2892ch1 PDF

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1
Introduction: Review of Direct, Semi-inverse
and Inverse Eigenvalue Problems
This chapter presents a selective review(withemphasis onthe wordselective)
of the direct, semi-inverse and inverse eigenvalue problem for structures
described by a differential equation with variable coefcients. It gives only
a taste of the extensive research that has been conducted since 1759, when
Leonhard Euler posed, apparently for the rst time, a boundary value problem.
Since then numerous studies have been conducted for rods, BernoulliEuler
beams, BresseTimoshenko beams, KirchhoffLove and MindlinReissner
plates and shells, and structures analyzed via ner, high-order theories. This
selective reviewclassies the solutions as belonging to one of three main classes:
(1) direct problems, (2) semi-inverse problems, (3) inverse problems. In addi-
tion, some new closed-form solutions are reported that have been obtained via
posing an inverse vibration problem. Due to the huge body of literature, the
author limits himself to discussing classic theories of structures.
1.1 Introductory Remarks
The vibration and buckling eigenvalue problems in engineering may be
roughly categorized as belonging to one of the following three classes: (1) dir-
ect or forward problems, (2) inverse or backward problems, (3) semi-inverse
or semi-direct problems. Direct problems are associated with the determin-
ation of the vibration frequencies and/or the buckling loads of structures
with specied conguration; namely, in the vibration context, direct prob-
lems call for evaluation of the natural frequencies of rods, beam, plates or
shells of specied, uniform or non-uniform cross-section (in the case of rods
and beams) or thickness (in the case of plates and shells), for both homogen-
eous structures, i.e., those with constant elastic properties and mass density,
and inhomogeneous ones, in which the elastic properties and/or the material
density vary with the coordinates. There are numerous methods of solving
direct eigenvalue problems. These methods are conveniently subdivided into
the exact and the approximate ones. Exact solutions may be available for
both uniform and non-uniform homogeneous or inhomogeneous structures.
7
2005 by Issac Elishakoff
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8 Eigenvalues of Inhomogeneous Structures
For completeness, we will recapitulate some simple examples reported in the
literature.
1.2 Vibration of Uniform Homogeneous Beams
Consider rst the vibration of the uniform homogeneous BernoulliEuler
beams. The vibration of such beams is governed by the the following
differential equation:
D
4
w
x
4
+A
2
w
t
2
= 0 (1.1)
where D = EI is the exural rigidity, E is the modulus of elasticity, I the
moment of inertia, the mass density, A the cross-sectional area, w(x, t)
the deection (transverse displacement), x the axial coordinate and t the
time. We are looking for the free harmonic vibrations with frequency ,
representing the displacement w(x, t) as
w(x, t) = W(x)e
iax
(1.2)
where W(x) is the mode shape. The differential equation (1.1) becomes
D
d
4
W
dx
4
A
2
W = 0 (1.3)
It is instructive to introduce the parameter
k
4
=
A
2
D
(1.4)
so that Eq. (1.3) takes the form
d
4
W
dx
4
k
4
W = 0 (1.5)
The solution W(x) can be put in the form
W(x) C
1
sin(kx) +C
2
cos(kx) +C
3
sinh(kx) +C
4
cosh(kx) (1.6)
The mode shape W(x) must satisfy the associated boundary conditions. For
the end that is pinned (denoted by P),
W = 0
d
2
W
dx
2
= 0 (1.7)
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Introduction 9
For the end that is clamped (denoted by C),
W = 0
dW
dx
= 0 (1.8)
For the free end (denoted by F),
d
2
W
dx
2
= 0
d
3
W
dx
3
= 0 (1.9)
whereas for the guided end (denoted by G),
dW
dx
= 0
d
3
W
dx
3
= 0 (1.10)
Note that the term guided was suggested to the author by Bert (2000b).
Usually, textbooks do not discuss the guided end boundary condition. Some
of the exceptions are the texts by Dimarogonas (1996) and Inman (1995), who
refer to the end with boundary condition in Eq. (1.10) as the guided end
boundary conditions at both ends yields four homogeneous equations with
four unknowns C
1
, C
2
, C
3
and C
4
. Requiring that they be non-trivial, i.e.,
C
2
1
+C
2
2
+C
2
3
+C
2
4
= 0 (1.11)
yields characteristic equations that give, for beams under different boundary
conditions, associated non-trivial fundamental natural frequencies,
PP: sin(kL) = 0
GP: cos(kL) = 0
CF: cos(kL) cosh(kL) +1 = 0
CG: tan(kL) +tanh(kL) = 0
CP: tan(kL) = tanh(kL)
CC: cos(kL) cosh(kL) 1 = 0
(1.12)
The solutions of these transcendental equations are obtainable either analytic-
ally or numerically. For the beampinned at both ends the non-trivial solution
of Eq. (1.12) reads k
j
= j (j = 1, 2, . . .). For the guidedpinned beam we
get from Eq. (1.12) kj = (2j 1)/2. For the other combinations of boundary
conditions the numerical solutions of the transcendental equations (1.12) are
(see also Natke, 1989; Korenev and Rabinovich, 1972). Satisfaction of the
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available, and the rst three frequency coefcients k
j
are listed below:
CF: k
1
L = 1.875; k
2
L = 4.694; k
3
L = 7.854
CG: k
1
L = 2.365; k
2
L = 5.498; k
3
L = 8.639
CP: k
1
L = 3.927; k
2
L = 7.069; k
3
L = 10.210
CP: k
1
L = 4.73; k
2
L = 7.853; k
3
L = 10.996
(1.13)
For higher frequencies (j 1), accurate asymptotic expressions can be given
for the natural frequency coefcients k
j
:
CF: k
j
(j
1
2
)
CG: k
j
(j
1
4
)
CP: k
j
(j +
1
4
)
CC: k
j
(j +
1
2
)
(1.14)
Exact solutions for various vibrating uniform beams are given in numerous
1.3 Buckling of Uniform Homogeneous Columns
Buckling of uniformhomogeneous columns subjected to compressive load at
the ends is governed by the familiar differential equation
D
d
4
W
dx
4
+P
d
2
W
dx
2
= 0 (1.15)
One, again, introduces the eigenvalue parameter
4
=
P
D
(1.16)
leading to the following expression of the buckling mode W(x):
W = C
1
+C
2
x +C
3
sin(x) +C
4
cos(x) (1.17)
The boundary conditions for the pinned or clamped ends coincide with
their counterparts in the vibration case, yet for the free end the boundary
condition (1.9) is replaced by
D
d
3
W
dx
3
+P
dW
dx
= 0 (1.18)
references (see, e.g., Gorman, 1974).
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Introduction 11
The appropriate characteristic equations are:
PP: sin(L) = 0
GP: cos(L) = 0
CF: cos(L) = 0
CG: sin(L) = 0
CP: tan(L) = L
CC: cos(L) = 1
(1.19)
In the case of the PP, GP, CG, CC and CF columns analytical solutions
are obtained:
PP:
j
= j
GP:
j
= (2j 1)/2
CF:
j
= (2j 1)/2
CG:
j
= j
CC:
j
= 2j
(1.20)
For j = 1, we obtain the buckling loads, denoted by P
cr
:
PP: P
cr
=
2
D/L
2
GP: P
cr
=
2
D/4L
2
CF: P
cr
=
2
D/4L
2
CG: P
cr
=
2
D/L
2
CC: P
cr
= 4
2
D/L
2
(1.21)
For a PC column, the numerical solution of the transcendental equation
(1.19.5) is available. It reads
1
L 4.49 (1.22)
with the associated buckling load
P
cr
20.2
D
L
2
(1.23)
Exact solutions are also available for specic non-uniformbeams andcolumns,
in both the vibration and the buckling contexts.
The governing equations describing buckling of non-uniform columns are
differential equations with variable coefcients. Such equations may arise
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even in uniform columns. One such case is the initially vertical uniform
column under its own weight with intensity q. We rst consider the column
that is clamped at x = 0 and free at x = L. The equation of bending of the
column
D(x)
d
2
W
dx
2
= M(x) (1.24)
where M(x), the bending moment, is determined as the sum of elementary
moments of weight intensity, acting on all elements of the part of the column
until the cross-section x:
M =
_
L
x
q[V(u) W(x)] du = q
_
L
x
V(u) du qW(x)(L x) (1.25)
Substituting Eq. (1.25) into Eq. (1.24) and differentiating with respect to x
we get
d
dx
_
D(x)
d
2
W
dx
2
_
+q(L x)
dW
dx
= 0 (1.26)
If the exural rigidity D(x) is constant, we get an ordinary differential
equation with variable coefcients
D
d
3
W
dx
3
+q(L x)
dW
dx
= 0 (1.27)
We introduce a new variable
z =
2
3
_
q(L x)
3
D
(1.28)
From this expression we nd x and the derivatives of W with respect to x:
x = L
3
_
9Dz
2
4q
dW
dx
=
3
_
3qz
2D
dW
dz
d
2
W
dx
2
=
3
_
9q
2
4D
2
_
1
3z
3
dW
dz
+z
2/3
d
2
W
dz
2
_
d
2
W
dx
3
=
3q
2D
_
1
z
dW
dz
d
2
W
dz
2
z
d
3
W
dz
3
_
(1.29)
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Introduction 13
Substitution of Eqs. (1.29) into Eq. (1.27) yields
d
3
W
dz
3
+
1
z
d
2
W
dz
2
+
_
1
1
9z
2
_
dW
dz
= 0 (1.30)
which is the Bessel equation with respect to the function dW/dz, with the
solution
dW
dz
= C
1
J
1/3
(z) +C
2
J
1/3
(z) (1.31)
We will not determine the function W at this stage since it is sufcient to know
its derivatives. Since at x = 0 the column is clamped, we have the following
boundary conditions:
x = 0 W = 0
dW
dx
= 0 or
dW
dz
= 0 (1.32)
The upper end is free, i.e., there
x = L z = L
d
2
W
dx
2
= 0 or z
1/3
dW
dz
+3z
2/3
d
2
W
dz
2
= 0 (1.33)
Following Dinnik (1912, 1929, 1955a,b) we start fromthe latter condition. For
extremely small z, neglecting the terms of higher order, we write
dW
dz
= D
1
z
1/3
+D
2
z
1/3
(1.34)
where D
1
and D
2
are new constants, proportional to C
1
and C
2
, respectively.
Substituting this expression into the boundary condition at the upper end,
we get
D
1
= C
1
= 0 (1.35)
The condition at the lower end yields
C
2
J
1/3
_
_
2
3
_
qL
3
D
_
_
= 0 (1.36)
i.e., either C
2
= 0, corresponding to straight equilibrium, or
2
3
_
qL
3
D
=
n
(1.37)
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where
n
are roots of the transcendental equation J
1/3
() = 0. The rst root
is 1.87. This value results in the buckling load
q
cr
= 7.87
D
L
3
(1.38)
Consider, now, the case in which the column is clamped at x = 0, the upper
end can move but the slope is zero (guided case). At x = 0 the boundary
conditions specied in Eq. (1.32) hold. At x = L
z = 0
dW
dx
= 0 or z
1/3
dW
dz
= 0 (1.39)
Consider the latter condition. We take dW/dz in Eq. (1.31), express the Bessel
function as a series, and then multiply by z
1/3
:
z
1/3
dW
dz
=
C
1
z
2/3
2
1/3
(4/3)
_
1
3z
2
16
+
_
+
C
2
2
1/3
(2/3)
_
1
3z
2
8
+
_
(1.40)
It is clear that in order for the right-hand side to vanish at z = 0, it is necessary
to put C
2
= 0. The rst boundary condition leads to either an uninteresting
case of C
2
= 0, signifying the straight form of the equilibrium, or C
2
= 0,
with
J
1/3
_
_
2
3
_
qL
3
D
_
_
= 0 (1.41)
with rst root equal to 2.90. Accordingly, the buckling intensity equals
q
cr
= 18.9
D
L
3
(1.42)
Now, consider now the case in which the lower end is clamped but the upper
end carries the concentrated compressive load P. The bending moment reads
M =
_
L
x
q[V(u) W(x)] du +P(f W) (1.43)
where f is the displacement at the upper end. The differential equation reads
D
d
3
W
dx
3
+q(L
x)
dW
dx
= 0 (1.44)
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Introduction 15
Note that Eq. (1.44) coincides with Eq. (1.27), except that L is replaced by L
,
where
L
=
(qL +P)
q
(1.45)
has the dimension of length; L
can be referred to as an effective length of the

