own, while others like to learn by social talking. Click here for details on planning reading, writing, speaking, listening, vocabulary, pronunciation and grammar.

"e2t
+orking %lone or +ith .ther (eople 4easons for working with other people are3 ( /ou get more ideas from the other people ( They can suggest improvements ( They can tell you if you make a mistake ( They can encourage you to do better ( 9&plaining things to other people can help you understand better ( .haring the work helps you do it quicker ( /ou can share your thoughts and feelings ( Teamwork skills and e&perience are important for your career. 4easons for working alone are3 ( .o your work is not the same as other people!s ( 'f you share a task then you might learn only your part of the task, ..not how to do all of it. /our aim is to learn, not to finish quickly. ( Aaybe you don!t want to be influenced by other people ( /ou don!t want to share your ideas with other people.

"e2t
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'. esting yourself and planning what to learn ne2t.

$hen you have finished your plan you need to test or assess yourself to see if you have fulfilled your need. Can you do what your @eeds Analysis wanted% ( 'f you can, then you can plan to learn another point from your @eeds Analysis, or you can change it because of some new thing that you want to learn. <on!t forget to come back and revise later. ( 'f you can!t you need to study more, so change your plan. /ou could, for e&ample, do some of the Alternative Aaterials or 9&tra Aaterials if you are following a learner pathway. 'f you are bored you can do something else and come back later.

How Can ' ;lan Ay $ork%

;lanning your work has J stages3

1. "eeds %nalysis There are four ways that you can analyse your needs3

think of problems you have when you speak, read, write or listen to 9nglish, and the situations that cause these problems think of what 9nglish you will need in future, for e&ample for your career or for studying think about what you need to know to speak a language if you are studying a course, think of the contents of the course and what 9nglish you need to understand those contents 0 click here to see the 9nglish courses that most full(time HC;: students do1 use a !.tudy .kills! book 0we have some in C'661 to help you analyse your needs.

2. (lanning what to learn. /ou need to decide3

what materials and resources you want to use whether you want to work alone or with other people when you want or need to finish studying; eg. in time for an assignment deadline how much improvement is necessary

4aterials and $esources Aaterials can be books, maga)ines, newspapers, videos, audio tapes, etc. 4esources can be teachers, classmates, computers, learner pathways, etc. 6ow to choose materials7

level3 is the material the right level for you% time3 can you finish in time for any assignments etc. you need to hand in quantity3 the C'66 inde&es and materials lists tell you the :nit of the material you should look at. 'f this says, !All!, then all of that material is about the topic you are looking for. support3 if you are using a book, is there a tape, model answers 0eg. in a teachers book or the back of the students! book1, a video, a computer program or a workbook for e&tra practice% does the material suggest using one of the ways of learning 0study strategies1 that you know and like% Click here for ways of studying. does the material suit your learning style% .ome people like to work quietly on their own, while others like to learn by social talking.

+orking %lone or +ith .ther (eople 4easons for working with other people are3 ( /ou get more ideas from the other people ( They can suggest improvements ( They can tell you if you make a mistake ( They can encourage you to do better ( 9&plaining things to other people can help you understand better ( .haring the work helps you do it quicker ( /ou can share your thoughts and feelings ( Teamwork skills and e&perience are important for your career. 4easons for working alone are3 ( .o your work is not the same as other people!s ( 'f you share a task then you might learn only your part of the task, ..not how to do all of it. /our aim is to learn, not to finish quickly.

( Aaybe you don!t want to be influenced by other people ( /ou don!t want to share your ideas with other people. '. esting yourself and planning what to learn ne2t. $hen you have finished your plan you need to test or assess yourself to see if you have fulfilled your need. Can you do what your @eeds Analysis wanted% ( 'f you can, then you can plan to learn another point from your @eeds Analysis, or you can change it because of some new thing that you want to learn. <on!t forget to come back and revise later. ( 'f you can!t you need to study more, so change your plan. /ou could, for e&ample, do some of the Alternative Aaterials or 9&tra Aaterials if you are following a learner pathway. 'f you are bored you can do something else and come back later. Studying7 $eading Skills 4eading skills you might find useful are3 skimming, scanning, predicting, understanding the organisation of a te&t, guessing meanings and identifying a writer!s attitude and purpose. .kimming is looking through a te&t very quickly to understand the main topics and arguments. 4ead the introduction, headings, first and last sentence of each paragraph, and the conclusion. This will help you read and find information faster. .canning is looking for details to answer questions that you have. :se the results of your skimming 0see above1 to find relevant sections, then look quickly through those sections looking for key words that are relevant to your question. This will help you read and find information and quotes faster. ;redicting is guessing the content of a te&t based on your knowledge of the sub"ect, the author!s area of e&pertise and opinions, and the conte&t. /ou can do this by asking yourself !"ournalistic questions! about the topic before reading. /ou need to understand the organisation of a te&t at H levels, at the paragraph level and at the whole te&t level. The

paragraph level means understanding the organisation of the sentences in a paragraph, and the links between them. or e&ample you can draw arrows from words like !he!, !she!, !they!, and !it!, back to the nouns they refer to, like this3

