Circulatory System

Circulatory System: blood and lymphatic systems.

Blood System Liquid: blood

Lymphatic System Liquid: blood Vessels: capillaries, ducts + nodes

Vessels: arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins Pump: heart No specialised pump

Circuit Flow: from heart to organs back to heart . organs

Linear Flow: to subclavian veins from

The Blood System Functions of Blood System

Transport: to and from tissue cells

Nutrients to tissue cells: amino acids, glucose, vitamins, minerals in solution in the plasma; lipids as lipoproteins. Oxygen: by red blood corpuscles. Wastes: urea, uric acid and some CO2 in solution in the plasma. Most CO2 is carried in the red blood corpuscles. Temperature Regulation: by altering the blood flow through the skin.

Immunity: protection against pathogens blood clotting; phagocytes, lymphocytes and antibodies distributed in blood.

Communication: hormones distributed to all parts of the body in the blood.

Composition of Blood

Plasma: pale yellow sticky liquid; 55% of blood volume.

Components: water 92%, dissolved protein 8%, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, urea, uric acid, CO2, hormones, antibodies.

Suspended Solids

Textbook Diagram: structure of suspended solids of blood.

Red Blood Cells

Tiny biconcave disc-shaped cells. Do not have a nucleus. Do not have mitochondria. Their cytoplasm is rich in haemoglobin. O2 binds to the iron in haemoglobin. Made in the bone marrow. Survive for about four months. Destroyed and recycled by the liver and spleen. White Blood Cells (leucocytes)

These are colourless cells and possess a nucleus. They function in defending the body against pathogens. Some feed on pathogens by phagocytosis. Others produce antibodies, the specific defence proteins. Made by the bone marrow and lymphatic tissue.

Platelets

These are tiny fragments of large bone marrow cells. They carry specialised blood clotting chemicals. The clotting chemicals are released where blood and lymph vessels are injured. A nucleus is not present in platelets. Specialist White Blood Cells

Monocytes: largest white blood cells engulf viruses, cancer cells, damaged and dead tissue cells.

T Lymphocytes (T cells) made in the bone marrow, mature in the thymus.

Helper T Cells: stimulate the multiplication of other lymphocytes. Killer T Cells: inject lethal chemicals into pathogenic cells. Suppressor T Cells: halt the immune response when the infection has been overcome. Memory T Cells: give immediate future protection against the same pathogen. B Lymphocytes (B cells): specific antibody producing cells.

Blood Grouping

ABO Blood Grouping System

Four groups. The blood group depends on the presence or absence of antigen A and antigen on the surface of red blood cells. Group A: antigen A only. Group B: antigen B only. Group AB: antigen A and antigen B are both present.

Group O: antigen A is not present and antigen is not present. Rhesus Blood Grouping System

Two groups. The group depends on the presence or absence of the Rhesus-antigen.

Rh-positive: the Rhesus-antigen is present. Rh-negative: the Rhesus-antigen is not present.

Blood Vessels

Textbook Diagrams: transverse sections of artery, vein and capillary.

Artery compared to vein

The wall of the artery is thicker: thicker connective tissue layer, thicker mixed layer of muscle and elastic tissue. The lumen of the artery is much narrower. Arteries do not have valves along their length, veins do. Valves in the veins prevent the backflow of blood so the flow is in one correct direction towards the heart. Blood flows away from the heart in arteries; blood flows towards the heart in veins. Blood pressure in arteries is higher and so also the speed of blood flow. Pulse flow in an artery, steady flow in a vein. Muscle tissue in not present in the capillaries

The muscle layer allows change in the diameter of vessels. This helps to regulate blood flow to and from the tissues in response to their requirement.

Capillaries

The real work of the blood, exchange with tissue cells, is carried out at the capillaries. Capillaries are the microscopic links between arteries veins. The capillary wall is one cell thick and somewhat porous ideal to allow materials to pass in and out. All tissue cells very close to a capillary so exchange is very efficient. Exchange at the capillaries is by diffusion, mass flow and active transport. Blood flow in capillaries is slow giving enough time for effective exchange. Closed System of Blood Vessels

The blood does not make direct contact with the tissue cells. The blood is retained in the blood vessels. A closed system is very responsive to the change needs of the organs and is highly efficient. Double Circuit

Pulmonary Circuit: deoxygenated blood flows from the heart to the lungs, oxygen is taken on and carbon dioxide is excreted, oxygenated blood flows from the lungs back to the heart.