column. In perfect analogy with the case of the clampedfree column without
the concentrated force, we obtain
dW
dz
= C
1
J
1/3
(z) +C
2
J
1/3
(z)
z =
2
3
_
q(L
x)
3
D
(1.46)
The boundary conditions at the lower end read
x = 0 z =
2
3
_
q(L
)
3
D
= z
L
W = 0
dW
dx
= 0 or
dW
dz
= 0
(1.47)
At the upper end
x = L z =
2
3
_
q(L
L)
3
D
= z
U
d
2
W
dx
2
= 0
dW
dz
+3z
d
2
W
dz
2
= 0 (1.48)
where z
L
and z
U
represent the values of z taken at the lower and upper ends,
respectively. The boundary conditions lead to the following equations:
C
1
J
1/3
(z
L
) +C
2
J
1/3
(z
U
) = 0
C
1
J
2/3
(z
L
) C
2
J
2/3
(z
U
) = 0
(1.49)
The non-triviality requirement C
2
1
+C
2
2
= 0 leads to
J
1/3
(z
L
)J
2/3
(z
U
+J
1/3
(z
L
)J
2/3
(z
U
) = 0 (1.50)
In the previous case we dealt with a homogeneous differential equation of
the third order. If the column is pinned at x = L, then the horizontal force N,
the reaction, should be taken into account. Instead of Eq. (1.27) we get
D(x)
d
3
W
dx
3
+q(L x)
dW
dx
= N (1.51)
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or with the new variable as in Eq. (1.27),
d
3
W
dz
3
+
1
z
d
2
W
dz
2
+
_
1
1
9z
2
_
dW
dz
=
2N
3qz
= bz (1.52)
Let us rst determine dW/dz. The complementary solution is given by
Eq. (1.31). The particular solution is represented as
dW
dz
= A
0
+A
1
z +A
2
z
2
+ +A
n
z
n
+ (1.53)
Substituting it into Eq. (1.52) and equating the coefcients with equal powers
of the variable z we get
A
0
= 0 A
1
(9 1) = b A
2
(9 4 1) = 9A
0
A
3
(9 9 1) = 9A
1
, . . . , A
n
(9
2
n 1) = 9A
n2
(1.54)
This means that all the coefcients with even index vanish
A
0
= A
2
= A
4
= = A
2n
= 0 (1.55)
while the odd coefcients equal
A
1
=
b
9 1
2
1
A
3
=
9b
(9 1
2
1)(9 3
2
1)
A
5
=
9
2
b
(9 1
2
1)(9 3
2
1)(9 5
2
1)
, . . . , A
2n+1
=
9A
2n1
9(2n +1)
2
1
(1.56)
leading to
dW
dz
= C
1
J
1/3
(z) +C
2
J
1/3
(z)
_
6N
q
_
C(z) (1.57)
where
C(z) = z
_
1
9 1
2
1

(3z)
2
(9 1
2
1)(9 3
2
1)
+
(3z)
4
(9 1
2
1)(9 3
2
1)(9 5
2
1)

(3z)
2n
(9 1
2
1)(9 3
2
1)(9 5
2
1) [9(2n +1)
2
1]
_
(1.58)
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Introduction 17
This series is uniformly convergent for all nite values of the variable z.
Integrating Eq. (1.57) we get
W = C
1
A(z) +C
2
B(z) (6N/q)D(z) +C
3
(1.59)
where
A(z) =
_
J
1/3
(z) dz B(z) =
_
J
1/3
(z) dz D(z) =
_
C(z)dz
_
4
3
_
A(z) = 3
_
z
2
_
4/3
_
1
2

3
5 1 4
_
z
2
_
2
+
3
2
8 1 2 4 7
_
z
2
_
4
3
3
11 1 2 4 7 10
_
z
2
_
6
+
+(1)
n
3
n
(3n +2) 1 2 3 n 1 4 7 (3n +1)
_
z
2
_
2n

_
_
2
3
_
_
5
3
_
B(z) = 3
_
z
2
_
2/3
_
1
3
4 1 2
_
z
2
_
2
+
3
2
7 1 2 2 5
_
z
2
_
4
3
3
10 1 2 3 2 5 8
_
z
2
_
6
+
+(1)
n
3
n
(3n +1) 1 2 3 n 2 5 8 (3n 1)
_
z
2
_
2n

_
D(z) =
z
2
2
_
1
9 1
2
1

(3z)
2
2(9 1
2
1)(9 3
2
1)
+
(3z)
4
3(9 1
2
1)(9 3
2
1)(9 5
2
1)

_
(1.60)
with Gamma function (x) evaluated at x = 4/3:
_
4
3
_
= 0.8910
2
3
_
5
3
_
= 1.3541 (1.61)
Consider, now, the boundaryconditions. Let the columnbe clampedat both
ends. At the bottom
x = 0 z =
2
3
_
qL
3
D
= z
L
W =
dW
dx
=
dW
dz
= 0 (1.62)
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while at the upper end
x = L z = W =
dW
dx
=
dW
dz
= 0 (1.63)
Inorder to satisfy the latter boundary conditions, it is necessary to require that
C
2
= C
3
= 0 (1.64)
The conditions at x = 0 yield
C
1
A(z
L
) (6N/q)D(z
L
) = 0
C
1
J
1/3
(z
L
) (6N/q)C(z
L
) = 0
(1.65)
resulting in the equation for the determination of the buckling load
A(z
L
)C(z
L
) D(z
L
)J
1/3
(z
L
) = 0 (1.66)
Dinnik reports 5.72 to be the minimum root of this equation, yielding the
critical, buckling load
q
cr
= 317.15D/L
3
(1.67)
Likewise, for the clampedpinned column
z
L
= 4.83 q
cr
= 52.49D/L
3
(1.68)
while for the pinned column
z
L
= 2.87 q
cr
= 18.53D/L
3
(1.69)
It should be noted that the buckling of uniform columns under their own
weight was revisited by Willers (1941) and Engelhardt (1954). They demon-
stratedthat the general solution for the columns slope can be written in terms
of Bessel and Lommel functions:
dW
dz
= C
1
J
1/3
(z) +C
2
J
1/3
(z) +C
3
s
0,1/3
(z) (1.70)
Equation (1.70) contains the Lommel function
S
,
(Z) =
m=0
(1)
m
z
+1+2m
_
( +1)
2
2
_
_
( +3)
2
2
_

_
( +2m+1)
2
2
_
(1.71)
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Introduction 19
withparameters =0, =
1
3
(Erdelyi, 1953). Lommel functions have alsobeen
utilized in axisymmetric vibrations of a piezoelectric cylinder by Adelman
and Stavsky (1975), and in the impact buckling of a bar in a compressive
testing machine by Elishakoff (1980). Note that without going through the
clever transformations of variables, one can solve the problems discussed
in this section straightforwardly by the Frobenius (power series) method for
differential equations having algebraic coefcients (Leissa, 2000b), as is shown
in Section 1.4.
1.4 Some Exact Solutions for the Vibration of
Non-uniform Beams
The literature usually deals with beams of variable cross-sectional area. The
simplest case of this kind is a beam of constant width and linearly varying
thickness h:
h = h
1
+(h
0
h
1
)(x/L) (1.72)
where h
1
is the thickness at the cross-section x = 0 and h
0
is the thickness
attained at the cross-section x = L, where L is the length of the beam. For
the tapered beam, the moment of inertia and the cross-sectional area are
expressed as
I = bh
3
/12 = (b/12)[h
1
+(h
0
h
1
)x/L]
3
A = bh = b[h
1
+(h
0
h
1
)x/L]
(1.73)
The governing differential equation is
E
d
2
dx
2
_
b
12
_
h
1
+(h
0
h
1
)
x
L
_
3
d
2
W
dx
2
_
b
2
_
h
1
+(h
0
h
1
)
x
L
_
W = 0
(1.74)
We introduce a new coordinate
X = h
1
+(h
0
h
1
)x/L (1.75)
Equation (1.74) becomes
d
2
dX
2
_
X
3
d
2
W
dx
2
_
= k
4
XW (1.76)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 20 #14
where
k
4
= 12
2
L
4
/E(h
0
h
1
)
4
(1.77)
Introducing the linear operator M such that
M =
1
X
d
dX
_
X
2
d
dX
_
(1.78)
Equation (1.76) can be put in the form
(M +k
2
)(M k
2
)W = 0 (1.79)
which has a solution obtained from the equations
(M +k
2
)W = 0
(M k
2
)W = 0
(1.80)
or
d
dX
_
X
2
dW
dX
_
k
2
XW = 0 (1.81)
The general solution of Eq. (1.81) is then written as
W(X) =
_
A
1
J
1
_
2k
X
_
+A
2
Y
1
_
2k
X
_
+A
3
I
1
_
2k
X
_
+A
4
K
1
_
2k
X
__ _
X
(1.82)
where J
1
and Y
1
are rst-order Bessel functions of the rst and second kind,
and I
1
and K
1
are rst-order modied Bessel functions of the rst and second
kind, respectively. The above solution is due to Mabie and Rogers (1964).
Satisfying boundary conditions, one gets four algebraic equations for the
coefcients A
1, A2, A3 and A4. Requirement of non-triviality of the coefcients
yield a transcendental equation that should be solved numerically. The solu-
tion in terms of Bessel functions for inhomogeneous beams was pioneered
by Kirchhoff (1879, 1882), who studied the free vibrations of a wedge or cone
beams. Further contributions were provided by Ward (1913), Nicholson (1920)
and Wrinch (1922). Considerable simplication in derivations occurred for the
complete beams due to the absence of Bessel functions of the second kind
in the solution. As of now there is an extensive literature, including the book
by Gorman (1975). The results of numerical evaluation are usually presen-
ted in terms of tables of gures, in various references. These were presented
for the variable cross-section beam that is clamped at one end and pinned
at the other, by Mabie and Rogers (1968). Cantilever beams with constant
width and linearly variable thickness, or beams with constant thickness and
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 21 #15
Introduction 21
linearly variable width, with an end mass, have been investigated by Mabie
and Rogers (1964). The same authors (Mabie and Rogers, 1974) also studied
transverse vibrations of double tapered beams. With the solution based on
Bessel functions, Conway and Dubil (1965) tackled the truncated wedge and
cone beams, andpresentedtables of frequencies for combinations of clamped,
pinned and free boundary conditions. Lee (1976) dealt with a cantilever with
a mass at one end, while Goel (1976) extended the method to a wedge and a
cone beam with resilient supports at both ends. Sanger (1968) considered a
special class of non-uniform beams, with the geometry enabling the expres-
sion of the solution in terms of Bessel functions. Solution in terms of Bessel
functions for a beam, part of which is tapered while the other part is uniform,
was studied by Auciello and Ercolano (1997).
For the cone and the wedge beams, an exact solution obtained using the
Frobenius method was proposed by Naguleswaran (1990, 1992, 1994a,b) and
the results were tabulated for different constraint conditions. Wang (1967) also
utilized the method of Frobenius, and considered the following variations of
the cross-sectional area and the moment of inertia, respectively:
A = A
0
(x/L)
n
I = I
0
(x/L)
m
(1.83)
where the constants m and n are any two positive numbers, and A
0
and I
0
are the cross-sectional area and moment of inertia, respectively, of the beam
at the end x = L.
1.4.1 The Governing Differential Equation
The differential equation that governs the free vibrations of the beams that
are inhomogeneous and/or have a variable cross-sectional area reads:
d
2
dx
2
_
D()
d
2
W
dx
2
_
A
2
W = 0 (1.84)
It can be expressed as
m
d
4
W
d
4
+2m
m1
d
3
W
d
3
+m(m1)
m2
d
2
W
d
2