/ou also need to understand the logic of the paragraph or group of paragraphs, for e&ample by drawing a mind(map of the the organisation, with words like !and!, !but! and !so! linking the topics and sub(topics. The whole te&t level is organised in different ways according to the type of document you are reading, for e&ample a memo might have a situation, problem, suggested solution and a request for action. A report usually has a title page, abstract, table of contents, methodology, findings, conclusions and recommendations sections. ?uessing meanings of words and phrases is possible because you know the situation. However, if you are using the 'nternet you can use one of the online dictionaries to find the meaning. 'dentifying a writers attitude is done by knowing the connotation 0a nice or a bad meaning1 of the words he uses. 'f you see a word that you think may have a special connotation, check in a dictionary and look for the abbreviation !derog.!, which means that the word has a bad meaning. 't is also important to know if a writer is !ob"ective! 0gives good and bad points1 or !biased! 0 gives only good, or only bad points1. The writer!s purposes may include to inform, to teach, to entertain, to persuade, or to criticise, etc. 6ow to (ractise -ocabulary :se your learner diary as a vocabulary book. $rite down everything you know about new words that will be useful for you. <ecide if you will need to know how to write and speak a word, or if you "ust have to know the meaning when you hear of read it. 'f you will need to write or speak the word,

you need to know more about it, such as the pronunciation, and the grammar. /ou can find this in one of the dictionaries. 'f you are a member of C'66, you can use our tapes, C<s and vocabulary e&ercise books.
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-ocabulary Strategies 8 %onte&tualisation3 This means putting new vocabulary words into sentences to help you remember them and to test if you are using them correctly. /ou can use these sentences when talking to an 9nglish(speaker to see if they understand, you can write these sentences in your learner diary for the tutors to see, or you can e(mail the tutors and ask them to check these words in your sentences. The most independent ways are talking to an 9nglish speaker, and searching the 'nternet to find e&amples of the word being used in sentences. ( 'laboration3 this means relating new information to information you already know. or e&ample, if you know the meaning of !information!, it is easy to remember that the verb is !to inform!, and that !informative! is an ad"ective, and that !an informant! is someone who gives information. - Inferencing3 This means using available information to predict or guess the meanings of; e.g. new vocabulary items. or e&ample, if you know that you are reading about football, and you know that a field is often a large area covered in grass, then you can guess that a football field is a large, grassy area for playing football. ( Translation3 /ou can read a story in a newspaper in your own language first, then read the same story in an 9nglish newspaper. Aost of the story will probably be the same, so the story in your own language will help you to prepare for reading in 9nglish. or e&ample, it will give you vocabulary, and when you read the 9nglish story and there is some vocabulary that you don!t know, then you can use your knowledge of the story to guess what the new vocabulary is. esting 1ourself $hen you have finished your plan you need to test or assess yourself to see if you have fulfilled your need. Can you do what your @eeds Analysis says you aimed to do%

/ou can test yourself by doing tests in books, or by reading te&ts and applying the skills above. /ou will know if you

6earning .trategies
Click here to see strategies for3 How to 6earn 6earning Thinking .peaking

$riting 4eading 6istening ?rammar =ocabulary

;ronunciation

.tudying strategies, also called learner strategies, are ways of learning. ?ood learners use these strategies to make their learning more efficient. There are two main types of learning strategies, the first are strategies for planning how to learn, and secondly strategies for learning. Strategies for (lanning 6ow to Learn %dvance .rganisation <oing a preview of what you are going to learn. or e&ample, if you want to improve your pronunciation, you can read the introduction to different pronunciation books, and find out that you need to study the sounds of consonants, vowels, intonation, stress and linking. &irecting %ttention This means paying attention to studying something, and not doing other things like surfing the 'nternet. Selective %ttention This means studying things that you can remember more easily, for e&ample because they are useful for your university course or for your "ob. 'f you need to do a presentation for your course you can study presentations, if

you need to write a report at work, you can learn how to write a report. Self8management This is understanding the conditions that help you learn, and organising them. or e&ample, if you like music, learning in a place with music. /ou will also need materials like books and maybe a computer. C'66 has good learning conditions 0but no coffee51. %dvance (reparation ;lanning and learning 9nglish that you will need for something, for e&ample learning the correct pronunciation of important words in a presentation. Self8monitoring Correcting yourself if you make a mistake when you are using 9nglish. &elayed (roduction $hen you first start to learn a new language you may decide not to try speaking until you have learned some vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. /ou may "ust want to try listening first, before speaking. Self8evaluation <Self8assessment or testing= <eciding if you have finished learning a topic because your 9nglish is good enough to do the things you need. Click here for more details on how to test yourself. Self8reinforcement This means giving yourself a present when you have successfully learned something. or e&ample, chocolate or *minutes playing computer games. +orking %lone or with .ther (eople Click here to find out reasons for working alone or with other people. There are sections in the reading, writing , listening, speaking, grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation pages on this as well. $ith other people you can compare ideas, criticise ideas, get more ideas, and therefore think about things in more detail than you can alone.
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Learning Strategies hinking Strategies - (rouping3 ;utting things in groups and in order helps you to build a framework for learning. ?rouping also reflects the way your brain organises information. or e&ample, you can group vocabulary words together according to categories like furniture, animals, office equipment, etc. :sing mind(maps is one type of grouping. Imagery3 This means making pictures in your mind to help you remember things. or e&ample a !hamburger paragraph!.

