Journal of Sports Sciences, June 2005; 23(6): 573 582

Training and testing physical capacities for elite soccer players

JAN HOFF
Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway (Accepted 24 July 2004)

Abstract Elite soccer players spend a substantial amount of time trying to improve physical capacities, including aerobic endurance and strength and the strength derivatives of speed and power. The average oxygen uptake for international soccer teams ranges from 55 to 68 ml kg71 min71 and the half-squat maximal strength from 120 to 180 kg. These values are similar to those found in other team sports. Recently, it has been shown that the hearts stroke volume is the element in the oxygen chain that mainly limits aerobic endurance for athletes. These ndings have given rise to more intensive training interventions to secure high stroke volumes, which, in turn, have proved positive in changing both maximal oxygen consumption and soccer performance in terms of distance covered, contacts with the ball and number of sprints in a game. The training employed has consisted of 4 6 4-min intervals running uphill at 90 95% of maximal heart rate interspersed with 3 min jogging at 70% of maximal heart rate to facilitate removal of lactate. Research has revealed that a soccer-specic training routine with the ball might be as effective as plain running. Strength training to produce neural adaptations has been effective in changing not only strength in terms of one-repetition maximum, but also sprinting velocity and jumping height, in elite soccer players without any change in body mass. The same training has also improved running economy and thus aerobic endurance performance. The training regimen used for a European Champions League team was 4 6 4 repetitions of half-squats with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric action.

Keywords: Endurance, lactate threshold, maximal oxygen uptake, neural adaptations, one-repetition maximum, rate of force development, running economy, strength

Introduction Football (soccer) players require technical, tactical and physical skills to succeed. In part, professional soccer emphasizes selection between players as well as development of the players performance. This review concentrates on the development of players performance and primarily their physical resources. The current review focuses on the approaches used by our research group, as extensive reviews exist with a broader perspective (Shephard, 1999). Individual technique, tactics and physical resources are all important when evaluating performance differences in soccer. It is difcult to discriminate between the relative importance of each of these elements when evaluating performance differences. Muscular strength and power share importance with endurance within the physical resources.

Endurance training The average exercise intensity for a player in a 90min soccer match is close to that of the lactate threshold, or 80 90% of maximal heart rate (Bangsbo, 1994; Reilly, 1990). It would be physiologically impossible to maintain a higher average intensity over a longer period of time due to the resultant accumulation of blood lactate. Expressing intensity as an average over 90 min could result in substantial loss of specic information. In soccer matches, the high-intensity periods usually constitute the most interesting parts of the game, where accumulation of lactate takes place. It is necessary for the players to experience intervening periods of low-intensity exercise to remove lactate from the working muscles and from the blood. There is a signicant correlation between maximal _ O2max) and distance covered oxygen uptake (V

Correspondence: J. Hoff, NTNU, DMF, NO-7489 Trondheim, Norway. E-mail: jan.hoff@medisin.ntnu.no ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online 2005 Taylor & Francis Group Ltd DOI: 10.1080/02640410400021252

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J. Hoff Rosenborg. The difference in terms of work capacity _ O2max about to an average team with a mean V 6 ml kg71 min71 lower is, in terms of distance covered and thus in playable positions, suggested to be similar to having one extra player on the eld (Wislff et al., 1998). Soccer players should ideally be able to maintain a high exercise intensity throughout a game. Studies, however, have shown a reduction in distance covered, more low-intensity than high-intensity work, a reduced heart rate, reduced blood glucose concentrations and reduced lactate concentrations in the second compared with the rst half of games. This observation indicates a reduced level of activity (Ekblom, 1986; Tumilty, 1993). Players who have a _ O2max have high glycogen stores necessary for high V the release of energy, which is required to perform the high-intensity sprints and physical challenges throughout a competitive match. They also have an elevated rate of recovery (Bangsbo & Mizuno, 1988; _ O2max also Ekblom, 1986). Players with a higher V perform the highest number of sprints and take part more often in decisive plays during a match than those with lower values (Smaros, 1980). As glycogen stores are reduced during a match, an increasing amount of energy has to be delivered from fat. _ O2max are better able to Players with a higher V mobilize and utilize fat at the same relative workload and are thus able to save glycogen for use in the most intensive and decisive plays during a match (Reilly & Thomas, 1979). Players with a higher _ O2max are also able to run further and at a higher V intensity before a reduction in glycogen stores and accumulation of lactate force them to reduce their intensity. This fatigue will affect the quality of technical and tactical elements in a match (Ekblom, 1986; Tumilty, 1993). That a high level of lactate accumulation reduces technical ability was demonstrated in a study in which players were able to perform an average of 64 juggles with the ball that is, keeping it off the ground before a block of hard training leading to lactate accumulation. After the training session, the average number of juggles was only three (Ekblom, 1986). _ O2max is When assessing aerobic performance, V considered the most important determinant. Other important factors include the lactate threshold and running economy (Helgerud et al., 1990; Hoff, Gran, & Helgerud, 2002a; Hoff, Helgerud, & Wislff, 2002b; Pate & Kriska, 1984). In some sports, the lactate threshold might be a better indicator of _ O2max (Jaaerobic endurance performance than V cobs, 1986). The lactate threshold determines the highest workload, oxygen consumption or heart rate in dynamic work using large muscle groups, where production and elimination of lactate are balanced (Helgerud et al., 1990). The lactate threshold might

