AM TRANSMITTER, dB and Noise

Standard AM Transmitter Transmitter Requirements 1. Frequency accuracy and stability 2. Frequency agility 3. Special purity (absence of spurious signals) 4. Power output rating 5. Efficiency 6. Modulation fidelity AM Transmitter Functional Block Diagram Linear Power Amplifier -Amplifier which provides linear power amplification of the amplitude modulated output signal from the Class C modulated power amplifier (used for low level modulation). AF Processing and Filtering -AF is processed / filtered so as to occupy the correct bandwidth and compressed somewhat to reduce the ratio of maximum to minimum amplitude. AF Preamplifier -Boost the AF signal in order to provide enough gain sufficiently to drive the modulator. Modulator -Output is mixed with the carrier to generate the AM signal. dB and NOISE DECIBEL -A means of expressing change in power level -Comparison of two powers and does not express a fixed value unless it refers to dB above or below some specific reference point Change in POWER expressed in Decibels PdB = 10 log (Pout/Pin) Change in VOLTAGE expressed in Decibels VdB = 20 log Vout/Vin Change in CURRENT expressed in Decibels IdB = 20 log Iout/Iin POWER with RESPECT to SPECIFIC REFERENCE POWER LEVEL dBk = 10 log (Plevel/1x103 W) dBw = 10 log (Plevel/1 W) dBm = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-3 W) dBu = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-6 W) dBn = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-9 W) dBp = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-12 W) dBf = 10 log (Plevel/1x10-15 W) Page 1

Crystal Oscillator -It provides a stable carrier frequency at low power. Buffer Amplifier -A low gain, high input impedance amplifier that isolates the crystal oscillator to improve its ability. Class C RF Power Amplifier (Driver) -Provide enough gain to sufficiently drive the modulated amplifier. Class C RF Output Amplifier -Termed as the modulated amplifier or the RF output amplifier. This is the output stage for high level systems.

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AM TRANSMITTER, dB and Noise

dB OPERATIONS dB1 + dB2 = dBT dB + dBu = dBu dB + dBm = dBm dB + dBk = dBk Invalid operation dBm1 + dBm2 dBw1 + dBw2 dBk + dBw Note: convert power levels into watts and perform the operation POWER EXPRESSED in NEPERS -Power can also be defined in terms of the natural logarithm to the base e=2.718281828. -When defined as the natural logarithm, the unit is Neper. PNeper = ln (Pout/Pin) 1 Neper = 8.686 dB ; 1 dB = 0.1151 Neper NOISE -Any unwanted form of electrical energy, usually random or aperiodic in character, which tends to interfere with the proper and easy reception and reproduction of transmitted signals. DISTORTION and INTERFERENCE DISTORTION -Any waveform perturbation or deviation caused by the imperfect response of the system to the desired signal INTERFERENCE -Contamination by extraneous or external signals from human sources, other transmitters, power lines, machinery, switching circuits, and related sources RESULTS OF NOISE Hiss - loudspeakers Snow or confetti TV CRT Bit error digital transmission GENERAL CATEGORIES of NOISE 1. CORRELATED NOISE -unwanted electrical energy that is present as a direct result of a signal, such as harmonic and intermodulation distortion. 2. UNCORRELATED NOISE -noise present regardless of whether there is a signal or none. CORRELATED NOISE 1. INTERMODULATION DISTORTION -unwanted cross-product (sum and difference) frequencies created when two or more signals are amplified in a non-linear device. 2. HARMONIC DISTORTION -unwanted multiples of a single frequency created when amplified in non-linear device % THD = Vhigher/Vfundamental UNCORRELATED NOISE 1. EXTERNAL -noise created outside the receiver and allowed to enter the circuit 2. INTERNAL -noise created within the receiver or the device. EXTERNAL NOISE 1. ATMOSPHERIC NOISE (STATIC) -caused by lightning discharges in thunderstorms and other natural electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. -less severe at frequencies above 30 MHz

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AM TRANSMITTER, dB and Noise

2. EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE (SPACE NOISE) -Severe at 10 MHz 1.45 GHz 3. SOLAR NOISE -Constant noise radiation from the sun (6000C). Due to electrical disturbances due to solar cycle activities that repeat every 11 years and supercycles every 99 years 4. COSMIC NOISE (THERMAL, BLACKBODY, GALACTIC) -Noise radiated from distant stars and other heavenly bodies 5. INDUSTRIAL NOISE (MAN MADE NOISE) -Noise coming from automobile and aircraft ignition, electric motors and switching equipment, fluorescents, leakage from high voltage lines and a multitude of other heavy electric machines. -Severe at 15 160 MHz 6. THERMAL AGITATION NOISE (White, Gaussian, Johnson Noise) -Due to the rapid and random motion of the molecules, atoms and electrons of which any component (resistor) made of. Noise Power Pn=kTB Noise Voltage Vn=4kTBR Noise Spectrum Density Where: Pn=Noise Power k=1.38x10-23 T=Temperature in Kelvin B=Bandwidth R=Resistance 7. SHOT NOISE -Random variations in the arrival of electrons (or holes) at the output electrode of an amplifying device - When amplified, it is supposed to sound as though a shower of lead shot were falling on a metal sheet. in=(2qidcB) in=Shot noise current q=1.6x10-19 idc=DC bias current 8. TRANSIT TIME NOISE -High frequency noise resulting from delayed travel of electrons from emitter-collector of a vacuum tube or transistor MISCELLANEOUS NOISE a. FLICKER NOISE (MODULATION NOISE, PINK NOISE) -Low frequency noise from carrier density fluctuations. It is proportional to emitter current and junction temperature, inversely proportional to frequency (negligible above 500 Hz) b. RESISTANCE NOISE -Due to the base (greatest contributor), emitter and collector internal resistance c. NOISE in MIXERS -Low transconductance of mixers compared to amplifiers and inadequate image frequency rejection. d. CROSSTALK -Interference signal from one channel to another e. AVALANCHE NOISE -Large noise spikes due to collision that result in avalanching action f. BURST NOISE (POP-CORN) -Low frequency noise observed in BJT which appears as a series of burst of two or more levels.