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Speaking Strategies 8 )uestions for %larification3 This means talking to 9nglish( speakers and asking for them to repeat, paraphrase 0summarise in different words1, e&plain or give e&amples. /ou can say3

4epeat3 E'!m sorry, ' didn!t catch that, can you say that again%E ;araphrase3 E'!m sorry, '!m not sure what you mean. Can you tell me again%E 9&plain3 ECould you e&plain that for me%E 9&amples3 ECould you give me an e&ample%E
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(ronunciation Strategies 8 *epetition: /ou can repeat a word out loud or silently to practice pronunciation. >e careful to listen to a model to make sure that you pronunciation is correct.

( Sound: This means remembering 9nglish sounds by using sounds in your own language. or e&ample, the 9nglish sound 8 i3 8is very similar to the Chinese 0;utonghua1 sound of the word that means !one!. Click here to go to the pronunciation page.
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+riting Strategies 8 +ote-taking3 it!s a good idea to write down the main ideas, important points, an outline or a summary of a topic. /ou can use a mind(map to help you organise the information. Click here to go to the writing page.
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$eading Strategies 8 Transfer3 This means using ideas that you already have to make learning easier. or e&ample, if you know that a paragraph 0like a hamburger1 usually has an introduction, a middle containing supporting detail, and a conclusion, you can use this knowledge to skim 0read very quickly, by missing out non(important information, to understand the general topic1 a te&t because you know that you only have to read the introduction and conclusion of both the whole te&t and the paragraphs. ( Translation3 /ou can read a story in a newspaper in your own language first, then read the same story in an 9nglish newspaper. Aost of the story will probably be the same, so the story in your own language will help you to prepare for reading in 9nglish. or e&ample, it will give you vocabulary, and when you read the 9nglish story and there is some vocabulary that you don!t know, then you can use your knowledge of the story to guess what the new vocabulary is. - Inferencing3 /ou can also use the strategy of reading a newspaper story in your own language first for prediction. /ou can predict the contents of the same story in an 9nglish newspaper. 4eading to confirm your predictions is easier than reading with no background information. Click here for more information on reading newspapers. - "rediction3 As well as predicting from newspaper stories in your own language, you can predict from your knowledge of

the world, you knowledge of how people think, write and talk, and your knowledge of what the writer is like. or e&ample, if you are reading a book it is a good idea to read about the author and the contents 0on the cover or at the front of the book1 to help you make predictions about what he or she believes. Click here to go to the reading page.
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Listening Strategies - "hysical *esponse: /ou can listen to instructions about how to do something, and follow the instructions. 4elating sounds to movements helps you remember the sounds. .o does listening to the sounds many times and repeating the movements. or e&ample you can buy an 9nglish fitness video and listen and follow the instructions, and get fit at the same time. - "rediction3 /ou can predict what someone is going to say by the topic of the conversation and your knowledge of that person!s opinions. 6istening to confirm what you predict is easier than listening and trying to understand everything. or e&ample, if you are watching a film or T= programme about lawyers, you can predict that the defense lawyer will say that his client is E@ot guilty.E, and give reasons. Click here to go to the listening page.
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#rammar Strategies - ,eduction3 This means using rules to work out the answer or how to do something. 't is especially useful for grammar, for e&ample *ule: To change normal speech to reported speech- eg. for writing minutes of a meeting, move the tenses back one past tense. '&ample: .r. %han - /I will see her tomorrow./ *eported speech - 0.r. %han said that he would see her the ne&t day. - *ecombination3 This means "oining together things you already know to make new things. or e&ample, if you know that the simple past tense is used to describe things that happened in the past which have finished, and you know that the present perfect tense is used to describe e&perience, you

can make a sentence that includes both of them3 E' first visited America in *++-. 6ast summer ' went there again, so ' have been there twice.E Click here to go to the grammar page.
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-ocabulary Strategies 8 %onte&tualisation3 This means putting new vocabulary words into sentences to help you remember them and to test if you are using them correctly. /ou can use these sentences when talking to an 9nglish(speaker to see if they understand, you can write these sentences in your learner diary for the tutors to see, or you can e(mail the tutors and ask them to check these words in your sentences. The most independent ways are talking to an 9nglish speaker, and searching the 'nternet to find e&amples of the word being used in sentences. ( 'laboration3 this means relating new information to information you already know. or e&ample, if you know the meaning of !information!, it is easy to remember that the verb is !to inform!, and that !informative! is an ad"ective, and that !an informant! is someone who gives information. - Inferencing3 This means using available information to predict or guess the meanings of; eg. new vocabulary items. or e&ample, if you know that you are reading about football, and you know that a field is often a large area covered in grass, then you can guess that a football field is a large, grassy area for playing football. ( Translation3 /ou can read a story in a newspaper in your own language first, then read the same story in an 9nglish newspaper. Aost of the story will probably be the same, so the story in your own language will help you to prepare for reading in 9nglish. or e&ample, it will give you vocabulary, and when you read the 9nglish story and there is some vocabulary that you don!t know, then you can use your knowledge of the story to guess what the new vocabulary is.