2
n
W = 0
= x/L
2
=
2
L
4
A/EI
0
(1.85)
We multiply Eq. (1.85) by
4m
and let = 4 m+n, yielding
4
d
4
W
d
4
+2m
3
d
3
W
d
3
+m(m1)
2
d
2
W
d
2

2
W = 0 (1.86)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 22 #16
It has a general solution in the form of a linear combination of convergent
series of an innite form about the origin (Ince, 1956). In this case, the gen-
eral solution can be obtained by the method of Frobenius. We introduce the
differential operator
=
d
d
(1.87)
which gives the general relations
r
d
r
d
r
= ( 1)( 2) ( r +1) (1.88)
Moreover,
( 1)( 2) ( r +1)x
s
= s(s 1)(s 2) (s r +1)x
s
(1.89)
Equation (1.86) may be rewritten in the form
( 1)( +m2)( +m3)W
2
W = 0 (1.90)
We introduce the following notations
u =

2
4

u
= u
_
d
du
_
(1.91)
Then, Eq. (1.89) becomes
u
_
u

1
__
u

2 m
__
u

3 m
_
W uW = 0 (1.92)
which is due to Wang (1967). Equation (1.92) is a type of generalized hyper-
geometric equation(Erdelyi, 1953). Its general solutionis a linear combination
of the following independent generalized hypergeometric series:
W
1
=
0
F
3
(; b
1
, b
2
, b
3
; u)
W
2
= u
1b
1
0
F
3
(; 2 b
1
, b
2
b
1
+1, b
3
b
1
+1; u)
W
3
= u
1b
2
0
F
3
(; b
1
b
2
+1, 2 b
2
, b
3
b
2
+1; u)
W
4
= u
1b
3
0
F
3
(; b
1
b
3
+1, b
2
b
3
+1, 2 b
3
; u)
(1.93)
where
b
1
= (3 m+n)/ b
2
= (2 +n)/ b
3
= (1 +n)/ (1.94)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 23 #17
Introduction 23
The generalized hypergeometric function is dened as
0
F
3
(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
p
; b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
q
; u) = 1 +
n=1
_
p
i=1
(a
i
)
n
u
n
_
_
_
q
j=1
_
b
j
_
n
n!
_
_
1
(1.95)
The series in Eq. (1.93) are undened or not linearly independent when
either b
1
, b
2
or b
3
is an integer or two of them differ by an integer. For these
cases the logarithmic terms appear in the general solutions. The detailed
derivations of the logarithmic solutions by the method of Frobenius were
presented by Wang (1967) and are not recapitulated here. Wang (1967) con-
sidered the following four cases: (a) when two b coefcients are equal (this
occurs if m = 1 or m = 2 or m = 4, which yields the coincident values for
b
1
and b
3
); (b) when one b value equals unity (indeed, when the parameter
m equals 2 or 3, the value of b
2
or b
3
turns out to be unity); (c) when b
1
is
a negative integer or zero (this happens when is a reciprocal of a positive
integer); (d) when two bs differ by an integer (this case occurs for certain
combinations of parameters m and n). For example, the combination m = 3
and n = 1 yields b
1
=
1
2
and b
3
=
3
2
, which have a difference of unity. Some
special cases follow from Wangs (1967) general formulation. For uniform
beams, i.e., m = n = 0, = 4 and b
1
=
3
4
, b
2
=
2
4
, b
3
=
1
4
the hypergeometric
functions reduce to the familiar solution in Eq. (1.6).
Another special combination of parameters mand n occurs when mn = 2
or = 2, whichincludes wedge-shapedandcone-shapedbeams. The solution
reduces tothe Bessel functions onutilizingthe relationshipbetweenthe Bessel
functions and the generalized hypergeometric functions (Rainville, 1960):
J
v
(z) =
(z/2)
v
(1 +v)
0
F
1
(; 1 +v; z
2
/4)
I
v
(z) =
(z/2)
v
(1 +v)
0
F
1
(; 1 +v; z
2
/4)
(1.96)
The last special case is for beams with constant thickness and linearly
tapered width. Then, m = n = 1, yielding b
1
=
3
4
, b
2
=
3
4
, b
3
=
1
2
. Since the
values of b
1
and b
2
are equal, the series solutions for W
1
and W
2
in Eq. (1.93)
coincide. The fundamental solution W
2
is replaced by
W
2
= W
1
ln u 4u
1/4
_
4
4
5 4
2
3
_
1
5
+
1
3
+
1
2
_
u
+
4
4
9 8
2
7
4
4
5 4
2
3
_
1
9
+
1
7
+
1
4
+
1
5
+
1
3
+
1
2
_
u
2
+
_
(1.97)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 24 #18
This form of the solution for the beam with constant thickness and linearly
tapered width was given by Ono (1925). Wang (1967) presented numer-
ous solutions and attendant numerical evaluations for the fundamental and
second frequencies.
1.5 Exact Solution for Buckling of Non-uniform Columns
The studyof bucklingof non-uniformcolumns was pioneeredbyEuler (1759).
He considered the columns with exural rigidity given as a polynomial
(a +bx/L)
m
. Actually, Euler represented the exural rigidity as a product
of the modulus of elasticity and the positive quantity k
2
(denoted by Euler as
kk), unbeknown to himthat the latter quantity was a moment of inertia. Euler
referred to the product Ek
2
as a moment of stiffness (moment du ressort or
moment de roideur). He hit upon the cases in which the buckling modes are
given by the elementary functions. The analogous exural rigidity variation,
D(x) = EI(x/b)
m
(1.98)
in the non-uniform columns was studied by Dinnik (1912). He demonstrated
that for any m, equal to any, positive or negative, integer or decimal number,
except 2, the equation
EI(x/b)
m
W
+PW = 0 (1.99)
is integrable in terms of the Bessel functions of order
n = 1/(m2) (1.100)
In these formulas, letting m = 0 and using the known relations between the
Bessel functions of order
1
2
and trigonometric functions
I
1/2
(x) = sin(x)
_
2/x I
1/2
(x) = cos(x)
_
2/x (1.101)
we recover Eulers solution for the uniform column. At m = 4, we again get
the Bessel functions of order
1
2
, but for an argument other than at m = 0.
Thus, for m = 4 the solution can be obtainedboth by Bessel andtrigonometric
functions. For m = 4, Eq. (1.97) is rewritten as
x
4
W
+U
2
W = 0 U
2
= Pb
4
/EI (1.102)
with the buckling mode
W(x) = x[A
i
cos(U/x) +A
2
sin(U/x)] (1.103)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 25 #19
Introduction 25
whereas for m = 2, the mode shape reads
W(x) =

x{A
1
cos[ ln(x/b)] +A
2
sin[ ln(x/b)]} (1.104)
with
2
=
Pb
2
EI
1
4
. (1.105)
For the buckling of the inhomogeneous column with the elastic modulus
variation
E(x) = E
0
[1 k(x/L)]
2
(1.106)
Freudenthal (1966) introduced a new variable
v
2
= [1 k(x/L)]
2
(1.107)
and reduced the buckling equation to
v
2
d
2
W
dv
2
+
0
_
L
k
_
W = 0
2
0
=
P
E
0
I
(1.108)
For (2L/k)
2
> 1 he derived a solution analogous to Eq. (1.104):
W = A
1
v cos(a ln v) +A
2
v sin(a ln v)
v =
1
2
_
|1 (2L/k)
2
| (1.109)
From the boundary conditions, W = 0 at x = 0 and x = L the following
critical value follows
P
cr
=

2
EI
L
2
_
_
k
ln(1 k)
_
2
_
k
2
_
2
_
(1.110)
where the expression in brackets tends to unity as k 0. For
D(x) = D
0
(x/L)
(1.111)
Freudenthal (1966) gave a solution in terms of Bessel functions.
Columns with variable cross-section were extensively studied by Dinnik
(1912, 1929, 1955a,b). He considered the columns with the following exural
rigidity distribution:
D(x) = b(L x)
m
(1.112)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 26 #20
The columns were under the axial distributed loading
q = c(L x)
n
(1.113)
where b, c, m and n are constants. In the cross-section x
M(x) =
_
L
x
c(L u)
n
[V(u) W(x)] du
= c
_
L
x
(L u)
n
V(u) du
c
n +1
(L x)
n+1
W(x) (1.114)
The differential equation reads
W

1 m
2
W
+
c
b(n +1)
(L x)
nm+1
W
= 0 (1.115)
leading to
dW
dx
= (L x)
(1m)/2
_
C
1
J
1m
nm+3
(y) +C
2
J
1m
nm+3
(y)
_
, (1.116)
where
y
2
= 4c(L x)
nm+3
/b(n +1)(n m+3)
2
(1.117)
Letting m = n = 0, b = B and c = q results in the particular case of the
uniform column:
dW
dx
= (L x)
1/2
_
_
_
C
1
J
1/3
_
_
2
3
_
q(L x)
3
D
_
_
+C
2
J
1/3
_
_
2
3
_
q(L x)
3
D
_
_
_
_
_
(1.118)
For the cone, whose radius at the base equals R and whose height equals L,
we get
r = R(L x)/L q = R
2
k(L x)
2
/L
2
D = EI = R
4
E(L x)
4
/4L
4
(1.119)
where r is the radius of the cone at distance x from the origin. Comparison of
Eqs. (1.119) with Eqs. (1.112) and (1.113) results in
m = 4 n = 2 b = R
4
E/4L
4
c = R
2
k/L
2
dW
dx
= (L x)
3/2
[C
1
J
3
(z) +C
2
Y
3
(z)] (1.120)
z
2
= 16kL
2
(L x)/3ER
2
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 27 #21
Introduction 27
For the clampedfree column, the buckling load is found from the equation
Y
3
_
_
16kL
3
/3ER
2
_
= 0 (1.121)
The rst root, calculated by Dinnik (1955b) is 4.43. Hence, the critical length
of the column equals
L
cr
= 1.5453
3
_
ER
2
/K (1.122)
The optimal design problem of columns naturally involved variable cross-
sections. The problem was rst posed and solved by Lagrange (17701773).
He attempted to determine the shape of a column of given length and
volume so that the attendant buckling load attains a maximum. Further
contributions were made by Clausen (1851), Bairstow and Stedman (1914),
Blasius (1914), Darnley (1918), Nikolai (1955), Keller (1960), Tadjbakhsh and
Keller (1962), Keller and Niordson (1966), Adali (1979, 1981), Cox (1992),
Cox and Overton (1992), Banichuk (1974), Seyranian (1983, 1995), McCarthy
(1999) and others. The nite element method in buckling optimization was
employed by Simitses et al. (1973), Manickarajah et al. (2000) and others.
Xie and Steven (1993) proposed a simple evolutionary method for the topo-
logy, shape and layout optimization of structures. In this method, a structure
or the design domain is divided into a ne mesh of elements, and inefcient
material is gradually removed according to the design criteria, and the resid-
ual structure evolves towards the desired optimum. Keller (1960) proved that
the optimal solid convex cross-section against buckling failure has the form
of an equivalent triangle; moreover, the dimension of that triangle should
change along the axis according to the law found earlier for the optimal
shape of a circular column. Szyszkowski and Watson (1988) proposed that
the optimum shape of a structure with respect to buckling should have the
conguration for which the specic bending energy due to the fundamental
buckling mode is uniform. Gajewski and