during a match (Bangsbo, 1994; Smaros, 1980). Distance covered during a match was shown to differ a lot in studies carried out in the early 1970s, partly because of awed methods. Measurements have become more reliable (Reilly, 1990) and differences between top teams are now considered to be quite small. For example, it has been reported that male players cover 10,245 m (Van Gool, Van Gerven, & Boutmans, 1988), 9845 m (Ohashi, Togari, Isokawa, & Suzuki, 1988), 10,800 m (Danish elite players: Bangsbo, 1992), 11,527 m (Australian elite players: Withers, Maricic, Wasilewski, & Kelly, 1982) and 10,335 m (elite junior players: Helgerud, Engen, Wislff, & Hoff, 2001). These values are considered reliable, objective and valid. Apor (1988) reported that the ranking of four teams in the Hungarian top soccer division reected _ O2max of the the ranking between the average V teams. This nding indicates that a relationship _ O2max and team performance. The exists between V results of Wislff, Helgerud and Hoff (1998) supported this assumption by also demonstrating a _ O2max between the top team and clear difference in V a team placed lower in the Norwegian elite division. _ O2max for international level male The average V soccer players has been reported to range between 55 and 68 ml kg71 min71, with individual values of more than 70 ml kg71 min71 having been recorded (Davis, Brewer, & Atkin, 1992; Reilly, 1994; Wislff et al., 1998). These values are similar to those reported for other team sports, but substantially lower than those for elite performers in endurance sports, where values near to 90 ml kg71 min71 have commonly been recorded. Maximal oxygen uptake expressed in ml kg71 min71 implies linearity between oxygen cost and body mass, which is not the case (Bergh, Sjdin, Forsberg, & Svedenhag, 1991). When _ O2max in ml kg71 min71, work capaexpressing V city is overestimated in light individuals (e.g. endurance sport athletes) and underestimated in heavy individuals. The opposite is true when evaluating the oxygen cost of running at submaximal workloads. Consequently, several studies (Bergh et al., 1991; Helgerud, Ingjer, & Strmme, 1990; Hoff & Helgerud, 2004; Wislff et al., 1998) have concluded that comparisons between individuals of different body mass of oxygen uptake determined when running should be expressed in ml kg70.75 min71. Allometric scaling is described strand & Rodahl, 1986; in greater detail elswhere (A Bergh et al., 1991; Helgerud et al., 1990; Hoff & Helgerud, 2004; Wislff et al., 1998). _ O2max for a profesThe highest reliable average V sional soccer team was reported by Wislff et al. (1998) to be 67.6 ml kg71 min71 or 70.75 71 200.2 ml kg min for the Norwegian team

Training and testing physical capacities _ O2max, but these change without any alteration in V changes are minor. A higher lactate threshold means, theoretically, that a player can maintain a higher average intensity in an activity without accumulation of lactate (Heck et al., 1985). Values for the lactate threshold are normally expressed as a percentage of _ O2max. maximal heart rate or a percentage of V Running velocity at the lactate threshold or at _ O2max is also inuenced by running economy. V Costill, Thomas and Roberts (1973) and Helgerud (1994), among others, have reported individual variations in running economy. The causes of variability are not well understood but it is likely that anatomical traits, mechanical skill, neuromuscular skill and storage of elastic energy are relevant factors (Pate & Kriska, 1984). The running economies of well-trained runners have been reported to be better than those of recreational runners (Helgerud, 1994; Helgerud et al., 1990; Pate, Sparling, Wilson, Cureton, & Miller, 1987); this is probably related to the greater running experience of the former. Running economy is normally expressed as _ O2) at a standardized workoxygen consumption (V _ load or V O2 per metre when running (Helgerud, 1994; Saltin, 1990). Hoff and Helgerud (2003) have shown how aerobic performance changes with an improvement in running economy due to a strength training regimen, without any concomitant changes _ O2max or the lactate threshold. When choosing a in V training regimen to improve maximal aerobic per_ O2max, the lactate threshold and running formance, V economy have to be taken into consideration. _ O2max is limited by central or periphWhether V eral elements in the oxygen transport chain from the lungs to the enzymes in the muscle cells must also be considered. In activities involving large muscle groups like running, conductance analyses (Saltin, 1990; Shephard, 1977) favour a central limitation that is, the hearts maximal cardiac output. This is supported by the premise that large muscles have a capacity to receive 3 4 times more blood if the heart is capable of delivering such an amount (Savard et al., 1987). Analysis of the elements in oxygen transport that limit aerobic endurance have recently revealed differences between trained and untrained individuals. Whereas untrained individuals are limited by the muscles ability to utilize available oxygen, trained individuals are primarily limited by the hearts ability to pump blood (Richardson, 2000; Wagner, 2000). The stroke volume of the heart has been thought to be the most important factor, especially since it can be twice as high in trained athletes than sedentary individuals. Recent studies have further shown the importance of a large stroke volume. In textbooks, the relation between stroke volume and heart rate is described as increasing