<'.;2.'T'2@ T2 * Analyse one7s own strengths 8 weaknesses, language needs .et achievable targets and overall ob"ectives ;lan a programme of work to achieve the ob"ectives set 9&ercise choice, select materials and activities $ork without supervision 9valuate one7s progress A>'6'T/ T2 K Analyse one7s own strengths 8 weaknesses, language needs .et achievable targets and overall ob"ectives ;lan a programme of work to achieve the ob"ectives set 9&ercise choice, select materials and activities $ork without supervision 9valuate one7s progress

<

@ < 9

*-

**

*H

igure *3 .heerin7s 0*++K3 MK1 model of activities involved in independent learning.

The C'66 'nternet site helps the learners to develop the disposition and ability to do all these activities in the following ways. 't allows learners to analyse their own strengths 8 weaknesses and language needs by providing an e&planation and a framework for them to analyse these, and by providing links to various test sites, and authentic communication situations such as e(mail pen pals, so that learners can test their language abilities. The C'66 'nternet site helps the learners to set achievable targets and overall ob"ectives by giving an e&planation of the planning process, and providing learning pathways. 't helps the learners to plan a programme of work to achieve the ob"ectives set through access to lists of materials in C'66 useful for common learner requests such as report writing, by providing learning pathways, and by providing a copy of a page from the C'66 learner diary which takes learners through a planning to evaluation process for one learning session. 6earners are encouraged to e&ercise choice, and select materials and activities from the links, pathways and materials lists by the multitude of choices of materials they can choose. Criteria for these choices are e&plained in the e&planation of the planning process. $ork without supervision is encouraged , but the site provides e(mail connections to advice from tutors because it is recognised that there is a range to the degree of learners7 autonomy. .elf(evaluation of learners7 progress is e&plained and aided by the page from the C'66 learner diary, but for less independent learners e(mail advice and tutor evaluation is available. armer and .weeney 0*++#3 *J+1 also see autonomy as a developmental process involving learner training, Ehelping students to develop the confidence and motivation to believe that they can use these materials more independently, and that they can learn without a teacher.E The C'66 'nternet site also shows learners how to use materials independently, for e&ample with an e&ample book chapter and details of how to use it.

<avid @unan 0*++K3 *+M1 sets out a scheme proposing five levels for encouraging learner autonomy in relationship to use of learning materials 0see igure H below1.

Level

Learner %ction

Content

(rocess

Awareness

6earners identify strateg 6earners are made aware of implications of pedagog the pedagogical goals and tasks and identify their content of the materials preferred learning styles they are using. strategies. 6earners are involved in selecting their own goals from a range of alternatives on offer. 6earners are involved in modifying and adapting the goals and content of the learning program. 6earners create their own goals and ob"ectives. 6earners go beyond the classroom and make links between the content of classroom learning and the world beyond.

'nvolvement

6earners make choices among a range of option

'ntervention

6earners modify 8 adapt tasks.

Creation

6earners create their ow tasks.

Transcendence M

6earners become teache and researchers.

igure H. @unan7s 0*++K3 *+M1 model DAutonomy3 levels of implementation.7

;ierson 0*++L3 M,1 says it is a parado& that Ethe teacher, and only the teacher, leads the learner to freedom and autonomy.E Holec 0*+,*3 HM ( HL1 says that the most prevalent teaching situation Ewill be that of learners who are not yet autonomous but are involved in the process of acquiring the ability to assume responsibility for their learning.E He sets out three

types of information that the independent language teachers should provide for students. irstly, information on various language competences used in authentic 9nglish communication to help the students set their ob"ectives and evaluate their progress. .econdly, information on how to learn languages to help the students with their learning strategies. Thirdly, information on resources that students can use in their learning, such as C'667s learning pathways.

.2.* Learners> %ttitude towards Independent Learning .heerin 0*++K3 M+1 links her model of activities involved in independent learning 0see igure * above1 with a suggestion for a framework for learners7 analysis of their disposition towards independent learning 0see igure J below1.

< 9 ; *

<'.;2.'T'2@ A@< A>'6'T/ T2 Analyse one7s own strengths 8 weaknesses, language needs

' @ <

"ut a tick beside which statement you agree most with, th on the left #a$, or the one on the right #b$:

0a1 ' think it7s the teacher7s "ob to correct all my mistakes. 0a1 ' want my teacher to tell me what to do to learn better 9nglish. 0a1 Ay teacher should tell me what e&ercises to

0b1 't7s good fo me to find out own mistakes whenever poss

9 @ H

.et achievable targets and overall ob"ectives

9 ;

0b1 ' want to fi out for myself what ' have to to learn better 9nglish.

< 9 J

;lan a programme of work to achieve the ob"ectives set 9&ercise choice, select materials and activities

9 <

0b1 ' want to choose for mys what e&ercises

do and what books to read, etc.

do and what bo to read, etc.