Sn=kT

Noise Bandwidth and Noise Voltage of RC Network Bn = 1/4RC fc=1/2piRC Vn = (kT/C)

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AM TRANSMITTER, dB and Noise

g. PARTITION NOISE -Random fluctuations in the division of current in two or more electrodes. h. IMPULSE NOISE -Non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and of relatively high amplitude. The spikes are called HITS. NOISE ANALYSIS and CALCULATIONS ADDITION of NOISE due to SEVERAL SOURCES: Vn total = 4kTBRt Vn total = V2n(1)+V2n(2)++V2n(N) ADDITION of NOISE due to SEVERAL AMPLIFIERS in CASCADE: Vn total = 4kTBReq Req = equivalent noise resistance as referred to the input Req = R1 + R2/A12 + R3/A12 A22 Equivalent Noise Temperature Teq = T1 + T2/A12 + T3/A12 A22 Noise in Reactive Circuits Vn total = 4kTBRD RD=Q/woC=QwoL=Q2r SIGNAL-to-NOISE RATIO (S/N) -Relative strength of the signal power to the noise power at the same point S/N = (signal power/noise power) = (Ps/Pn) ; power ratio S/N = (signal voltage/noise voltage)2 = (Vs/Vn)2 ; voltage ratio NOISE FACTOR (F) and NOISE FIGURE (NF) -The figure of merit that indicates the degradation in the signal-tonoise ratio as the signal propagates through an amplifier or a communications system. a. NOISE FACTOR from SIGNAL to NOISE RATIO F = (input S/N) / (output S/N) NFdB = 10 log F b. NOISE FACTOR from EQUIVALENT NOISE RESISTANCE F = 1 + (Req/Ra) Req = Req - Rt For Cascaded Network

c. Noise Factor in Terms of Equivalent Noise Temperature F = 1 + (Teq/T0) Teq = T0 (F 1) d. Equivalent Noise Resistance Req = Ra (F 1) CARRIER to NOISE RATIO (C/N) -Is the ratio of the wideband carrier to the wideband noise power -The signal-to-noise ratio measured before the signal is demodulated, that is, while it still has a carrier. Test tone -A pure signal at a signal frequency and power level -Usual reference 1000 Hz at 1 mW applied at a point of 0 relative level

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AM TRANSMITTER, dB and Noise

Weighting Curve -Curve showing the relative interfering effects of sinusoidal tones compared to a reference frequency Weighting Network -Equalizer which attenuates frequencies in the same manner as would be done by the average ear with the specific listening apparatus to which the weighting refers. Relative Level -The difference between the power of a signal at one point and its power a reference point NOISE UNITS and LEVELS SSBSC 1. dBrn (144 Weighting Curve, Western Electric 144 Handset) -dB above reference noise -Reference level: -90 dBm at 1 kHz (pure tone) 2. dBa (F1A Weighting Curve, F1A Handset) -dB above reference noise adjusted -Reference level: -85 dBm at 1 kHz (pure tone) --82 dBm at 3 kHz (random, white noise) 3. dBrnC (C-Message Weighting Curve, 500 type handset) -dB above reference noise -Reference level: -90 dBm at 1 kHz (pure tone) --88 dBm at 3 kHz (random, white noise) 4. pWp (pW psophometrically weighted) -Reference level: -90 dBm at 800 Hz -Psophometrically weighted picowatt 5. dBaO -dBa adjusted at 0 dBm level point 6. dBrnCO -dBrnC at 0 dBm level point SSBRC (m2Pc)/4 0.1Pc+(m2Pc) /4 (m2Pc)/4 (m2Pc)/4 ADDITIONAL FORMULAS AM TRANSMIT SIDEBAND SYSTE POWER (Pt) POWER M (Pusb=Plsb/Pusb or Plsb) 2 DSBFC Pc(1+(m /2)) (m2Pc)/4 Pt=(m2Pc)/2 Pc+(m2Pc)/4 Pusb=Plsb=(m2Pc )/4 (m2Pc)/4 TRANSMIT VOLTAGE (Vt) Vc 1+(m2/2) Vt=(mVc)/ 2 Vc 1+m2/4 (mVc)/2 TRANSMI T CURRENT (It) Ic 1+(m2/ 2) It=(mIc)/ 2 Ic 1+m2/4 (mIc)/2

DSBSC SSBFC

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