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linearly during higher workloads until about 60% of _ O2max, where stroke volume reaches a plateau or V shows only a modest increase in both trained and sedentary individuals. Gledhill, Cox and Jamnik (1994) and Zhou et al. (2001) have examined the levelling off in stroke volume. They found that stroke volume increased continuously with increasing work_ O2max in well-trained participants. In loads up to V sedentary individuals and moderately trained participants, the classical levelling off phenomenon was seen. The increasing stroke volume up to the point of _ O2max in trained athletes has been the background V for using high-intensity training interventions in our endurance training. A soccer player is able to maintain repetitive bouts of this intensity for 3 8 min. At this workload, it normally takes 1 2 min for cardiac output to reach its highest. As this intensity far exceeds the lactate threshold, increased lactate is observed and lactate concentration has to be reduced between each exercise period. This rationale lies behind using an approximately 3-min break between intervals at an intensity of 60 70% of maximal heart rate, which reduces blood lactate concentration (Hermansen & Stensvold, 1972). Helgerud et al. (2001) conducted an intervention study using 4 6 4-min interval training at 90 95% of maximal heart rate, training half the members of an elite junior (under-18) soccer team three times per week for 8 weeks; the other half of the players acted as a control group by performing their normal _ O2max soccer training. The individual increase in V 71 71 was 6 ml kg min greater in the experimental than the control group; this was accompanied by a 1700-m greater distance covered during a game, 24% more contacts with the ball and a 100% increase in number of sprints, all more than in the control group. Helgerud, Kemi and Hoff (2003) used the same interval training regimen for a European Champions League team, who showed the same _ O2max. While Helgerud et al. improvement in V (2001, 2003) used uphill running and inclined treadmill running, Hoff, Wislff, Kemi and Helgerud (2002c) have shown that a specially designed track (Figure 1) substituting uphill running with accelerations, changes of direction and using a ball may be as effective as ordinary running. Similarly, it has been shown that small-sided play might be organized to be _ O2max, but seems to equally effective in training V have an upper limit around 65 ml kg71 min71 (Figure 2). Using the training regimen for maximal oxygen uptake as outlined in this review, the typical training response for soccer players has been an _ O2max per training approximately 0.5% increase in V session (Helgerud et al., 2001, 2003). An increase in _ O2max is dependent upon a minimum of two V sessions per week, up to several sessions. One session per week or every other week is considered to