Zyczkowski (1988) write: . . . Tad-
jbakhsh and Keller (1962) derived the optimal solutions for columns clamped
at one end and pinned at the other, and for clampedclamped columns. The
solution in the latter case, however is incorrect; it was obtained with respect
to the rst buckling mode, whereas a bimodal solution is here necessary
(Olhoff and Rasmussen, 1977). This sentiment seems to be shared by Cox
(1992) and Cox and Overton (1992). Yet, Spillers and Meyers (1997) argued
that the work of Cox and Overton (1992), which claims to correct errors in
the classic solution of Tadjbakhsh and Keller (1962) (for the optimal design of
a column), itself contains an error and actually only serves to further estab-
lish the validity of the TadjbakhshKeller solution. They also note that it
was... a surprise to many to see a rather robust discussion of the validity
of the TadjbakhshKeller solution . . . running from the late 1970s into the
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 28 #22
mid-1980s. It appears that a detailed and careful literature reviewof the cal-
culations and/or miscalculations in the optimum design of columns is called
for, for the benet of the general audience. The reader may consult reviews
on selected topics by Ashley (1982), Banichuk (1982) and others. It is worth
noting that the optimum design of vibrating structures was conducted by
Niordson (1965, 1970), Karihaloo and Niordson (1973), Olhoff (1970, 1976a,b,
Exact methods of calculationof bucklingloads andnatural frequencies were
extensively reviewed by Williams and Wittrick (1983).
1.6 Other Direct Methods (FDM, FEM, DQM)
In the earlier sections we considered exact solutions of differential equations
describing buckling or vibration of structures. As Fried (1979) writes: the
theoretical limiting process in the mathematical formulation creates differen-
tial equations to describe physical phenomena or engineering processes. A
symbolic solution to these equations in terms of some elementary functions,
even if existing, is, as a rule, very hard to come by and the programming
necessary to obtainsucha symbolic solutionimpossible. To overcome this dif-
culty, numerical techniques of great generality have beeninvented, basedon
discretization of the problem, on the division of the continuous ow of events
or continuous change of state into a series of discrete states formulated algeb-
raically, with the limiting process on convergence deferred to the numerical
stage of the solution.
Many symbolic algebraic or numerical methods have been developed in
the past few decades that make it possible to carry out the vibration and
buckling analysis of beams with arbitrarily varying cross-sectional areas or
inhomogeneities. The class of approximate methods can be compared, in
the terminology of Leissa (2000a) to the limitless Pandoras box. In these
circumstances, we conne ourselves to presenting a supercial, yet hopefully
still meaningful, overview of them.
The method of successive approximations, discussed by Engesser (1893)
and Vianello (1898), was extensively employed in the pre-FEM literat-
ure. Sekhniashvili (1966) utilizes this method, as discussed by Bernshtein
(1941) with attendant theoretical justication provided by Sushenkov (see
1933), who showed that in the limit the method leads to
the fundamental frequency and the corresponding mode shape. Later,
the method was utilized by Ratzensdorfer (1943), Popovich (1962),
Mitelman (1970), Hodges (1997) and others. The numerical integra-
tion method was utilized by Newmark (1943), Lu et al. (1983) and
Sakiyama (1986).
Special approximate methods for columns of varying exural rigidity,
including lower bound approximations, were developed by Miesse (1949),
1977) and others (see also Section 1.9).
Papkovich,
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 29 #23
Introduction 29
Silver (1951), Abbassi (1958), Appl and Zorowski (1959), Fadle (1962, 1963),
Mazurkiewicz (1964, 1965), Pnueli (1972ac, 1999) and others.
Some authors (Thomson, 1949; Ram and Rao, 1951; Fadle, 1962; Ram, 1963;
Bert, 1984a,b, 1987a,b) dealt withthe so-calledn-sectioncolumnor stepped
column which is a column consisting of n sections, each having a different
but constant exural rigidity. The exact solutions were obtained by solving
simultaneous differential equations.
The basic idea of the nite-difference method (FDM) is the approximation
of a derivative of a function at a point by an algebraic expression containing
the value of the function at that point and at several nearby points. Thus,
the governing differential equation is replaced by an algebraic equation. The
replacement of a continuous function by an algebraic expression composed
of the values of the function at several discrete points is equivalent to repla-
cing an original distributed system by one with several lumped masses, i.e.,
reduction of the continuous system to a n-section column. The use of the
FDM for columns with varying exural rigidity and pinned ends was used
by Salvadori (1951), Srinivasan (1964), Szidarovski (1964), Girijavallabhan
(1969) and Iremonger (1980).
The differential quadrature method (DQM) was proposed Bellman and
Casti (1971). In the DQM the discretization is accomplished by expressing
at each grid point the calculus operator value of a function with respect to a
coordinate direction at any discrete point as the weighted linear sum of the
values of the function at all the discrete points chosen in that direction. The
rth partial derivative of a function is expressed as
x
r
x=x
i
=
N
x
k=1
A
r
ik
ki
i = 1, 2, . . . , N
x
(1.123)
Likewise,
y
s
y=y
j
=
N
y
l=1
B
s
jl
jl
j = 1, 2, . . . , N
y
(1.124)
where A
(r)
ik
and B
(s)
jl
are the respective weighting coefcients. Also
ij
=
(x
i
y
j
). Bellman et al. (1972) presented an idea of using the polynomial test
functions for the determination of the weighting coefcients. DQM was util-
ized for vibration problems by Bert et al. (1988, 1994), whereas Jang et al.
(1989), and Sherbourne and Pandey (1991) employed it for buckling analysis.
An extensive review of this method was provided by Bert and Malik (1996).
The nite element method (FEM) is a numerical technique that realizes
the system as an assembly connected to one another at points called nodes.
Each element is associated with generalized displacements and generalized
forces, that are internal forces as far as overall structure is concerned, but
they represent external forces when individual elements are involved. The
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 30 #24
structures stiffness matrix is composed of the stiffness matrix of individual
elements. This is usually done by applying at each node the conditions of
equilibrium and deformation compatibility. The FEM to eigenvalue problem
was applied by Karabalis and Beskos (1983), Yatram and Awadalla (1967),
Tebede and Tall (1973) and Gallagher and Padlog (1963). The Convergence
study of the nite element method to the exact solution was performed by
Tong and Pian (1967), Strang and Fix (1969), Lindberg and Olson (1970), Fried
(1971) and Tong et al. (1971), in the vibration context. Extensive convergence
study in the buckling context was undertaken by Seide (1975). The Finite
element method appears to be the most universal method that is uniformly
available for direct computer applications. For extensive discussions of vari-
ous numerical methods the readers must consult the books by Meirovitch
(1980, 1997), Shabana (1994), Schuller (1991), Krtzig and Niemann (1996)
and others.
1.7 Eisenbergers Exact Finite Element Method
Often, it makes sense to represent the unknown buckling or vibration mode
by the following innite series:
w(x) =
i=0
a
i
i
(x) (1.125)
For example, the buckling mode of the non-uniform column that is pinned at
its ends, can be represented as the series in terms of the eigenfunctions of the
uniform column:
w(x) = p
1
sin
x
L
+p
2
sin
2x
L
+p
3
sin
3x
L
+ +p
n
sin
nx
L
+
(1.126)
Since the functions themselves can be written as powers in terms of x, we can
rewrite Eq. (1.126) as follows:
w(x) = a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
+a
3
x
3
+ +a
n
x
n
+ (1.127)
Let us rst demonstrate this method for the uniform column pinned at its
ends. We substitute into the governing differential equation
d
2
W
dx
2
+
2
W = 0
2
=
P
EI
(1.128)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 31 #25
Introduction 31
with boundary conditions
W(0) = W(L) = 0 (1.129)
Substituting Eq. (1.127) into Eq. (1.128) leads to
1 2a
2
x
0
+2 3a
3
x
1
+3 4a
4
x
2
+ +
2
a
0
x
0
+
2
a
1
x
1
+
2
a
2
x
2
+ = 0
(1.130)
We order the terms as
x
0
_
1 2a
2
+
2
a
0
_
+x
1
_
2 3a
3
+
2
a
1
_
+x
2
_
3 4a
4
+
2
a
2
_
+ = 0
(1.131)
Since this expression must vanish for any x, we get
a
2
=
2
a
0
1 2
a
3
=

2
a
1
1 2 3
a
4
=

4
a
0
1 2 3 4
a
5
=

4
a
1
5!
a
6
=
6
a
0
6!
(1.132)
and so on. Thus, the displacement becomes
W(x) = a
0
+a
1
x

2
a
0
2!
x
2

2
a
1
3!
x
3

2
a
0
4!
x
4
+

4
a
1
5!
x
5
(1.133)
at x = L, we get
a
1
_
L

2
L
3
3!
+

4
L
5
5!

6
L
7
7!
+ +(1)
n
2n
L
2n+1
(2n +1)!
_
= 0 (1.134)
For the solution to be non-trivial we set a
1
= 0, and the expression in
parentheses must vanish. This leads, once we substitute L = , to
1
2
/3! +
4
/5!
6
/7! +
8
/9! + = 0 (1.135)
Taking into account that
sin =
3
/3! +
5
/5!
7
/7! +
sin n =
3
/3! +
5
5!
7
/7! +
(1.136)
we conclude that Eq. (1.134) is equivalent to Eq. (1.19.1) with = n, and
thus we obtain the minimal eigenvalue given in Eq. (1.20.1).
Due tothe boundaryconditionat x = 0, a
0
= 0. Due tothe boundarycondition
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 32 #26
By taking only two terms we get the following approximation
2
= 3!/L
2
P
cr
= 6EI/L
2
(1.137)
which constitutes a 39%underestimation of the buckling load; but, with three
terms
2
= 9.48/L
2
P
cr
= 9.48EI/L
2
(1.138)
and this yields a 3.94% error. With more terms the error diminishes rapidly.
We followedBrgermeister andSteup(1957) here inexposing the direct series
representation method.
The method was greatly expanded and re-interpreted by Eisenberger
(1991ad). He considered bars, columns and beams of variable properties.
To illustrate his approach, consider the behavior of the beam in the presence
of variable axial forces
d
2
d
x
2
_
D(x)
d
2
W
dx
2
_
d
dx
_
N(x)
dW
dx
_
= P(x) (1.139)
where W is the transverse displacement, N(x) the axial force, P(x) the dis-
tributed transverse load along the member and D(x) = EI(x) is the exural
rigidity. As Eisenberger (1991) notes,
The solution for the general case of polynomial variation of I(x), N(x)
and P(x) along the beam is not generally available. Using the nite ele-
ment technique, it is possible to derive the terms in the stiffness matrix.
We assume that the shape functions for the element are polynomials and
we have to nd the appropriate coefcients. It is widely known that
exact terms will result, and if one uses the solution of the differential
equation as the shape functions, for the derivation of the terms in the
stiffness matrix. In this work exact shape functions are used, to derive
the exact exural rigidity coefcients. These shape functions are exact
up to the accuracy of the computer, or up to a preset value set by the
analyst.
Following Eisenberger, the functions D(x), N(x) and P(x) are written as
D(x) =
j
i=0
D
i
x
i
N(x) =
l
i=0
N
i
x
i
P(x) =
m
i=0
P
i
x
i
(1.140)
where j, l and mare integers representing the number of terms in each series.
Introducing a non-dimensional variable = x/L, where L is the length of the
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 33 #27
Introduction 33
beam Eq. (1.139) is rewritten as
d
2
d
2
_
d()
d
2
W
d
2
_
d
d
_
n()
dW
d
_
= p() (1.141)
where
d() =
j
i=0
D
i
L
i
i
=
j
i=0
d
i
i
n() =
l
i=0
N
i
L
i+2
i
=
l
i=0
n
i
i
(1.142)
p() =
m
i=0
P
i
L
i+4
i
=
m
i=0
p
i
i
The solution W() is chosen as an innite series, as in Eq. (1.127);
W() =
i=0
w
i
i
(1.143)
Substitution of Eq. (1.143) into Eq. (1.141) bearing in mind Eq. (1.142)
results in
i=0
i
k=0
(k +1)(i k +1)n
k+1
w
ik+1
i=0
i
k=0
(i k +1)(i k +2)n
k
w
ik+2
i
+
i=0
i
k=0
(k +1)(k +2)(i k +1)d
k+2
w
ik+2
w
ik+2
i
+
i=0
i
k=0
2(k +1)(i k +1)(i k +2)(i k +3)d
k+1
w
ik+3
i
+
i=0
i
k=0
(i k +1)(i k +2)(i k +3)(i k +4)d
k
w
ik+4
i
=
m
i=0
p
i
i
(1.144)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 34 #28
This equation must be satised for every value of . Hence, the following
equality must hold
k=0
(k +1)(i k +1)n
k+1
w
ik+1