Systemic Circuit: oxygenated blood flows from the heart to the organ systems of the body, oxygen is delivered and carbon dioxide is taken on, deoxygenated blood flow from the organs systems back to the heart.

The double circuit does not allow mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Therefore oxygen supply is highly efficient.

Portal System

A portal blood vessel has a set of capillaries at each end. The blood flows from one set of capillaries along the portal vessel to the other set of capillaries.

The hepatic portal vein carries blood rich in absorbed nutrients from the capillaries in the alimentary canal to capillaries in the liver.

The Heart

Textbook Diagram: structure of the heart.

The heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs protected by the rib cage. The heart is a double pump. The right side collects deoxygenated blood from all parts. The right side pumps deoxygenated to the lungs for oxygenation and excretion of CO2. The left side collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to all parts. The right and left side fill and empty in unison. Each side pumps the same volume of blood. The wall of the left ventricle is about three times thicker than that of the right ventricle. The left ventricle needs more cardiac muscle to give the blood a much stronger push. The oxygenated blood has to be driven a far greater distance. Heart action

Deoxygenated blood from the inferior and superior vena cava flows into the right atrium and on into the right ventricle. Oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins flows into the left atrium and on into the left ventricle. The right and left ventricles fill with blood. Then the atria now fill with blood. The pacemaker (sino-atrial node) in the right atrium generates a nerve impulse causing the atria to contract. Contraction of the atria adds extra blood to the ventricles. The transmission of the impulse to the ventricles is delayed giving time for them to receive the additional blood.

The impulse enters the ventricles at the atrio-ventricular node and travels through the septum to the ventricles. The ventricles contract and force the blood towards the openings of the arteries, pulmonary artery and aorta. The cuspid valves close (lub sound) preventing blood returning to the atria. The semilunar valves are pushed open by the inrushing blood. The elastic arteries expand quickly taking the blood. When the ventricles stop contracting the arteries recoil elastically. The elastic recoil squeezes the blood in the artery forcing it further away from the heart. The closure of the semilunar valves prevents blood flowing back into the ventricles from the arteries. The blood flows completely along the artery into the distant capillaries. Cardiac cycle

Diastole: relaxed cardiac muscle the heart fills with blood under low pressure from the veins.

Systole: cardiac muscle contracting the chambers of the heart are emptying of blood.

Atrial Systole: contraction and emptying of the atria supplying extra blood to the ventricles. Ventricular Systole: contraction and emptying of the ventricles ejecting blood from the heart into the arteries. Cardiac Muscle

The muscle making up the heart is called cardiac muscle. It is myogenic, i.e., stimulates itself to contract contracts without any external stimulation. It is an involuntary, strong muscle that does not fatigue. The Pacemaker

It is a small area of cardiac muscle in the wall of the right atrium. It lies close to the entry of the superior vena cava.

Its automatic rhythmic contraction starts each cardiac cycle. Two nerves from the medulla oblongata connect to it influencing its rate of contraction. One nerve quickly accelerates the heart rate and the other can quickly reduces it back to resting rate. Factors affecting heart rate

Increase: exercise, increased body temperature, stress, mental excitement, infection. Decrease: increased physical fitness, sleep, and mental relaxation. Coronary circulation

The blood flowing through the heart does not directly serve the heart. Like all other organs the heart muscle has its own blood circuit. Two coronary arteries arise from the aorta just beyond its semilunar valve. The right coronary artery mostly serves the right atrium and right ventricle. The left coronary artery is much larger and supplies the left atrium and left ventricle. There is a very extensive capillary network throughout the cardiac muscle. The coronary veins collect the blood from the capillaries. The coronary veins deliver the deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.

Textbook Diagram: General Circulation and learn the names of the major blood vessels.