@ C 9 M $ork without supervision C 9

' don7t think it7s useful to do speaking activities in pairs or groups if the teacher isn7t listening to my group all the time. The teacher should give us lots of tests and show us how well we have learned.

' think speakin activities in pa or groups are useful, even w the teacher isn listening to my group.

9valuate one7s progress

Tests can7t tell everything. /o know yourself you7ve been learning well.

igure J. A comparison of .heerin7s 0*++K3 MK1 model of DActivities involved in independent learning7 0on the left1 with her 0*++K3 M+1 DAttitudinal statements on independent learning7.

<avid @unan 0*++K3 *+M1 sets out a scheme proposing five levels for encouraging learner autonomy in relationship to use of learning materials 0see igure H below1.

Level

Learner %ction

Content

(rocess

Awareness

6earners identify strateg 6earners are made aware of implications of pedagog the pedagogical goals and tasks and identify their content of the materials preferred learning styles they are using. strategies. 6earners are involved in selecting their own goals from a range of alternatives on offer. 6earners are involved in modifying and adapting the goals and content of the

'nvolvement

6earners make choices among a range of option

'ntervention

6earners modify 8 adapt tasks.

learning program. # Creation 6earners create their own goals and ob"ectives. 6earners go beyond the classroom and make links between the content of classroom learning and the world beyond.

6earners create their ow tasks.

Transcendence

6earners become teache and researchers.

igure H. @unan7s 0*++K3 *+M1 model DAutonomy3 levels of implementation.7 <avid @unan 0*++K3 *+M1 sets out a scheme proposing five levels for encouraging learner autonomy in relationship to use of learning materials 0see igure H below1.

Level

Learner %ction

Content

(rocess

Awareness

6earners identify strateg 6earners are made aware of implications of pedagog the pedagogical goals and tasks and identify their content of the materials preferred learning styles they are using. strategies. 6earners are involved in selecting their own goals from a range of alternatives on offer. 6earners are involved in modifying and adapting the goals and content of the learning program. 6earners create their own goals and ob"ectives. 6earners go beyond the classroom and make links between the content of

'nvolvement

6earners make choices among a range of option

'ntervention

6earners modify 8 adapt tasks.

# M

Creation Transcendence

6earners create their ow tasks.

6earners become teache and researchers.

classroom learning and the world beyond. igure H. @unan7s 0*++K3 *+M1 model DAutonomy3 levels of implementation.7 ?uestionnaire
HOW DO YOU LIKE LEARNING? Please put a circle around your ans er! Na"e# A$e# % &ale ' (e"ale Are you satis)ied it* your ac*ie+e"ent in En$lis*? YE, NO

a- In class do you li.e learnin$ % indi+idually? YE, ' in pairs? YE, / in s"all $roups? YE, 0 in one lar$e $roup? YE, 1 ot*er 2speci)y please- !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

NO NO NO NO

3- Do you ant to do *o"e or.? YE, NO I) so4 *o "uc* ti"e do you spend )or *o"e or. outside class *ours? !!!!!! *ours a day or !!!!!! *ours a ee. Ho ould you li.e to spend t*is ti"e? % Preparin$ )or t*e ne5t class? YE, ' Re+ie in$ t*e day6s or.? YE, / ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! c- Do you ant to NO NO NO NO

% spend all your learnin$ ti"e in t*e classroo"? YE, ' spend so"e ti"e in t*e classroo" and so"e ti"e practisin$ your En$lis* it* people outside? YE, / ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! d- Do you li.e learnin$ % ' / 0 1 7 8 3y 3y 3y 3y 3y 3y 3y listenin$? readin$? copyin$ )ro" t*e 3oard? listenin$ and ta.in$ notes? readin$ and "a.in$ notes? repeatin$ *at you *ear? "a.in$ su""aries? YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE,

NO NO NO NO NO NO NO

9 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! e- W*en learnin$ ne learnin$ +oca3ulary4 do you li.e YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, NO NO NO NO NO NO

% 3y usin$ ne ords in a sentence ' 3y t*in.in$ o) relations*ips 3et een .no n and ne / 3y sayin$ or ritin$ ords se+eral ti"es 0 3y a+oidin$ +er3ati" translation 1 3y $uessin$ t*e un.no n 7 3y readin$ it*out loo.in$ up ords 8 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! :;%';< )- W*en you spea. do you ant to 3e corrected

% i""ediately4 in )ront o) e+eryone? YE, or!!! ' later4 at t*e end o) t*e acti+ity4 in )ront o) e+eryone? YE, / later4 in pri+ate? YE, 0 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! $- Do you "ind i) ot*er students so"eti"es correct your ritten or.? Do you "ind i) t*e teac*er so"eti"es as.s you to correct your o n or.? *- Do you li.e learnin$ )ro" % ' / 0 1 7 8 tele+ision=+ideo=)il"s? radio? tapes=cassettes? ritten "aterial? t*e 3lac.3oard? pictures=posters? ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE,

NO NO NO

NO NO

NO NO NO NO NO NO

i- Do you do t*e )ollo in$ in your class? % ' / 0 1 7 8 9 ? Role play Lan$ua$e $a"es ,on$s >al.in$ it* and listenin$ to ot*er students &e"orisin$ con+ersations=dialo$ues Gettin$ in)or"ation )ro" $uest spea.ers Gettin$ in)or"ation )ro" planned +isits Writin$ a learnin$ diary Learnin$ a3out culture YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO

I) so4 put a cross 2@- ne5t to t*e )i+e t*in$s you )ind "ost use)ul! A- Ho do you li.e to )ind out *o your En$lis* is i"pro+in$? "uc*

By !!!!! % ritten tas.s set 3y t*e teac*er? YE, ' seein$ i) you can use t*e lan$ua$e you *a+e learnt in real;li)e situations? YE, / ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! .- Do you $et a sense o) satis)action )ro"# % *a+in$ your or. $raded? YE, ' 3ein$ told t*at you *a+e "ade pro$ress? YE, / )eelin$ "ore con)ident in situations t*at you )ound di))icult 3e)ore? YE, 0 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! :;%/;< HOW DO YOUR ,>UDEN>, LIKE LEARNING? Please put a circle around your ans er! Na"e# A$e# % &ale ' (e"ale Are you satis)ied in En$lis*? it* your students6 ac*ie+e"ent

NO NO

NO NO NO

YE,

NO

a- In class do your students li.e learnin$ % ' / 0 1 indi+idually? in pairs? in s"all $roups? in one lar$e $roup? ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ant to NO NO YE, YE, YE, YE, NO NO NO NO

c- Do t*ey

% spend all t*eir learnin$ ti"e in t*e classroo"? YE, ' spend so"e ti"e in t*e classroo" and so"e ti"e practisin$ t*eir En$lis* it* people outside? YE, / ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! d- Do t*ey li.e learnin$ % ' ' 0 1 7 8 3y 3y 3y 3y 3y 3y 3y listenin$? readin$? copyin$ )ro" t*e 3oard? listenin$ and ta.in$ notes? readin$ and "a.in$ notes? repeatin$ *at you *ear? "a.in$ su""aries YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE,

NO NO NO NO NO NO

9 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! e- W*en learnin$ ne +oca3ulary4 do t*ey li.e learnin$ YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, NO NO NO NO NO NO

% 3y usin$ ne ords in a sentence ' 3y t*in.in$ o) relations*ips 3et een .no n and ne / 3y sayin$ or ritin$ ords se+eral ti"es 0 3y a+oidin$ +er3ati" translation 1 3y $uessin$ t*e un.no n 7 3y readin$ it*out loo.in$ up ords 8 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! )- W*en t*ey spea. do t*ey ant to 3e corrected

% i""ediately4 in )ront o) e+eryone? YE, or!!! ' later4 at t*e end o) t*e acti+ity4 in )ront o) e+eryone? YE, / later4 in pri+ate? YE, 0 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! %0;< $- Do t*ey "ind i) ot*er students so"eti"es correct t*eir ritten or.? Do t*ey "ind i) you as t*e teac*er so"eti"es as. t*e" to correct t*eir o n or.? *- Do t*ey li.e learnin$ )ro" % ' / 0 1 7 8 tele+ision=+ideo=)il"s? radio? tapes=cassettes? ritten "aterial? t*e 3lac.3oard? pictures=posters? ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE,

NO NO NO :;

NO NO

NO NO NO NO NO NO

i- Do you do t*e )ollo in$ in your class? % ' / 0 1 7 8 9 ? Role play Lan$ua$e $a"es ,on$s >al.in$ it* and listenin$ to ot*er students &e"orisin$ con+ersations=dialo$ues Gettin$ in)or"ation )ro" $uest spea.ers Gettin$ in)or"ation )ro" planned +isits Writin$ a learnin$ diary Learnin$ a3out culture YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, YE, NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO

I) so4 please put a cross 2@- ne5t to t*e )i+e t*in$s t*at you )ind "ost use)ul! A- Ho do you t*in. students li.e to )ind out *o t*eir En$lis* is i"pro+in$? "uc*

By !!!!! % ritten tas.s set 3y you? YE, ' seein$ i) t*ey can use t*e lan$ua$e t*ey *a+e learnt in real;li)e situations? YE, / ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! .- Do you t*in. students $et a sense o) satis)action )ro"# % *a+in$ t*eir or. $raded? YE, ' 3ein$ told t*at t*ey *a+e "ade pro$ress? YE, / )eelin$ "ore con)ident in situations t*at t*ey )ound di))icult 3e)ore? YE, 0 ot*er 2speci)y please-!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

