Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
History
The Latino population in the United States is growing rapidly, currently at 35.5 million or roughly 13% of the total population, and is projected to increase (U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2003). While Mexican Americans constitute the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States, their history and literature is virtually unknown and rarely taught in American classrooms. The Mexican American experience in the United States is diverse, complex and dynamic. No single definition or history characterizes the Mexican American experience, just as no single story can capture any other ethno-linguistic group. The rich complexity of Chicano history is rooted in its indigenous history. Some Mexican Americans have been here for generations while others will be arriving today. The history of Mexicans in the United States predates all other Latino groups. Upon the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1948, Mexicans became Mexican-Americans. This treaty gave the United States nearly half of Mexico's territory, what is now Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Nevada and California. With gold mining in California and the spread of railroad lines, "manifest destiny" followed, providing the basis for not only the displacement of land and people but of language and culture. Domination and subordination characterized the subsequent experiences of the various Mexican groups.
Education
Latino students are traditionally in conflict with their home culture versus school culture (Sue & Sue, 2003). The teacher's expectations may be in conflict with the child's home responsibilities and expectations (Sue & Sue, 2003). Therefore, the child spends much of his or her academic life balancing on a tight-wire between the dominant culture and the home culture. Mexican-American children tend to exhibit low achievement and mobility overall (Sue & Sue, 2003). Mexican American children have historically been marginalized by racist and separate but unequal schooling practices and facilities (Spring, 1998). Mexican-Americans have not fared well under these educational inequities. School authorities tended to explain these difficulties in terms of racial and cultural deficit models. Culturally biased performance tests, political opposition to bilingual education and teachers who are unfamiliar with Latino culture created barriers to learning for Latino children. The schools have historically played an important role in maintaining Anglo-American dominance. Using the social control of compulsory education, public officials wanted Mexican children in schools but segregated so they could be indoctrinated and controlled. They were to be "Americanized" (Spring, 2000), learn English, and rid themselves of the native language that was feared to be detrimental to the maintenance of a unified nation. This is the same method of control behind the dismantling of bilingual education today, California's Proposition 227 and other initiatives to impose highly controlled monolingual education.
Culturally-Affirming Practices/Strategies
Mexican Americans contend with a number of unique risk factors (e.g., poor schools, gang activity, violence and drug problems). The "cultural deficiency model" blames social problems on the adherence to traditional values and beliefs and fails to acknowledge the exploitative social system that creates and sustains these problems. The cultural deficiency perspective is being reexamined. New research is suggesting that Latinos who try to assimilate actually experience more distress than those who maintain cultural ties to Mexican traditions (Vigil, 1999). This social adaptation theory is exemplified by the story of one cohort member and her family's struggle to keep their Mexican culture intact after migrating to the United States. Only Mexican television shows were viewed in the home; her family ate typical Mexican food; and spoke only Spanish with each other. She credits this adherence to her cultural ties to her success in her life. She is comfortable interacting in the dominant culture as she went to school in that culture, but has also benefitted from her bicultural experience. Most second-generation Mexican Americans find a place for themselves in the dominant culture and have positive acculturation outcomes. An example of this resiliency and success can be explored in the story of Luis Rodriguez and his struggle to overcome institutionalized racism, gang involvement and poverty, ultimately to become a respected author and lecturer. The tremendous power in the story, Always Running: La Vida Loca, Gang Days in LA resonates with the idea that clearly, not all Mexican Americans live in poverty or as victims (Rodriguez, 1993).
Latinos experience racism and discrimination in great numbers (Sue & Sue, 2003). Sixteen percent of Latinos indicated that prejudice was the most important issue facing them (Krupin, 2001 as cited in Sue & Sue, 2003). As a result, it is important that school psychologists openly discuss cultural and ethnic identity issues as they relate to achievement in school. To be able to do this effectively, it is imperative that school psychologists have the opportunity to explore and understand their own cultural backgrounds and biases to best serve this population. An example of this in-depth exploration can be seen in the Seminar in Multicultural Dimensions in Counseling at San Diego State University's School Psychology Program. It is important for school psychologists to be aware of the complex interplay of historical, economical, social and political factors related to personal and social identity among Latinos. For example, as Latinos move within and between work, school, community and home, they have to contend with the pressures of diverging expectations related to overall behavior and language. These diverging expectations can be a locus of internal conflict and stress. From an ecosystemic perspective, the most effective interventions with Latino youth in trouble involve families, schools and communities. A student who may be having trouble with aspects of adaptation could benefit from a role model who serves as a mentor to support students in their development. Clearly, mentors would need to have experienced similar life situations to act as a positive role model. Interventions need to be grounded in salient cultural values and beliefs. Being aware of the collective nature of Latino households, interventions may be more effective at the group level. It is important for support personnel to recognize that counseling may not be sought until all other resources-family and close friends-are exhausted. Latinos may be suffering from conflicts between societal and cultural expectations. Counseling sessions may be more appropriately held in a church or school in the neighborhood rather than in a formal counseling setting (Sue & Sue, 2003).
Reflection
After truly experiencing this culture first hand through one-on-one connections and group explorations, I have come to reconcile the assumptions I held earlier in life. Latinos' pride in their family, their amazing love for life, and rich connection to their traditions are aspects that I would like to incorporate in my own life. I have a greater understanding of their concept of living in the moment, which quells the previous assumptions and stereotypes. Personally, I am changing. I am growing to see the beauty in the moment instead of the "light at the end of the tunnel." I have also learned about the politics behind the labels and the importance and the pride in the indigenous heritage. No amount of reading or studying could provide the depth of understanding that was brought about through this assignment. As a practitioner it is important to prepare oneself with multicultural competence. It is imperative, in this ever-changing world that we live in, that School Psychology training programs provide us with the tools that best meet the needs of the populations we will be serving. Throughout this paper, I have only touched upon the issues that practitioners need to understand when working with the Latino population.
References
Coe, M.D., (1994). Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs. New York: Thames and Hudson. Falicov, C.J., (1995). Training to think culturally: A multidimensional comparative framework. Family Process, 34, 373-388. Rodriguez, L., (1993). Always running la vida loca: Gang days in LA. New York: Touchstone Books.
Spring, J. (2000). The American school. New York: McGraw-Hill. Sue D. & Sue, D. (2003). Counseling the culturally diverse. New York: John Wiley & Sons. U.S. Census Bureau (2003). Census 2003: General demographic characteristics for the United States, 2003. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, Table DP-1. Vigil, D., (1999). Streets and schools: how can educators help Chicano marginalized gang youth. Harvard Educational Review, 69, 270-282. 2004, National Association of School Psychologists. Amy Taylor is a student in the specialist School Psychology program at San Diego State University. This paper was originally written to fulfill requirements of the SDSU Seminar in Multicultural Dimensions in Counseling.