Pulse

This is a wave of vibration that passes from the heart along a systemic artery. The vibration is caused by the forceful ejection of blood from the heart. The pulse wave travels much faster than the blood. The pulse rate is the same as the heart rate. Blood Pressure

The blood is pressing against the blood vessel walls. Pressure is how concentrated is the push. The pressure varies along the circuit decreasing from artery to arteriole to capillary to venule to vein. Pressure is highest at the start of the artery and lowest at the entrance to the atrium. Blood pressure is much higher in the aorta than in the pulmonary artery. Reference blood pressure is measure in a large artery in the upper arm. The pressure need to stop blood flow in this artery is measured at diastole and systole. Standard healthy readings: 80 mm Hg diastolic, 120 mm Hg systolic. Effect of Smoking

Hardening of the arteries. Increased risk of heart disease. Raised blood pressure. Increased risk of stroke. Effect of Diet

Anaemia: lack of iron. High Blood Pressure: excessive salt. Low Blood Pressure: lack of protein. Effect of Exercise

Lower resting heart rate more efficient heart. Dilated arteries improved blood flow to all the organs. Less risk of heart disease.

The Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system is a collection of special drainage vessels collecting excess tissue fluid from the different parts of the body. This excess tissue fluid re-enters the blood at the left and right subclavian veins.

Once the tissue fluid enters the lymphatic capillaries it is called lymph. Lymph is a clear liquid similar in composition to the plasma but with only 2% protein in comparisons to the plasmas 8%.

The lymphatic capillaries unite to form lymphatics (lymph veins) and larger lymph channels. The lymphatics are richly supplied with valves. The valves keep the lymph flowing in the one direction towards the subclavian veins.

Distributed along the lymphatics are lymph nodes. The lymph nodes filter the lymph and produce lymphocytes. The lymphocytes protect against pathogens by phagocytosis and antibody production.

Lymphatics from the lower regions merge forming the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct drains lymph into the left subclavian vein. The thoracic duct also receives lymph from the lymphatics draining the upper left part of the body. The right thoracic duct collects lymph from the upper right part of the body draining it into the right subclavian vein.

The lymph is moved along the lymph vessels by the squeezing action of the skeletal muscles, pressure changes in the thorax during breathing and by the rhythmic contraction of the lymph vessel walls.

Blood is the source of the excess tissue fluid

Textbook Diagram: formation of tissue fluid and lymph.

As the blood enters the capillaries the pressure forces some of the plasma out through the wall. The escaped fluid is called tissue fluid similar in composition to plasma with only about 2% protein. The tissue fluid is the true environment of the cells of the body our cells are aquatic. At the venule end most (90%) of the escaped tissue fluid is drawn back into the blood by osmosis. The escaped proteins do not return to the blood at the capillary. The 10% excess tissue fluid must be drained away to allow the tissue to function normally. The lymphatic system carries out this function. Summary of the major functions of the Lymphatic System

Circulatory role Return the excess tissue fluid to the blood: this maintains blood volume, pressure and concentration. Collect and deliver the absorbed lipids from the small intestine to the blood (enters at the left subclavian vein). Defence role The lymph nodes filter out pathogens in the lymph. Production and export of lymphocytes to the blood system for general distribution. Detection of antigens and production of specific antibodies.

Mandatory Activities

Investigate the effect of exercise on your heart rate

Find a strong pulse in your wrist. Each pulse is a heartbeat. Three times measure and record the heart rate at rest. Calculate the average.

Count the number of pulses in 20 seconds and multiply by three - this is the heart rate-beats per minute. Repeat the measurements again three times during gentle exercise slow jogging on the spot. Repeat the measurements again three times during strenuous exercise fast jogging on the spot. Rest must be taken between each exercise session. Compare the results for rest, gentle and vigorous exercise. Repeat many times to verify the results. Conclusion: exercise increases the heart rate and the more vigorous the exercise the higher the heart rate. Dissect, display and identify an oxs or a sheeps heart

Squeeze the ventricles the soft side is the right ventricle. Squeeze to locate the position of the septum. Use a blade to cut into the right ventricle just to the side of the septum. Cut from the base of the layer of fat to the pointed end. Then cut across just below the layer of fat. Pull back this angular flap to see inside the right ventricle. Now repeat on the left side. Remove the top of each atrium to see into the atrial cavity. Identify the arteries pulmonary connected to right ventricle, aorta to left ventricle. Look into the stumps of the arteries to see the semilunar valves. Pin down the dissection and flag label.