PHY PHY 1214 1214 General General Physics Physics II II

Lecture 33-33 Nuclear Physics and Radiation July 27-28, 2005

Weldon J. Wilson Professor of Physics & Engineering Howell Hall 221H wwilson@ucok.edu

Lecture Schedule (Weeks 7-8)

We are here

July 27, 2005

PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

Nuclear Physics Notation

The nucleus of an atom contains Z protons and N neutrons. The mass number A is the total number of protons and neutrons: A=Z+N A nucleus is specified using the notation

A ZX

where X is the chemical symbol for the element. The Z is often omitted as you can infer Z from the element symbol. Example: How many protons and neutrons are in the nucleus? 113

Cd

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PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

Isotopes
Isotopes are nuclei of the same element (same number of protons) but different numbers of neutrons. Example: 12C, 13C and 14C are different isotopes of Carbon. These nuclei can behave differently. For example, 14C is unstable and radioactive.

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PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

Atomic Mass Unit

The atomic mass unit, u, is 1/12 the mass of the 12C nucleus. 1 u = 1.660540 10-27 kg The atomic mass (atomic weight) listed in the periodic table for each element is the average mass of that element (weighted by the isotopic abundance in the Earths surface), in atomic mass units. For example, the atomic mass of carbon is 12.0107 u, because 98.89% of naturally occurring carbon is 12C and 1.11% is 13C.

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PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

Mass & Energy: E = mc2

Einsteins famous formula indicates that mass is another form of energy. The energy equivalent E in an object of mass m is given by E = mc2, where c is the speed of light. Because m = E/c2 we will often use units of MeV/c2 for mass. Examples: u = 931.5 MeV/c2 me = 0.511 MeV/c2 mp = 938.28 MeV/c2 mn = 939.57 MeV/c2 Note that 1 MeV = 106 eV
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Nuclear Stability
The strong force (nuclear force) is the attractive force between protons and neutrons that holds the nucleus together. As Z increases, more and more neutrons are necessary to build a stable nucleus and counteract the electrostatic repulsion between the protons. Unstable nuclei undergo radioactive decay.
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Alpha Decay
An unstable nucleus may decay by emitting an alpha () particle, which is a 4He nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. The daughter nucleus is the nucleus left over after the alpha particle is emitted. The daughter will have two less neutrons and two less protons:

A ZX

A 4 4 Z 2Y + 2 He

Example: 175Au decays by alpha emission. (a) What is the daughter nucleus? (b) Use Appendix E to calculate the amount of energy released in the reaction.
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Beta Decay
Another type of radioactive decay is beta () emission. Negative beta particles ( or e) are simply electrons. Positive beta particles (+ or e+) are known as positrons (positive electrons) and are the anti-particles of electrons. In beta decay a neutron decays into a proton plus electron: n p + e p n + e+ Examples: 1. 2.
129Te 65Zn

A A X Y + e Z Z +1 A A + X Y + e Z Z 1

or a proton decays into a neutron plus positron:

charge is conserved!

decays by emission. What is the daughter nucleus?

decays by + emission. What is the daughter nucleus?

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Gamma Decay
Gamma rays () are high energy electromagnetic waves (photons) that are emitted when nuclei in excited states decay to lower energy states. The energy levels of the nucleus can be drawn in the same way as for the energy levels of the atom. The energies shown are relative to the ground state and are measured in MeV rather than eV. When a nucleus undergoes gamma decay, the isotope does not change.