NO NO

NO NO NO

wo %ctivities for $aising Consciousness of Language Learners@ Strategies

.cott 4edfern I @olan $eil redfernscott NatO yahoo.com I nweil NatO luna.cas.usf.edu 9nglish 6anguage 'nstitute, :niversity of .outh lorida 0Tampa, orida, :.A1 &ationale .ystematic inquiry into the learning strategies employed by second language learners captured the attention of researchers following the publication of observations by both 4ubin 0*+KM1 and .tern 0*+KM1. Their articles and other follow(up efforts 0e.g., @aiman et al. *+K,; 4ubin, *+,*1 suggested that more effective language learners might differ from less effective learners primarily in terms of the respective ways that they approach learning. 9ffective learners, for e&ample, engage in a variety of activities that help them better learn, retain, and use what they have learned. This insight subsequently spawned a wealth of research on the role of strategies in second language learning. 2f particular significance for teachers has been research demonstrating the benefits to language learners of incorporating strategy instruction into the curriculum 02!Aalley and Chamot *++-; 2&ford *++-1. 2n the other hand, efforts to do so have not always been easy nor have the results been unambiguously positive; however, the prospects of encouraging strategy use seem generally promising. 9ven so, teachers who have not routinely taught strategy use may shy away from it due to unfamiliarity. 2thers more familiar with the literature might be discouraged by the belief that anything less than long(term strategy training is unlikely to pay off. There is some evidence, however, that students can benefit from even limited e&posure to activities designed to raise their general level of awareness of language learning strategies 0 lait) I eyten, *++L1. At the same time, raising awareness of strategies is bound to involve learners in a critical assessment of their beliefs about language learning since, as Horwit)

0*+,,1 has hinted, learning strategies are tied to beliefs about language learning. Aoreover, since beliefs are sub"ect to cultural influence, students from different cultures are sometimes likely to e&hibit different strategy preferences 0>edell I 2&ford, *++L1. 4egardless of any ambiguities surrounding the research literature related to language learning strategies, the particular activities presented here are supported on several counts3

They are communicative vehicles that may permit students to e&plore their beliefs about language learning while perhaps raising their awareness regarding the possible benefits of conscious, purposeful use of learning strategies. They can serve as an introduction to a longer(term focus on strategic learning. Teachers who are reluctant to devote class time to learning strategies at the e&pense of language instruction per se can use the activities for other purposes, without apology, in conversation classes, culture classes, even grammar classes, as long as they are committed to communicative forms of language teaching.

Bac)ground The activities were initially developed for use at the 96' 09nglish 6anguage 'nstitute1 at the :niversity of .outh lorida. The 96' is a five(level 'ntensive 9nglish 6anguage ;rogram that hosts international students from roughly JM countries. At the beginning of each *M( week semester, students are introduced to the ways in which classes at the 96' might differ from what they are used to, and they are encouraged to reflect upon a variety of language learning strategies that they might adopt in order to take responsibility for their own learning. 'n short, we encourage them to sei)e all of their opportunities. or a number of consecutive semesters, this ob"ective was achieved at the 96' by means of a ;ower;oint presentation delivered in the computer lab. Teachers reported varying degrees of satisfaction with this presentation. 2n the one hand, it was attractive and held students! attention, and some teachers were successful in delivering its message in an interactive manner that elicited active participation from the audience. 2n the other hand, 96' classes are composed of both new and continuing students, and the latter were not always enthusiastic about multiple encounters with the same content. .ome teachers complained that the setting was not as conducive to participant interaction as it might be and recommended redesigning the presentation so that it would be delivered more deliberately as a communicative activity 0in an ordinary classroom removed from the temptations of cyberspace1. The Activities #oals Through a combination of guided whole(group and small(group discussions, students may become more aware of3 their learning strategies their beliefs about second language learning the relationship between their own beliefs and the !informed opinions! of trained language educators some steps they might take to become more effective language learners

%ctivity 1 .tudents consider which of a number of strategies they think will most help them learn 9nglish over the ne&t several months, and they rank the top four and the bottom one. There are ** suggestions phrased as statements of self(advice. .uggested time3 M- minutes. 0.ee Appendi& * for handout.1

Step 1
9&plain or elicit the general meaning of the term !strategy! in the conte&t of language learning . .trategies are steps that learners take to learn a language more quickly, easily, and8or effectively. ?o over the list of strategies and clarify any unfamiliar vocabulary. .T:<9@T. .H2:6< @2T .TA4T 4A@C'@? /9T. >riefly elicit e&amples that clarify each strategy. .ome items require little e&planation, e.g., study with a partner or in groups. 2ther items might require more illustration, e.g., find creative ways to remember important words and phrases. There are three blank lines for listing additional strategies at the bottom of the activity sheet. Consider reserving these as a task for groups that finish the group(ranking task early.

Step 2
.tudents rank items as follows. 9ach student should select his8her top four strategies, i.e., the four strategies that he8she feels would be personally most useful. He8she might also indicate which strategy seems personally least useful.

Step '
.tudents form small groups 0J(# students1. 9ach student presents and e&plains his8her top four strategies 0and bottom one1. This stage of the activity could take a number of different directions depending on the proficiency level of students. Classes of lower proficiency students might simply share their rankings. Classes of higher proficiency students should be encouraged to arrive at a group consensus. 'n the absence of significant overlap in individual responses, arriving at a group consensus might be difficult. To facilitate the process, the teacher can reframe the task as follows3 To arrive at a group consensus each group member should try to imagine a set of strategies that he8she thinks might be most useful to language learners in general rather than "ust to himself8herself. The purpose of the group ranking is to get students to discuss and think more deeply about the strategies. 't is not really important whether or not groups are able to arrive at a consensus. .tudents may wish to reconsider their initial opinions in the light of further discussion, but they do not have to. 'f some groups finish much more quickly than others, those groups might3

Think of ways to reali)e the top four strategies 0e.g., listing conte&ts for opportunities to use 9nglish outside of class1. Think of other strategies not represented in the activity. The activity handout has blank spaces for this purpose.