i
k=0
(i k +1)(i k +2)n
k
w
ik+2
+
i
k=0
(k +1)(k +2)(i k +1)d
k+2
w
ik+2
+
i
k=0
2(k +1)(i k +1)(i k +2)(i k +3)d
k+1
w
ik+3
+
i
k=1
(i k +1)(i k +2)(i k +3)(i k +4)d
k
w
ik+4
= p
i
(1.145)
allowing one to express w
i+4
as follows:
w
i+4
=
1
d
0
(i +1)(i +2)(i +3)(i +4)
_
p
i
+
i
k=0
(k +1)(i k +1)n
k+1
w
ik+1
+
i
k=0
(i k +1)(i k +2)n
k
w
ik+2
k=0
(k +1)(k +2)(i k +1)d
k+2
w
ik+2
k=0
2(k +1)(i k +1)(i k +2)(i k +3)d
k+1
w
ik+3
k=0
(i k +1)(i k +2)(i k +3)(i k +4)d
k
w
ik+4
_
(1.146)
The missing rst four coefcients are found by imposing boundary condi-
tions; the next step consists in solving the problem numerically. For details
one should consult the study by Eisenberger (1991ad). The important con-
tribution by Eisenberger (1991ad) lies in his re-interpretation of the above
series method. He proposed to use the above solution to form the stiffness
matrix S in the context of the nite element method:
S =
_
1
0
[F
()]EI()F
() d (1.147)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 35 #29
Introduction 35
where F
() are the second derivatives of the basic functions. Alternatively,

applying unit displacements at four degrees of freedom at the element ends
one will nd the exact shape functions as in the direct stiffness method. Then,
since the shapes are exact, the exural rigidity terms which are the shear
forces and bending moments at the ends of the member, are found directly as
the bending exural rigidity EI(x) multiplied by the third and second deriv-
atives of the shape functions at x = 0 and x = L (Eisenberger, 2000b). He
studiedlongitudinal vibrations of a variable cross-sectionbar (1991), torsional
analysis and vibrations of open and variable cross-section bars (Eisenberger,
1995a,b, 1997a,b), vibration frequencies of beams on variable one- and two-
parameter elastic foundations, and apparently was amongst the rst one
to coin the term an exact nite element method (Eisenberger, 1990). One
should also mention work by Banerjee and Williams (1985a,b,1986) who gave
solutions for a few cases of tapered members, as well as recent work by Eis-
enberger et al. (1995) and Abramovich et al. (1996), who applied the exact
nite element method to vibration and buckling of composite beams and to
BernouilliEuler and BresseTimoshenko beams (Eisenberger, 1995a,b).
Anatural question arises: Howaccurate is the exact nite element method?
In his papers, Eisenberger (1991ad) performed extensive numerical analyses
and compared his results with solutions provided by other investigators.
Extremely good accuracy was recorded. As he notes: The application of
different sets of boundary conditions is straightforward as in the standard
stiffness method of analysis . . . Comparing this method to the nite element
method or the nite difference method points out the . . . advantage of the
method: only one element is needed for the solution. Thus, the results are
computed much faster. As he mentions, in his work exact buckling loads
(up to the accuracy of the computer) for variable cross section members with
variable axial loads are given (implying that the method yields approxim-
ate buckling loads that can be made arbitrarily close to the exact values).
Thus, Eisenbergers exact FEM is a very attractive tool for the eigenvalue
analysis of inhomogeneous structures. The exact nite element method was
applied to buckling problems by Pieczara (1987), Waszczysyn and Pieczara
(1990) and Janus and Waszczysyn (1991). The denitive works by kesson
(1976), kesson and Tgnfors (1978) and kesson etal. (1972) in vibration the-
ory, providing a unied computer program PFVIBAT, should be mentioned.
Currently, the exact FEM method is being developed for variable thickness
membranes and plates (Eisenberger, 2000b).
1.8 Semi-inverse or Semi-direct Methods
The principle behind of these methods lies in approximating the mode shape
in vibration or buckling by the analytic expression containing a nite number
of parameters c
i
that are treated to be arbitrary in the outset of the solution
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 36 #30
process:
W(x) =
n
i=0
c
i
i
(1.148)
where
i
(x) are coordinate functions that satisfy all or part of the boundary
conditions pertinent to the problem. The functions
i
(x) are chosen so as
to represent in an appropriate manner the anticipated mode shape W(x).
Most convenient are coordinate functions drawn from the complete set of
functions. The parameters c
i
are determined from the condition of the best
approximation of W(x) by the series (1.148). These methods are referred to as
semi-inverse ones by Grigoliuk and Selezov (1969) and appears to best repres-
ent their essence. Indeed, the unknownsolutionis postulatedtobe represented
by known functions
i
(x), whereas the coefcients c
i
are determined by some
condition of best approximation; it is as if we guess the solutions but not
completely. The coefcients of the guessedsolutions shouldstill be evaluated.
These methods can also be referred as semi-direct problems.
The rst method of this kind is the method of Rayleigh (1873) sugges-
ted for the determination of the fundamental frequency of the string. He
then generalized it for higher modes (Rayleigh, 1899a,b, 1911) [the impact of
Lord Rayleigh on engineering vibration theory is described in an interesting
paper by Crandall (1995)]. Ritz (1908) provided the mathematical foundation
of the method. This method in its single-term application is usually called
Rayleighs method, while in the multi-term form is usually referred to as the
RayleighRitz method (or sometimes simply as the Ritz method). Usually, the
polynomial or trigonometric expressions are utilized as the coordinate func-
tions, which should satisfy the geometric boundary conditions. Rayleighs
method is universally used, in almost all textbooks on both vibration and
buckling, due to its simplicity. In the buckling context recent applications
include those by Manicka Selvam (1997, 1998). Numerous applications of
both the Rayleigh and the RayleighRitz method were given by Laura and
Cortinez (1985, 1986a,b, 1987) and others. They published numerous stud-
ies in which the coordinate functions were polynomial functions, for beams,
circular plates and rectangular plates for a wide range of practical prob-
lems. Thirty-six terms in conjunction with the RayleighRitz method were
employed by Leissa (1973) to study the vibrations of plates under various
boundary conditions, when the exact solution is unavailable. As Timoshenko
(1953) wrote:
The idea of calculating frequencies directly from an energy considera-
tion, without solving differential equations, was...elaborated by Walter
Ritz (1909) and the RayleighRitz method is now widely used not only in
studying vibration but in solving problems in elasticity, theory of struc-
tures, nonlinear mechanics, and other branches of physics. Perhaps no
other single mathematical tool has led to as much research in the strength
of materials and theory of elasticity.
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 37 #31
Introduction 37
The rst application of Rayleighs method to the buckling problem was
performed by Bryan (1888). In 1910 Timoshenko utilized the Rayleigh and
RayleighRitz methods extensively for buckling problems (Timoshenko,
1910). His book was submitted for the Zhuravsky prize. Boobnov (1913)
provided one of the recommendation letters. In his overly positive review,
Boobnov (1913), however, made an extremely constructive criticism of
Timoshenkos work (may all criticisms turn out to be as efcient as
Boobnovs!). He statedthat the nal equations can be obtained, more straight-
forwardly, by substituting into the differential equation the series of type
(1.148) with each coordinate function satisfying all boundary conditions. The
result of sucha substitutionshouldbe made orthogonal toeachof the coordin-
ate functions. Galerkin (1915) wrote an elegant paper in which he provided
several evaluatedexamples of the above idea. Since then the methodhas been
intensively utilized in the East. In the Russian literature it is mostly referred
to as the BoobnovGalerkin or the Galerkin method, although Grigoliuk
(1975, 1996) maintains that it should be referred to as the Boobnov method.
One can visualize that Galerkins (1915a,b) work was a wonderful vehicle
through which the idea exposed by Boobnov (1913) was not lost. Well writ-
ten, supplemented with many examples, executed in detail, this paper [by
Galerkin (1915)] should have attracted an interest, according to Grigoliuk
(1975). Indeed, clear exposition of the 1915 paper attracted Biezeno (1924),
Henky (1927), Duncan (1937), and other Western scientists to this method. In
the West it is most often called the Galerkin method. To digress, note that Cran-
dall (1956), when describing the Ritz method wrote: The same ideas had
earlier been applied to eigenvalue problems by Lord Rayleigh. . .We call it the
Ritz method when it is applied to equilibrium problems and the Rayleigh
Ritz method when applied to eigenvalue problems. Presently, the uniformly
accepted termis the RayleighRitz method for both equilibriumand eigenvalue
problems. ReturningtothemethodadvancedbyBoobnov(1913) andGalerkin
(1915a,b), it appears, as in the case of the RayleighRitz method, that the most
appropriate name of the methodwouldbe the BoobnovGalerkinmethod, as it is
calledinthe extensive reviewof it, inthe volume dedicatedtoGalerkins 100th
anniversaryof birth, byVorovich(1975). He stressedthat inhis paper Galerkin
(1915a,b), in addition to utilizing Boobnovs idea, or proposing it independ-
ently, also provided a mechanical treatment of the method as a procedure
of choosing parameters of approximating the solution, during which on the
widening classes of the possible displacements the total work of internal and
external forces of the system turns out to be zero. Another widely used
name for this technique is the weighted residual method (Finlayson, 1972; Meir-
ovitch, 1997). As Schmidt (1990) wrote: According to Finlayson (1972), the
(Boobnov) Galrkin method may be regarded as a special case of the method
A general method for the analytical solution via the BoobnovGalerkin
methodfor the problemof buckling of a column with varying exural rigidity
and non-ideal boundary conditions was introduced by Durban and Baruch
(1972), whereas the non-uniformbeams of variable mass density were treated
of weighted residuals. (see also Pomraning, 1966).
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 38 #32
by Sekhniashvili (1950a,b, 1966), Lashenkov (1961) and others. It should be
noted that coordinate functions utilized in the BoobnovGalerkin method
must satisfy all boundary conditions (geometric and force ones), whereas in
the Rayleigh or RayleighRitz methods it is required that only the geometric
boundary conditions be satised. In the former case the coordinate functions
are referredto as comparison functions, whereas inthe latter case they are called
trial functions (Meirovitch, 1986).
It is remarkable that if the same set of functions is utilized, both
the RayleighRitz and the BoobnovGalerkin methods coincide (see, e.g.,
syn (1955, p. 306) to write, after describing the BoobnovGalerkin method:
These methods [by Ritz and Timoshenko] are inferior by their efciency
to the BoobnovGalerkin method; hence, we will not touch upon them. It
may appear, therefore, that the BoobnovGalerkin method, in the words of
Schmidt (1990) loses its raison dtre. However, Schmidt (1990) assumed
that the BoobnovGalerkin method amounts to replacing the dependent
variable in a differential equation of any suitable form by a reasonable
approximate function (or a series of admissible functions), and then integ-
rating the -weighted approximate equation over the given interval. This
assumption renders the method a general one that is quite different from the
RayleighRitz method. According to Duncan (1938), . . . Rayleighs prin-
ciple and the Galerkin method lead to identical results in all cases where
both are applicable. Hence the choice of method will be governed entirely by
convenience.
The requirement that all the conditions should be satised in the Boobnov
Galerkin method can be relaxed, when the so-called physical Boobnov
Galerkin method is applied (Batdorf, 1969; Leipholz, 1967a,b). In the latter
case too the BoobnovGalerkin and the RayleighRitz methods, with trial
functions used as coordinate functions, lead to identical results. As Batdorf