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Example
What are the energies of the three photons that can be emitted by the 12C nucleus, assuming it has the energy levels shown here?
7.6 MeV 4.4 MeV

12C

Note that gamma decay is not possible between all nuclear states.
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Radioactive Decay Series

Unstable nuclei tend to go through many radioactive decays before ending at a stable nucleus. In this case 235U decays through many intermediate nuclei and ends as 207Pb.
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Half Life
Radioactive decay is a statistical process. One does not know for sure when a given nucleus will decay. The half life, T, is the time it takes for half of the nuclei in a sample to decay. Example: Initially there are 5000 nuclei of an isotope with a half life of 3 hours. How many nuclei of that isotope will be left after 12 hours? July 27, 2005 PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

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Decay constant
The number of nuclei, N, as a function of time is given by: N = N0e-t N0 = number of nuclei at t = 0 = decay constant of the isotope

Useful formula: ln2 T1/ 2 =

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Activity
A curie is a measure of the activity of a radioactive material: 1 curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 1010 decays/s We also use the becquerel: 1 becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay/s The activity, R, of a radioactive sample is proportional to the number of nuclei and to the decay constant:
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R = N = N0e-t
PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

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Problem
A drug prepared for a patient is tagged with 99Tc, which has a half-life of 6.05 h. (a) What is the decay constant of this isotope?
T1/ 2 = ln2

ln2 = T1/ 2

ln2 ln2 = = 3.18 105 / s T1/ 2 21780 s

(b) How many 99Tc nuclei are required to give an activity of 1.5 Ci?
R = N

N=

3.7 1010 / s 1.5 Ci 1 Ci 11 N= = 1.74 10 3.18 105 / s

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Question
Decays per second, or activity N = N t
No. of nuclei present decay constant

If the number of radioactive nuclei present is cut in half, how does the activity change? 1 It remains the same 2 It is cut in half 3 It doubles
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Radioactivity
Decays per second, or activity N = N t
No. of nuclei present

decay constant

Start with 16 14C atoms. After 6000 years, there are only 8 left. How many will be left after another 6000 years? 1) 0 2) 4 3) 8
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Every 6000 years of atoms July 27, 2005 PHY 1214decay - Lecture 32

Decay Function
t T1/2

N(t ) = N0 e t = N0 2

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time

Radioactivity Quantitatively
Decays per second, or activity Survival:
N = N t
No. of nuclei present decay constant

N(t ) = N0 e t
No. we started with at t=0

No. of nuclei present at time t

Instead of base e we can use base 2:

=2

t T1/2

where

T1/2 =

0.693
t T1/2
20

Half life
July 27, 2005

Then we can write

PHY 1214 - Lecture 32 t

N(t ) = N0 e

= N0 2

You are radioactive!

One in 8.3x1011 carbon atoms is 14C which decays with a life of 5730 years. Determine # of decays/gram of Carbon.

1 1.0 mole 10 atoms 23 = 6 10 N14 = (6.02 10 ) 11 g 8.3 10 12 g

.693 .693 12 -1 = = 3 . 83 10 s = T1/ 2 5730 365 24 60 60
N = N = 0.23 decays/s July 27, PHY 1214 2005 t
Lecture 32 21

Carbon Dating
Cosmic rays (high energy particles from outer space) turn 14N into 14C in the upper atmosphere.
14C

is radioactive with a half life of 5730 years.

The ratio of 14C to 12C remains roughly constant at 1.2 10-12 in the atmosphere and in living organisms. As 14C is decaying away it is also being produced. When an organism dies and stops breathing and eating, it absorbs no more 14C. The 14C it had when it dies decays. The normal activity of 1 g of Carbon is 0.231 Bq. By measuring the activity per gram of carbon the date of death can be determined. Carbon dating is useful only for dating living organisms that died within the last 15,000 years or so. July 27, 2005 PHY 1214 - Lecture 32
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Carbon Dating
We just determined that living organisms should have a decay rate of about 0.23 events/ gram of carbon.

The bones of an ice man are found to have a decay rate of 0.23/ 2 events/gram. We can estimate he died about 6000 years ago.

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Question
The half-life for beta-decay of 14C is ~6,000 years. You test a fossil and find that only 25% of its 14C is un-decayed. How old is the fossil?