Step *
The teacher can also call on a member from each group to orally summari)e the discussions and the conclusions reached by the group. The teacher may want to display a tally of the results using the blackboard oroverhead pro"ector and facilitate further discussion as appropriate. %ctivity 2 .tudents reflect upon their beliefs about language learning and the kinds of strategies that might proceed from these beliefs. .uggested time3 M-(KM minutes. 0.ee Appendi& H for handout.1

Step 1
.tudents read a list of ** statements about language learning and indicate whether they agree or disagree with each statement. They should be prepared to e&plain why they agree or disagree.

Step 2
After responding individually, students assemble in small groups and discuss each statement. Their task is to try to arrive at a consensus. They should spend no more than H(J minutes on each statement. 'f there is a strong difference of opinion on any particular item, and the members of a group are not able to arrive at a consensus, they can !agree to disagree! and move on to the ne&t statement.

Step '
9ach group reports to the whole class the results of their deliberations. <isparities of opinion might be discussed, and the discussion used as an opportunity to inform students of research(based generali)ations and professional opinions with regard to the survey topics. &e'erences >edell, <.A. and 2&ford, 4.6. 0*++L1. Cross(cultural comparisons of language learning strategies in the ;eople!s 4epublic of China and other countries. 'n 4.6. 2&ford 09d.1, !anguage learner strategies around the world: %ross cultural perspectives. Honolulu3 :niversity of Hawai!i ;ress, .econd 6anguage Teaching I Curriculum Center. lait), F. and eyten, C. 0*++L1. A two(phase study involving consciousness raising and strategy use for foreign language learners. 'n 4.6. 2&ford 09d.1, language learner strategies around the world: %ross cultural perspectives. Honolulu3 :niversity of Hawai!i, .econd 6anguage Teaching I Curriculum Center. Horwit), 9.C. 0*+,,1. The beliefs about language learning of beginning university foreign language students. .odern !anguage 1ournal, KH, H,JUH+#. @aiman, @., rohlich, A., .tern, H. H., and Todesco, A. 0*+K,1. The good language learner. Toronto3 2ntario 'nstitute for .tudies in 9ducation.

2!Aalley, F.A. I Chamot, A.:. 0*++-1. !earning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge3 Cambridge :niversity ;ress. 2&ford, 4.6. 0*++-1. !anguage learning strategies: 2hat every teacher should know. >oston3 Heinle I Heinle. 4ubin, F. 0*+KM1. $hat the !good language learner! can teach us. T'S3! )uarterly, 4, #*(M*. 4ubin, F. 0*+,*1. .tudy of cognitive processes in second language learning. 5pplied !inguistics, **, **K(*J*. .tern, H.H. 0*+KM1. $hat can we learn from the good language learner% %anadian .odern !anguage *eview, J*, J-#(J*,.

Appendix ./ 0trategies 'or Language Learning 2hich of the following strategies do you feel would most help you learn 'nglish over the ne&t three months6 +umber your top four #1 7most important, 2 7second most important, etc$. 2hich strategy do you feel would be least useful6 .ark it with a 99 1ut your ran)ing 'irst and the group2s ran)ing second3 I should A *. TTT TTT find opportunities to use 9nglish outside of class. H. TTT TTT use my native language, gestures, or other strategies when ' can!t find the right 9nglish words. J. TTT TTT not be afraid to make mistakes. #. TTT TTT try very hard not to make grammatical mistakes. M. TTT TTT keep a language "ournal, diary or notebook. L. TTT TTT find creative ways to remember important words and phrases. K. TTT TTT reward myself for my successes. ,. TTT TTT read a lot in 9nglish, especially for en"oyment. +. TTT TTT study with a partner or in groups. *-. TTT TTT record vocabulary and grammar points in a meaningful, systematic way. **. TTT TTT review often. %an you think of any strategies to add to the list6 2rite them below: Appendix 4/ Belie's about Language Learning *ead each of the following statements about language learning. ,ecide whether you agree or disagree. ,iscuss your answers with the other members of your group and try to reach a group consensus. 5 7 5gree , 7 ,isagree 1ut your ans*er 'irst and the group2s consensus second3 *. TTT TTT $hen ' read in 9nglish, ' should look up every word ' don!t know. H. TTT TTT Children are better language learners than adults. J. TTT TTT ' can learn 9nglish in one year if ' study really hard.

#. M. L. K.

TTT TTT Aaking errors is not always a serious problem. TTT TTT The teacher should try to correct all of my mistakes. TTT TTT 6anguage games take up valuable class time. TTT TTT $atching television and movies in 9nglish are two of the best ways to learn 9nglish. ,. TTT TTT ' can learn a lot of 9nglish "ust by living in the :. .. +. TTT TTT Ability to e&plain grammar rules is essential to speaking 9nglish. *-. TTT TTT ' might learn the mistakes or accents of other students by speaking together with them. **. TTT TTT 6earning the culture will help me learn the language.