(1969) wrote: The convergence of the Galerkin method and its relation to
the RayleighRitz method are treated by Kantorovich and Krylov (1958).
Briey, when the differential equations are the Euler equations obtained
by minimizing an energy integral, the series (truncated or not) is the same
in both cases, and the functions appearing in the series are employed as
the weighting functions referred to above, then the results obtained from
the Galerkin method are identical to those obtained from the Rayleigh
Ritz method. Important differences develop, however, when the Galerkin
method is applied to a differential equation obtained by reducing two or
more simultaneous differential equations to a single one of higher order. The
most familiar example of this is probably Donnells eighth-order differen-
tial equation for cylinder buckling (Donnell, 1933). A great computational
advantage arises when the Galerkin method is applied to the single equation
of escalated order. Typically an N-terms expansion leads to an Nth order
determinantal equation which results in the same accuracy as is obtained
from an (nN)th order determinantal equation derived from the original set
of n Euler equations. Unfortunately, however, Galerkins method applied to
Duncan, 1938; Singer, 1962; Kodnar, 1964). Perhaps this fact led Rzhanit-
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 39 #33
Introduction 39
an escalated equation may lead to a completely incorrect answer, even in the
Pitfalls of such a situation are remedied in the papers by Batdorf (1969) and
Equivalence of the BoobnovGalerkin method with the Fourier series
method was established by Elishakoff and Lee (1986). Convergence of the
BoobnovGalerkin method was studied by Mikhlin (1950), Polskii (1949),
Leipholz (1976) and others.
For buckling of non-uniform columns the BoobnovGalerkin method was
employed by Dimitrov (1953), Brgermeister and Steup (1957) and others.
Within the BoobnovGalerkin method the coordinate functions must satisfy
both geometric and force boundary conditions. This requirement, however,
can be relaxed, as demonstrated by Leipholz (1967a,b), who also wrote an
extensive review of the BoobnovGalerkin method as applied to vibration
problems (1976).
Rayleigh (1873) also suggested an interesting version of his method. Since
Rayleighs quotient provides an upper bound for the estimated natural fre-
quency or the buckling load, he introduced an unknown power into the
coordinate function, with subsequent minimization of the eigenvalue with
respect to the power parameter. This provides the minimum value of the
upper bound of the eigenvalue within the assumed class of functions. In
particular, the original idea was to calculate an approximate value of the
fundamental frequency of a string by assuming the vibration mode to be
W = 1 (2x/L)
n
with an adjustable power parameter n. This method was
then utilized by Stodola (1927), Moskalenko (1973) and others, but remained
largely unknown to the investigators. The method was reinvigorated by
Schmidt (1985). As Schmidt (1985, p. 69) wrote,
the most likely reason for [Rayleighs unknown power parameter method
not enjoying a wide acceptance] . . . seems to be the difculties inherent in
the minimization of the expression for the frequency (or some other eigen-
value) as a function of adjustable parameter . . . Nowadays, this need not
be an insurmountable obstacle to the use of Rayleighs original method,
for the approximate minimizationcanbe easily carriedout ona hand-held
(programmable) calculator.
One should add that utilization of computerized symbolic algebra is most
convenient in the context of the original Rayleighs method (Elishakoff and
Tang, 1988; Elishakoff and Bert, 1988; Hodges, 1997). In this context an inter-
esting paper by Laura (1985) on the interrelation between the computers and
usefulness of old ideas appears to be very instructive. After Schmidts (1985)
studies, many papers followed devoted to buckling or vibration of structures,
(1986).
Earlier, Biezeno and Grammel (1953) and Makushin (1963, 1964) sugges-
ted a variation of RayleighRitzs undetermined power method, introducing
limit of N (see, for instance Hoff and Soong, 1965; Yu and Lai, 1967).
Leipholz (1967a,b); see also Volmir (1967).
carefullysummarizedbyBert (1987a,b). See alsothe historical note byGottlieb
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 40 #34
the undetermined multiplicative coefcient, rather than the unknown power.
They approximated the coordinate functions as the sum where
W =
1
+n
2
(1.149)
where
1
and
2
are basic component functions. For example, Biezeno and
Grammel (1953, p. 126) utilized the approximation (1.148) with
1
() = 3
2
2
() = 6
2
4
(1.150)
for estimating the fundamental natural frequency of the clampedfree beam,
via the Rayleigh method; they also employed the functions
1
() = 6
2
4
3
+
4
2
() = 20
2
10
3
+
5
(1.151)
whereas Makushin (1963, 1964) utilized a variety of functions
j
. The basic
functions were static deections due to different loads. Thus, the single-term
coordinate function was utilized in Rayleighs method, with attendant minim-
ization of buckling loads with respect to the parameter n. Elishakoff (1987ac)
demonstrated that this method is equivalent to a two-term RayleighRitz
method. Thus, a single-term BiezenoGrammelMakuskin method accom-
plishes the accuracy of the two-termRayleighRitz method. Indeed, undeter-
mined multiplier representation is one formof the RayleighRitz method, for
one could write Eq. (1.148) as W(x) = c
1
1
+ c
2
2
= c
1
[
1
+ (c
2
/c
1
)
2
] =
c
1
[
1
+ n
2
], use the Ritz minimizing equations, and get the same results.
As Leissa (2000b) notes, a lot of researchers used the two-term form [of
Eq. (1.148)] to solve the beam problems a few decades ago, although many
did not call it the Ritz method.
Later on, this method was utilized by Elishakoff (1987a,b) in various con-
texts. Most recently, apparently independently, it was suggested by Hodges
(1997). Berts (1987b) extensive review describes Rayleighs undetermined
power method and its numerous applications. Laura and Cortinez (1988)
were apparently the rst investigators who introduced a parameter in an
exponential function and studied the efcacy of this approximation. Also,
Laura and Cortinez (1986b) rst suggested and performed optimization of
higher eigenvalues (Laura, 2000).
Rayleigh (1894, p. 112) mentions that the periodcalculatedfromany hypo-
thetical type [of the mode shape] cannot exceed that belonging to the gravest
normal type. In other words, the estimate of the natural frequency evalu-
ated via the assumed trial function cannot be less than the exact value of the
fundamental natural frequency. There are instances, however, in the literat-
ure, when the Rayleigh or RayleighRitz method did not produce results that
were in excess of the reported exact eigenvalues. Such a discrepancy must be
attributed to the mistake made in either the realization of the approximate
method (such as lack of satisfaction of boundary conditions) or evaluation
of the exact solutions (Bhat, 1996, 2000). Grossi and Bhat (1991) studied free
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 41 #35
Introduction 41
vibrations of tapered beams using the characteristic orthogonal polynomials
method, developed earlier by Bhat (1985). They compared their results with
those reported by Goel (1976) obtained by the use of Bessel functions. Since
Goels (1976) derivations are associated with the exact solution, while Grossi
and Bhats (1991) results are based on Rayleighs method, the former results
must be less than the latter ones. As Grossi and Bhat (1991) reported, for
the tapered beams in question, both the Rayleigh-Schmidt and Rayleigh
Ritz methods yield upper bounds. They added, that unfortunately, several
values reported by Goel (1976) are higher than the values obtained by the
two mentioned methods. Auciello (1995) studied in detail this particular
disagreement of the numerical results with general theorems. It was estab-
lished that Goels (1976) exact solution contained an error. It is remarkable,
that as an interesting byproduct of the approximate analysis, the revision of
the exact solution became necessary. An analogous situation took place also
in regard to the fundamental frequency of the pinned circular plate. Laura
et al. (1975) showed that for the Poissons ratio v = 0.3, the non-dimensional
fundamental frequency was = 4.947. It was found by the single poly-
nomial comparison function via the Galerkin method. It turned to be lower
than the value of the exact frequency, which was reported in the literature
to equal 4.977. Several years later it was shown that their approximate value
was almost perfect (Laura, 2000). Indeed, as Leissa (2000b) writes, because
of the inaccuracy and lack in detail in previously appearing literature [about
the exact values] Narita and Leissa (1980) published a paper devoted solely
to the pinned circular plate. In Table 4 of that section it gives the exact funda-
mental frequency to six gures as 4.93515, when Poissons ratio is 0.3. Thus,
an approximate result reported by Laura et al. (1975) is 0.24% greater than
the exact value. Due to these two examples of the positive interplay between
exact and appropriate analyses, namely when the updating of the exact results
turned out to be necessary, it appears worthwhile to corroborate exact solu-
tions with some approximate techniques, to distance oneself from possible
inaccuracies.
In this monograph it is instructive to reproduce a problem (No. 113) from
Feodosievs (1996) famous problems and questions book on the strength of
materials. The question is as follows:
Main approximate method of determining of critical loads is energy
method. The sought form of equilibrium is given approximately with
a view to satisfy the boundary conditions and the employed function to
represent possibly closely the true form of equilibrium, that is not known
tous, but intuitively chosen by the physical considerations of the problem.
The question is, is there a danger, that when the approximating function
becomes arbitrarily close to the exact displacement, that we will not get
the exact value of the critical force.
Feodosiev (1996) mentions, in the response to the question that by utilizing
a formal approach towards the choice of the approximating function, one
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 42 #36
can get a result that is quite far from reality. He suggested using the following
function:
(x) = sin(x/L) +(L/m) sin(mx/L) (1.152)
for the column that is pinned at both ends. When m , the approximating
function tends to the exact mode shape
lim
m
(x) = sin(x/L) (1.153)
The buckling load P, however, evaluated via the Rayleigh quotient equals
P
cl
=
EI
_
L
0
(
)
2
dx
_
L
0
(
)
2
dx
=
1 +m
2
2
2
EI
L
2
(1.154)
When m, one gets a result that is innitely far from the exact solution.
According to Feodosiev (1996), the specicity of the function (1.152) lies
in the fact that while it approximates well the form of the displacement, its
second derivative is far removed from the second derivative of the true dis-
placement. According to Feodosiev (1996), this somewhat surprising example
is instructive in the sense that while approximating the displacement function,
one should try to care about a proper approximation of the highest derivative
entering the expression of the energy.
This fact was well understood by Niedenfuhr (1952) who suggested select-
ing an approximating function for the beam curvature (second derivative
of the displacement) rather than for the deection itself. Bert (1987a,b)
represented the beam curvature as follows:
Y
= C(1 X
) (1.155)
where
X = 2x/L (1.156)
with x varying in the interval (L/2, L/2), i.e., the origin of coordinates was
chosen in the middle cross-section. Integrating twice, we obtain
Y = C
_
1
2
x
2
(2/L)
x
n+2
(n +1)(n +2)
_
+C
1
x +C
2
(1.157)
The condition of symmetry about the middle cross-section x = 0 leads to
C
1
= 0. The boundary condition Y(L/2) = 0 is utilized to determine C
2
.
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 43 #37
Introduction 43
Thus,
Y = C
_
X
2
1
2
+
1 X
n+2
(n +1)(n +2)
_
_
L
2
_
2
(1.158)
The Rayleighs quotient yields
2
=
_
L
0
EI(Y
)
2
dx
_
L
0
AY
2
dx
=
_
1
0
EI(Y
)
2
dX
_
1
0
AY
2
dX
(1.159)
leading, for the uniform beam, to the expression
2
=
32n
2
2n +1
_
2
15
(n +1) +
1
n +2
_
1
n +3