3,000 years 6,000 years 12,000 years

At 0 years: 100% remains At 6,000 years: 50% remains At 12,000 years: 25% remains

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Problem 1
Charcoal from an ancient fire pit is found to have a carbon-14 content that is only 17.5% that of an equivalent sample of carbon from a living tree. What is the age of the fire pit?

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Binding Energy
Protons and neutrons (nucleons) are bound to each other in the nucleus, just as electrons are bound to the atom. The energy that must be added to separate all the nucleons is the binding energy. The larger the binding energy, the more tightly the nucleons are attached to each other. Binding energy = (mpZ + mnN mass of nucleus) c2 Example: Calculate the binding energy of 4He.

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Binding Energy per Nucleon

Nuclei with the largest binding energies are the most stable.

Energy is released when heavy nuclei break apart (fission) or when light nuclei join together (fusion).

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Nuclear Fission
When a heavy nucleus splits apart into two smaller nuclei the process is known as fission. Fission can be spontaneous (254Cf) or induced, often by neutron capture. n + 235U 236U* 141Ba + 92Kr + 3n The three neutrons that are released can each induce fission in another 235U nucleus, leading to a chain reaction. The 235U nucleus can split apart into many different pairs of nuclei. Example: n + 235U 236U* 142Cs + X + 2n is X? How much energy is released in the reaction? Controlled fission: July 27, 2005 PHY 1214 Uncontrolled fission: nuclear power Lecture 32 nuclear bomb What

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Nuclear Fusion
When two light nuclei fuse into one nucleus, energy is released. For example
1H 2H

+ 1H 2H + e+ + e (solar fusion) + 3H 4He + n (energy research)

How much energy is released? High temperatures are necessary for fusion to occur, because the protons have to move fast to overcome their electrostatic repulsion and get close enough to feel the strong force and fuse.
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Biological Effects of Radiation

Not all radiation is harmful to living organisms. For example radio waves are an example of electromagnetic radiation that has low frequency and therefore low energy. Particles or waves that have enough energy to ionize atoms are known as ionizing radiation and can damage or destroy biological cells by ionizing atoms in the cell. If a cell dies or is able to repair itself there are no harmful effects from ionizing radiation (unless all the cells die). However damaged cells can cause cancer and hereditary problems.
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Typical Radiation Dose

Radiation dose is measured in rems, which takes into account the amount of radiation as well as how harmful it is to living tissue. We are exposed to about 300 mrem/year from the following sources:
Source Cosmic rays Earth and atmosphere Inhaled Radon Medical/dental Nuclear Medicine PHY 1214 July 27, 2005 Radiation Dose (mrem/year) 28 28 200 40 15

Lecture 32

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How much is too much?

There is no minimum amount of radiation that is known to be safe. Occupational exposure should be limited to 10 rem over 5 years and 5 rem over 1 year (above background radiation). Likely death: 200-300 rem Birth defects: 25 rem (delivered to fetus between 8 and 15 weeks)

Radiation Exposure Single, brief exposure to 10 rem Continuous lifetime exposure to 0.1 rem/year Continuous exposure to 1 rem/year from age 18-65 July 27, 2005 PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

Excess Fatal Cancers (per 100,000 people) 790 560 3000

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End of Lecture 33
Read Sections 26.1 through 26.5.

Strong Nuclear Force

Acts on Protons and Neutrons Strong enough to overcome Coulomb repulsion Acts over very short distances
Two atoms dont feel force
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Strong Nuclear Force

Hydrogen atom: Binding energy =13.6eV
(of electron to nucleus) Coulomb force
electron

proton

neutron proton Simplest Nucleus: Deuteron=neutron+proton Very strong force Binding energy of deuteron = 2.2 10 6 eV or 2.2Mev! Thats around 200,000 times bigger!
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Smaller is Bigger!
Comparing Nuclear and Atomic sizes Hydrogen Atom: Bohr radius =