1
n +5

2
3
+
1
(n +1)(n +2)
_
1
2
n +3
+
1
2n +5
___
1
(1.160)
The minimum value of = 9.8702 at n = 1.70. As Bert (1987a,b) noted, this
is only 0.006% higher than the exact value. Eigenvalue analysis of prismatic
members by the wavelet-based BoobnovGalerkin method was performed
by Jin and Ye (1999).
1.9 Inverse Eigenvalue Problems
Groetsch (1993) wrote:
Classical appliedmathematics is dominatedby the Laplacianparadigmof
known causes evolving continuously into uniquely determinated effects.
The classical direct problemis thentondthe unique effect of a givencause
by using the appropriate law of evolution. It is therefore no surprise that
traditional teaching in mathematics and the natural sciences emphasizes
the point of view that problems have a solution, this solution is unique,
and the solution is insensitive to small changes in the problem. Such
problems are called well-posed and typically arise fromthe so-called direct
problems of natural science. The demands of science and technology have
recently brought to the fore many problems that are inverse to the classical
direct problems, that is, problems which may be interpolated as nding
the cause of a giveneffect or nding a lawof evolutiongiventhe cause and
effect. Includedamong such problems are many questions of remote sens-
ing or indirect measurement such as the determination of internal charac-
teristics of an inaccessible region frommeasurements on its boundary, the
determination of system parameters from inputoutput measurements,
and the reconstruction of past events from measurement of the present
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 44 #38
state...This study of inverse problems is very new and very old. The latest
high-tech medical imaging devices are essentially inverse problem solv-
ers; they reconstruct two- and three-dimensional object from projections.
More than two thousand years ago, in the book VII of his Republic, Plato
posed essentially the same problem in his allegory of the cave, namely,
he considered the philosophical implications of reconstructing reality
from observations of structures cast upon the wall.
Bolt (1980) illustrated the inverse problems in the following manner:
Suppose that we ski down mountain trail. As long as we neglect friction
and know the undulations in the trail, we can calculate exactly the time it
will take to travel from a point on the mountain side to the valley below.
This is a direct problem. It was difcult for Galileos contemporaries. It
is, however, now old hat, and what is of current deeper interest is the
following problem. If we start skiing from different places on the slope,
and on each occasion we time our arrival at a xed place on the valley
oor, how can we calculate the topographic prole of undulations of the
trail? This is the inverse problem. It is certainly a practical problem. It is
also challenging and difcult and, indeed, in the general sense, it has no
unique solution.
According to Tarantola (1987), To solve the forward problem is to predict
the values of the observable parameters, given arbitrary values of the model
parameters. To solve the inverse problem is to infer the values of the model
parameters fromgiven observedvalues of the observable parameters. Tanaka
and Bui (1993) wrote:
There are many kinds of inverse problems across a wide variety of
elds. In general, the inverse problem can be dened as the prob-
lem where one should estimate the cause from the result, while the
direct problem is concerned with how to obtain the result from the
cause. At present in engineering elds, CT scan, ultrasonic techniques,
and so on can be successfully applied to some of the inverse problems
including nondestructive evaluating or testing. On the other hand, dif-
ferent attempts have also been made recently in such a way that the
computational software available for the direct problem is applied to
corresponding inverse problem analysis. In most of these computational
approaches, the inverse problem is formulated into a parameter iden-
tication problem in which the set of parameters corresponding to the
lacking data to be estimated should be found by minimizing a suitable
cost function. Two main difculties encountered in the inverse analysis
are non-uniqueness and ill-posedness of the inverse solution. The former
difculty should be overcome by selecting our useful solution from the
engineering point of view. The latter difculty could be circumvented or
overcome from theoretical or mathematical considerations.
Who were the rst investigators to tackle the inverse problems? According to
Anger (2000), Lord Rayleigh was apparently the rst investigator to pose an
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 45 #39
Introduction 45
inverse vibration problem:
one of the rst inverse problems was explicitly solved by N.H. Abel . . . in
1823. This problem consists of nding curve Xin a vertical plane where
X is assumed to be graph of an increasing function x = (y) such that
the falling time of a body (falling only under the inuence of gravity)
is a known function t(y) of the height from which the body falls. This
problem reduced to an Abel integral equation has a unique solution. If
is multi-valued then innitely many solutions exist.
In 1867 G.G. Stokes for the rst time raised the question of the relation-
ship between the Newtonian potential at the exterior of a closed surface
containing an attracting body and the distribution of the bodys density
p producing the assigned potential. In his lectures on Celestial Mechan-
ics at the University of Pavia in 1875/76 the astronomer G.V. Schiaparelli
showed how the internal density of a body can be altered without affecting
the outer potential . . .
In 1877 Lord Rayleigh in his book The Theory of Sound briey discussed
the possibility of inferring the density distribution from the frequencies
of vibration.
As mentioned above, the interest in the inverse problems in vibration starts
from the work of Rayleigh. Presently there is a single monograph, by Glad-
well (1986) devoted entirely to the inverse problems in vibrations. He also
wrote two extensive reviews on this subject (Gladwell, 1986b, 1996). The rst
paper on inverse vibrations is attributed to Ambarzumian (1929). He dened
it as a problem of unique determination of the mechanical system through
the eigenvalue spectrumof corresponding linear differential equations. Fur-
ther contributions belong to Krein (1933, 1934), Borg (1946), Gantmakher and
Krein (1950), Gelfand and Levitan (1951), Krein (1952), Levitan (1964) and
others. Gladwell and his followers made this subject an indispensable part of
modern vibration theory. Specically, his book (1986) studies both discrete,
as well as continuous second-order, and fourth-order systems. For extensive
references, the reader must consult his two reviews (Gladwell, 1986, 1996),
which address the following cardinal questions: Is there a system of some
specied type which exhibits the given behavior? Is there a more than one
system of the specied type which exhibits the given behavior? If there is a
system and it is unique, then how can it be found?
According to Gladwell (1986), in the context of . . . classical theory, inverse
problems areconcernedwiththeconstructionof amodel of agiventype; e.g., a
mass-spring system, a string, etc., which has given eigenvalues and/or eigen-
vectors; i.e., given spectral (emphasis by Gladwell) data. Gladwell (1986)
explains his interest in inverse problems as follows:
My interest in inverse problems was sparked by acquiring a copy of the
translation of Gantmakher and Kreins beautiful book Oscillation Matrices
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 46 #40
and Kernels and Small Oscillations of Mechanical Systems. During the rst
ten years that I owned the book I made a number of attempts to mas-
ter it, without much success. One thing that I did understand and enjoy
was their reconstruction of the positions and masses of a set of beads
on a stretched string from a knowledge of the xedxed and xed
free spectra. In their reconstruction, the unknown quantities appear as
the coefcients in a continued fraction representation of the ratio of two
polynomials constructed from the given spectra. As a mathematician I
was thrilled that a concept so esoteric and apparently useless as a con-
tinued fraction should appear (naturally) in the solution of a problem in
mechanics.
One of the properties that may arise in inverse vibration problems is iso-
spectrality. Two vibration systems which share the same natural frequencies
are called isospectral. Gottlieb (1991) uncovered a family of inhomogeneous
clamped circular plates having the same natural frequencies as a homogen-
eous plate. Abrate (1995) showed for some non-uniform rods and beams the
equation of motion can be transformed into the equation of motion for a
uniform rod or beam. It turns out that when ends are completely xed, the
natural frequencies of the non-uniform structures are the same as those of
uniform rods and beams. Horgan and Chan (1999a) obtained closed-form
solutions for different variations in mass density of longitudinally vibrating
rods, namely with
m(x) = m
0
(1 +x/L)
1
(1.161)
m(x) = m
0
(1 +x/L) (1.162)
m(x) = m
0
(1 +x/L)
2
(1.163)
m(x) = m
0
exp(x/L) (1.164)
where is ameasure of inhomogeneity. Theyalsodemonstratedaninteresting
phenomenon that certain inhomogeneous strings and rods have the same
fundamental frequencies as their homogeneous counterparts.
Gladwell (1995b) studied a discrete system of in-line concentrated masses
connected with each other and to the end pinned by ideal massless springs.
Four methods were given for constructing a system which is isospectral to
a given one. Since the discrete systems can be viewed as nite-difference or
nite-element approximations of continuous systems, it is understood that
isospectrality may occur in the distributed systems. Gladwell and Morassi
(1995) demonstrated how to construct families of bars, in longitudinal or
torsional vibration, which exhibited the isospectral property. One, simplest
way is immediately detectable. As they mention, (p. 535), The simplest,
almost trivial pair of isospectral rods is obtainedby physically turning the rod
and restraints around. For the general case, from which the above simplest
example turned out as a particular case, the Darboux (1882, 1915) lemma was
utilized. Following Gladwell and Morassi (1995) let us expose the essence of
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 47 #41
Introduction 47
this lemma. Let be a real number, and g(x) be a non-trivial solution of the
SturmLiouville equation:
g
(x) +p(x)g = g (1.165)

where p(x) is the potential function. If f(x) is a non-trivial solution of
f
(x) +p(x)f = f (1.166)

and = , then a new function y(x) dened as
y(x) =
1
g(x)
[g(x)f
(x) g
(x)f(x)] (1.167)
is a non-trivial solution of the SturmLiouville equation
y
+q(x)y = y (1.168)
where
q(x) = p(x) 2
d
2
dx
2
ln[g(x)] (1.169)
The Darboux lemma enables one to determine a solution of a newEq. (1.168),
if we know two solutions g(x) and f(x) of another Eq. (1.165), corresponding
to two different values , of a parameter. Gladwell and Morassi (1995) show
that if f(x) is non-trivial then y(x) is likewise non-trivial. The second part of
the Darboux lemma states that the general solution of the equation
y
+q(x)y = y (1.170)
reads
y =
1
g
_
1 +c
_
x
0
g
2
(s)ds
_
c = const (1.171)
The Darboux lemma is utilized as follows. Suppose the rod is given with the
cross-section A(x) and spectrum{
n
}
0
corresponding to end conditions
A(0)u
(0) Ku(0) = 0 = A(1)u
(1) +Ku(1) (1.172)

where u is the longitudinal displacement, and the coefcients k and K are
positive. The Darboux lemma allows us to obtain any rod corresponding to
a new potential q(x) if one knows the spectrum for the rod with potential
function p(x), under some general conditions. Gladwell and Morassi (1995)
also addressed an interesting problem of how by a nite or innite sequence
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 48 #42
of Darboux transformations one can ow from one rod to another, such
that they are isospectral, i.e., have the same spectrum. They exemplied their
derivations by a single or double application of the Darboux lemma for rods.
They showed that if one starts with one rod and a set of end conditions,
one may construct many families of rods that have the same spectrum as the
original rod for specic sets of boundary conditions. Gladwell (2000b) writes,
The essential point is that if you have one system, either continuous or
FEM, then one can construct an innite family of other isospectral systems.
The analysis also gives the modes of vibration of the new systems, so that
on solving one problem you also solve many problems. My papers on
inverse nite element vibration problems do the same thing: They allow
one to form a family of isospectral systems from one system ...No one has
yet obtained a family of isospectral beams in exure, not nite element or
continuous membranes.
Thus, having a solution of the inverse problem may be utilized for obtain-
ing a solution of a direct problem, if it belongs to the isospectral family of
structures.
Aclosely related paper is due to Kac (1966), who posed a provocative ques-
tion Can one hear the shape of a drum? in the title of his study. He was referring
to the problem of whether the Laplacian operator with Dirichlet boundary
conditions could have identical spectra on two distinct planar regions. Gor-
don et al. (1992b) showed that the answer to the question by Kac (1966) was
negative by constructing a counterexample; this research justiably attracted
a great deal of attention (Cipra, 1992; Chapman, 1995; Peterson, 1994). The
simplest form of their example is a pair of regions bounded by eight-sided
polygons. Buser et al. (1994) found other examples of this type. Thus, one
cannot hear the shape of a drum. As Driscoll (1997) wrote, while the iso-
spectrality can be proven mathematically, analytical techniques are unable to
produce eigenvalues themselves.
He described an algorithm due to Descloux and Tolley (1983) that combines
together singular nite elements with domain decomposition, achieving res-
ults, accurate to 12 digits, for the most famous pair of isospectral drums. Some
explicit solutions were derived by Gottlieb and McManus (1998).
As Gladwell (1986) wrote, the rst paper dealing with inverse problems
for equations of order higher than two appears to have been by Niordson
(1967). He used an iterative method to construct a cantilever beam with some
specied n natural frequencies, by seeking a solution in a class of functions
that three spectra are needed to reconstruct the cross-sectional area and second
moment of the area of the beam.
Niordson (1970) proposed a method of determining the thickness of an all-
round pinned plate, by the given nite series of positive numbers, serving
as eigenvalues of the problem. Niordson (1970) arrived at a conclusion that
the solution was not unique, since only part of the spectrum was given.
depending on n parameters (see also Ainola, 1971). Barcilon (1974) showed
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 49 #43
Introduction 49
For the square plate that has a constant density and thickness the natural
frequencies have a form =
1
(m
2
+ n
2
), where m, n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., and
1
is the nominal natural frequency. For such a plate the ratio of the three rst
eigenvalues is 2 : 5 : 5, with the second natural frequency being a double one.
Niordson (1970) posed a problem in the following form: What should the
thickness of the square plate be so that the rst three natural frequencies
relate as 2 : 6 : 6 or 2 : 5 : 6? The thickness distributions obtained were given
in graphical form.
Ram (1994) constructed discrete models for a non-uniform cantilever beam
using eigenvector data. He showed that, for a given mesh a nite difference
model may be constructed from two eigenvectors, one eigenvalue and the
total mass of the beam. Yet, if the mesh is unknown, then for the determination
of the model, including the grid points, one may need three eigenvectors, one
eigenvalue and total mass and length of the beam. The author concluded
that his results may be applied to the evaluation of discrete models for the
non-uniform beam by using experimental modal analysis data. Rams (1994)
results are complementary to those of Barcilon (1979, 1982) and Gladwell
(1984, 1986a) who showed that the discrete model may be reconstructed from
the eigenvalues of the beam subject to three different end congurations.
One of the central problems of the inverse theory is the identication of
elastic properties. Mota Soares et al. (1993) have suggested a scheme to
identify the elastic parameters of laminated plates using the frequencies of
free vibration. Yao and Qu (1998) used the optimization methods for the same
purpose. The objective function of the optimization was dened as the dif-
ference between the measured frequencies and computed frequencies of the
limited plates. The sensitivity of the structural eigenvalue with respect to the
material parameters was analyzed.
A characteristic static test for the identication of elastic moduli can be
described in the following way (Constantinescu, 1998): Elastic moduli of
a xed plate are to be identied from displacement and forces measured
simultaneously on a certain number of interior and boundary points. This
type of test has traditionally been used in order to identify a homogeneous
plate (Grediac and Vautrin, 1990, 1996; Grediac 1996). Changing the distribu-
tions of applied forces gives rise to a series of deection-force measurements,
representing a partial knowledge of the Dirichlet-to-Neumann data map char-
acterizing the boundary response of a body. This map generally gives the
correspondence among displacement, the Dirichlet boundary condition, and
forces in the Neumann boundary conditions. A series of results (Nakamura
and Uhlmann, 1995) showed that the knowledge of the Dirichlet-to-Neumann
data map permits the identication of the inhomogeneous distribution of elastic
moduli.
Gladwell and Morassi (1999) studied the effect of damage on the nodes
of free vibration modes of a thin rod in longitudinal vibration. The damage
(notch) was modeled as a spring. It was demonstrated that the nodes move
toward the damaged region. Qualitative measures of such a movement may
allow one to estimate the position and the damage. This investigation was a
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 50 #44
combined theoretical/experimental analysis, with attendant good agreement.
A neural network solution of the inverse vibration problem was facilitated by
Mahmoud and Abu Kiefa (1999).
The problem of reconstructing structures while the material density and
modulus of elasticity are treated as constant constitutes the principal sub-
ject of classical inverse analysis in vibrations. Several methods are reported
in the denitive monograph by Gladwell (1986a). Recently, inhomogeneous
structures attracted more interest. As Wang and Wang (1994) mentioned, in
classical works: the condition and method for constructing of cross-sectional
area of a rod with constant density and modulus of elasticity Efrom frequency
data are given. The analysis and constructed parameters are very sensitive to
changes in the frequency data, so the method is inconvenient in engineering
problems. Likewise, Ram(1994) wrote: ...in the classical inverse problem it is
assumed that the cross-sectional area of the rod is variable while the Youngs
modulus of elasticity and the rod density are constants.
In the papers by Ram (1994b) and Wang and Wang (1994) methods were
proposed to treat the cross-sectional area, the modulus of elasticity and the
material density as functions of the axial coordinate. It appears that this is a
more realistic situation than limiting oneself with structures of constant elastic
moduli.
1.10 Connection to the Work by

Zyczkowski and Gajewski
It is necessary to note that after this study was completed we uncovered
works by

Zyczkowski (19541991) which resonates well with the theme of
the present monograph, it is with great pleasure, that I am able to add this
section.

Zyczkowski (1991) writes:
The stability analysis of non-prismatic and inhomogeneous bars makes
it possible to apply a convenient inverse method. Thus, if we assume
a certain equation of deection line w = w(x), we can nd . . . such a
distribution of rigidity EI(x) of the bar, for which the function w(x) is the
exact solution
EI(x) =
M[w(x), x, P]
w
(x)
(1.173)
By introducing into the assumed equation of deection line a certain
number of free parameters, w = w(x; a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
), we can subsequently
select their value so as to obtain minimum deviations of the resultant
rigidity . . . from the rigidity of the bar under consideration. The applic-
ation of this method to elastic-plastic analysis of non-prismatic bars has
been discussed by

Zyczkowski (1954).
Zyczkowski (1955, 1956a) further developed his method. The generaliz-

ation of this method to the buckling of circular plates was performed by
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 51 #45
Introduction 51
Gajewski and

Zyczkowski (1965a,b, 1966). In their 1966 paper they write the
differential equation for the buckling of the circular plate in terms of the slope
= dw/dr,
z
2
D
+(z
2
D
+zD)
+(vzD
D+NR
2
z
2
) = 0 (1.174)
where z = r/R is a non-dimensional polar coordinate and N is the required
eigenvalue.
Then, the exact solution = (z) is assumed to be known and we obtain a
differential equation for the exural rigidit D:
_
+
v
z
_
D
+
d
dz
_
+

z
_
D = NR
2
(1.175)
the general solution of which is written as
D(z) =exp
_
_ _
(
+/z)
+/z
_
dz
_
_
C NR
2
_

+(z)
exp
__
(
+(z))
+/z
dz
_
dz
_
(1.176)
The constant Cis chosenso as to eliminate a singularity of the functionD(z).
Asimplication is obtained by assuming that
_
[
+(z)]
+/z
dz = ln z
n
(1.177)
where n is a real parameter to be determined. This leads to the Euler-type
equation for :
z
2
+(n +1)z
(1 n) = 0 (1.178)
with solution
(z) = C
1
z
bn/2
+C
2
z
bn/2
(1.179)
where
2b =
_
h
2
4n = 4 (1.180)
These considerations lead to the following expression for the exural rigidity
D(z) =
NR
2
(b n/2 +)(2 n)
(z
n
z
2
) (1.181)
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 52 #46
The critical force N
cr
is determined under the assumption that the exural
rigidity is known at some point of the plate; the value of the exural rigidity
at r = 0.5R is chosen as a known quantity. This rigidity is denoted as by D
0.5
.
This results in the following expression for the critical load:
N
cr
=
(b n/2 +)(n 2)2
n+2
2
n
4
D
0.5
R
2
(1.182)
with an attendant expression for the exural rigidity,
D(z) =
2
n+2
4 2
n
(z
n
z
2
)D
0.5
(1.183)
As can be seen, a polynomial expression was obtained for D(z). For other
cases the readers can consult Gajewski and

Zyczkowski (1966).
In this monograph we postulate fromthe very outset that the exural rigid-
ity represents a polynomial function. One can pose a relevant question: is
it possible that the vibration mode or the buckling mode of an inhomogen-
eous structure constitutes a trigonometric function? For uniform beams and
columns, depending on the boundary conditions, the eigenfunction may be
a trigonometric function. Cali and Elishakoff (2002, 2004a,b) demonstrated
that the reply to the above question is in the afrmative.
1.11 Connection to Functionally Graded Materials
Functionally graded materials (FGMs) are characterized by continuous
changes in their microstructure as distinguished from the piece-wise vari-
ation of the properties in conventional composite materials. An intensive
study has been conducted recently on the behavior, vibration and buck-
ling of structures made of FGMs. A denitive monograph on this topic is
the one by Suresh and Mortensen (1998). For a discussion of the concept
readers can consult the paper by Erdogan (1995); extensive activities associ-
ated with the FGM in Japan are described in the papers by Koizumi (1993,
1997). Stavskys (1964, 1965) pioneering works, some three decades before
the FGMs were developed, deal with continuously varying elastic moduli in
the thickness direction. Naturally, inhomogeneous structures, i.e., those with
variable moduli of elasticity, have long attracted investigators. The readers
can consult the books by Olszak (1959), Kolchin (1971), Nesterenko (2001), as
well as works by Mikhlin (1934), Glushkov (1939), Golecki (1959), Sherman
(1959), Plotnikov (19591967a,b), Babich (1961a,b), Birger (1961), Du (1961),
Ter-Mkrtchian (1961), Buer (1963), Lekhnitskii (1964), Schile (1963), Schile
and Sierakowski (1964), Kardomateas (1990) and many others.
The idea of the FGM stems from the desire to create new materials that
enable engineers to t a certain purpose. Actually, this idea is already in use
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 53 #47
Introduction 53
in the strength of materials courses and in the concept of the economic use of
materials, which, for example, prompts the use of an I-beam instead of one
with a rectangular cross-section. A further development of this concept is the
sandwich structure, i.e., a cross-section composed of strong facings and a soft
core. However, in sandwich or composite structures the material properties
in the thickness direction vary discontinuously. To avoid problems associated
with discontinuous variation of the elastic properties the use of FGMs was
suggested. In these the microstructure varies continuously in the thickness
direction so as to result in the smoothly varying function E(z).
The static behavior of structures made of FGMs was studied by Rooney
and Ferrari (1995), Abid Mian and Spencer (1998), Horgan and Chan (1999b),
Cheng and Batra (2000), Reddy (2000) and Venkataraman and Sankar (2003).
Higher-order theory for FGM was developed by Aboudi etal.(1999). Vibra-
tion of structures made of FGMs, was investigated by Pradhan et al. (2000),
Ng et al. (2001), and Yang and Shen (2003). Buckling problems attracted sev-
eral investigators, namely Birman (1995, 1997), Feldman and Aboudi (1997),
Najazadeh and Eslami (2002a,b), and Javerheri and Eslami (2002). It should
be stressed that the references on FGMs, listed here are only representative
ones they by no means exhaust this rapidly developing eld.
In this monograph we consider structures made of materials that can be
dubbed as axially graded materials(AGMs). Whereas we are unaware of exper-
imental realization of AGMs, it is anticipated that such materials will be
developed in the near future, for they will allow a tailored t to a special
purpose, i.e., with the static deection not exceeding a specic level, or the
buckling load not being less than a pre-specied level, or the natural fre-
quency either exceeding or to being less than a pre-specied frequency. It is
anticipated that the best functional grading will combine that both in axial
and thickness directions.
1.12 Scope of the Present Monograph
This monograph is entirely dedicated to the buckling and vibrations of
inhomogeneous structures. Whereas our main focus is on obtaining the
closed-form solutions, the posing of the problem as an inverse one turns out
to be effective. Yet, the formulation is very different from the classical inverse
problems, where the frequency spectrum is postulated to be given. Here, we
abstain from postulating the knowledge of the frequency spectrum. We pose
a modest requirement that the fundamental mode of vibration is specied.
Under these circumstances, we pose a problem of reconstructing the exural
rigidity of the structure when the variation of the material density is specied.
The essential feature of research reported in this monograph is are presenta-
tion of postulated mode shape a sapolynomial function. Specically, the mode
shapes are postulated as the static displacements of the associated uniform
EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 54 #48
and homogeneous structures. This immediately begs the following ques-
tion: Why is it at all possible for the structure to possess a mode shape that
coincides with the static displacement of another structure? Indeed, as a well-
known politician remarked, our formulation could have turned out to be as
impossible an action as trying to make eggs out of an omelette. Fortu-
nately, as will be shown in subsequent chapters, having the (self-directed)
chutzpha (audacity) to pose a seemingly strange question paid off. Numerous
closed-form solutions will be derived for rods, columns, beams and plates.
Along with the polynomial representation of the mode shape with attend-
ant polynomial material density and exural rigidity representation, some
other alternatives are pursued, leading to a rational representation of the
sought for exural rigidity function. It is worth noting that trigonometric
closed-form solutions that are characteristic to uniform structures found their
utmost relevance to inhomogeneous structures too, as recent work by Cali and
Elishakoff (2002) demonstrates. Forthcoming articles (2004a, 2004b, 2004c)
of the authors clearly show numerous possibilities in which trigonometric
closed-form solutions may be associated with inhomogeneous structures.

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EOIS: 2892_chap01 2004/9/28 19:18 page 7 #1

can be referred to as an effective length of the

() are the second derivatives of the basic functions. Alternatively,

(x) +p(x)g = g (1.165)

(x) +p(x)f = f (1.166)

(0) Ku(0) = 0 = A(1)u

(1) +Ku(1) (1.172)

Zyczkowski (1955, 1956a) further developed his method. The generaliz-

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