5.29 10 11 m r A 1/3 (1.2 10 15 m)

r 3.6 10 15 m

Nucleus with nucl number A:

A

27 13 Al

has radius

Note the TREMENDOUS difference Nucleus is 104 times smaller and binding energy is 105 times larger!
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Binding Energy
Einsteins famous equation Le Petit Ecolier

E = m c2

E = (.0125kg )(3 108 m/s) 2 1015 J

Adding these, get 1877.8MeV

Proton: mc2 = 938.3MeV Neutron: mc2= 939.5MeV

Deuteron: mc2 =1875.6MeV

Difference is Binding energy, 2.2MeV

M = M + M |Binding Energy| Nucleon Proton Neutron July 27, 2005 PHY 1214 - Lecture 32 37

Question: Binding Energy

Which system weighs more? 1) Two balls attached by a relaxed spring. 2) Two balls attached by a stretched spring. 3) They have the same weight.

M1 = Mballs + Mspring M2 = Mballs + Mspring + Espring/c2 M2 M1 = Espring/c2 10-16 Kg

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Binding Energy Plot

Iron (Fe) is most binding energy/nucleon. Lighter have too few nucleons, heavier have too many.
10

BINDING ENERGY in MeV/nucleon

Fission Fission = Breaking large atoms into small Fusion = Combining small atoms into large

238 92 U

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Fus i on

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Question
Which element has the highest binding energy/nucleon? Neon (Z=10) Iron (Z=26) Iodine (Z=53)

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Question
Which of the following is most correct for the total binding energy of an Iron atom (Z=26)? 9 MeV 234 MeV 270 MeV 504 Mev For Fe, B.E./nucleon 9MeV
56 26 Fe

has 56 nucleons

Total B.E 56x9=504 MeV

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3 Types of Radioactivity
B field into screen

Radioactive sources

detector

particles:

4 2 He

nucleii

Easily Stopped Stopped by metal

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particles: electrons
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: photons (morePHY energetic than 1214 - Lecture 32 x-rays) penetrate!

Decay Rules
1) Nucleon Number is conserved. 2) Atomic Number (charge) is conserved. 3) Energy and momentum are conserved. : example
238 234 U 92 90Th

1) 238 = 234 + 4 2) 92 = 90 + 2 : example

1 0

recall 4 + 2 He = Nucleon number conserved Charge conserved

0 0 n 1 p + 1 1 e + 0
A Z

example

P P+
* A Z 0 0
PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

Needed to conserve momentum.

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Question
A nucleus undergoes decay. Which of the following is FALSE? 1. Nucleon number decreases by 4 2. Neutron number decreases by 2 3. Charge on nucleus increases by 2 decay is the emission of
A decreases by 4
4 2 He

Ex.
Z decreases by 2
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238 92

234 90

Th + He
4 2
44

(charge decreases!)

PHY 1214 - Lecture 32

Question
The nucleus
234 90Th
undergoes decay.

Which of the following is true? 1. The number of protons in the daughter nucleus increases by one. 2. The number of neutrons in the daughter nucleus increases by one.
decay is accompanied by the emission of an electron: creation of a charge -e.
234 90 234 0 0 0 0 Th ??? X Pa + + e ?? 91 1 1 e ++ 0 0

In fact, n p + e + e inside the nucleus, and the electron and July 27, 2005 PHY 1214 - Lecture 32 neutrino escape.

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Question: Decay
Which of the following decays is NOT allowed?
1 2 3 4
July 27, 2005

238 234 U 92 90Th

214 84 14 6 40 19 210 82

+
4 2

238 = 234 + 4 92 = 90 + 2 214 = 210 + 4 84 = 82 + 2 14 = 14+0 6 <> 7+0 40 = 40+0+0 19 = 20-1+0

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Po Pb + He
14 7

C N +

0 0 K 40 p + 20 1 e + 0

PHY 1214 - Lecture 32