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J. Hoff progression in the training load. In endurance athletes, only a small reduction in training response is observed compared with soccer players. _ O2max in The current advice for improving V soccer players based both on theory and evidence is to use 4 6 4-min bouts at 90 95% of maximal heart rate interspersed with 3 min jogging at 70% of maximal heart rate to remove the lactate accumulated, by running uphill, on a treadmill, or with a ball on the specially designed track. Strength training Within the aerobic context of the 90-min game, a sprint that lasts 2 4 s (Bangsbo, Nrregaard, & Thorse, 1991; ODonoghue, 2001; Reilly & Thomas, 1976) is performed every 90 s (Reilly & Thomas, 1976). Sprinting comprises 1 11% of total distance covered in a match (Bangsbo et al., 1991; Reilly & Thomas, 1976), which constitutes 0.5 3.0% of effective time with the ball in play (Ali & Farrally, 1991; Bangsbo, 1992; Bangsbo et al., 1991; ODonoghue, 2001). Professional soccer players perform approximately 50 turns during a game, sustaining forceful contractions to maintain balance and control of the ball against defensive pressure (Withers et al., 1982). Strength and power together with endurance are important in terms of basic physiological capacities in soccer play. Maximal strength is one basic quality that inuences power output. An increase in maximal strength is usually connected with an improvement in relative strength and therefore with improvement of power abilities. A signicant relationship has been observed between one-repetition maximum and acceleration and movement velocity (Bu hrle & Schmidtbleicher, 1977). This relationship between maximal strength and performance is supported by jump test results as well as sprint times over 10 to 30 m (Hoff, Berdahl, , & Bra ten, 2001; Schmidtbleicher, 1992; Wislff, Castagna, Helgerud, Jones, & Hoff, 2004) (Figure 3). By increasing the available force of muscular contractions in the appropriate muscle groups, acceleration and speed in skills critical to soccer, such as turning, sprinting and changing pace, may be improved (Bangsbo et al., 1991). In most textbooks, the muscles ability to produce force is described as a function of the muscles crosssectional area. The body-building training that triggers protein synthesis and thus an increase in cross-sectional area is characterized by several sets (5 6) of 10 12 repetitions at moderate to slow velocity until exhaustion (Tesch, 1992). However, neural adaptations may play a major role in developing force (Sale, 1992), though it is suggested that the neural adaptation is limited to a starting period of 6 8 weeks of strength training. Hoff et al. (2001),

Figure 1. A soccer-specic track for training high-intensity aerobic intervals and a test for maximal oxygen uptake (after Hoff et al., 2002c). Players follow the route indicated by arrows while dribbling a ball. Backward running occurs between point A and B. Players undertake 4-min intervals or are instructed to increase gradually the intensity so that maximal oxygen uptake is reached within 6 min. D , cones; , hurdles 20 cm high.

_ O2) and Figure 2. Correlation between oxygen consumption (V heart rate at different submaximal velocities during treadmill testing, intensively coached ve-a-side play and track dribbling 4min interval training at 90 95% of maximal heart rate (HRmax) (after Hoff et al., 2002c).

maintain aerobic capacity, which normally is reduced during the competitive season. As the training regime is guided by heart rate, there is an automatic

Training and testing physical capacities

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Figure 3. Correlation between one-repetition maximum and sprint and jumping performance for elite soccer players (Wislff et al., 2004).

however, reported similar improvements in a group of World Cup ski jumpers with a squat and jump training history of at least 10 years, indicating that like most physiological processes the adaptation is not limited to a starting period. Behm and Sale (1993) suggested that it might be the intended rather than actual movement velocity that determines the velocity-specic training response. They suggested two major principles for maximal neural adaptation. First, to train the fastest motor units, which develop the greatest force, one has to work against high loads (85 95% of one-repetition maximum) that guarantee maximal voluntary contraction. Second, the maximal advantage is likely to be gained if the movements are trained with a rapid action, in addition to high resistance. Voigt and Klausen (1990) showed that maximal strength training (high force/low velocity) with an emphasis on intended rather than actual movement velocity did enhance maximal velocity (low force/high velocity) in the same movement. Hoff and Alma sbakk (1995) and Alma sbakk and Hoff (1996) have shown that high loads emphasizing maximal mobilization of force in concentric actions are extremely effective in enhan-

cing high velocity/low force movements. This type of training has been shown to have a great effect on sprint and jump performances relevant to soccer play, without changes in body mass, supporting the neural adaptation theory (Hoff et al., 2001, 2003). The training intervention used in these experiments consisted of four series of few repetitions (4 5) of half-squats, with the emphasis on mobilization of force in the concentric phase of the movement. In two intervention studies with soccer players, one with a Champions League team, using four series of 4 5 repetitions with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric action, the one-repetition maximum in a half-squat (908 in the knee joint) increased from 115 to176 kg and from 161 to 215 kg (Helgerud et al., 2003; Hoff & Helgerud, 2003). Jump height increased by 30 mm in both experimental groups and 10-m sprint time was improved by approximately 0.6 m and 0.8 m, respectively, compared with the control group who performed a normal soccer training programme. Using the training regimen for neural adaptation as outlined in this review, the typical training response for soccer players has been an approximately 2%

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increase in one-repetition maximum per training session for up to three sessions per week (Helgerud et al., 2003; Hoff & Helgerud, 2003). One training session per week or every other week seems to be enough to maintain the level of strength. The training regimen has an automatic load progression and only a minor reduction in training response is observed when reaching high levels of strength (Hoff et al., 2001). The current advice for training strength to improve sprint performance and jumping height in elite soccer players is four sets of four repetitions of half-squats, with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric phase and an increase in load each time the training regimen is performed. Strength training effects on aerobic endurance performance Few studies have investigated the effects of strength training on endurance performance. The training regimen described above was effective based on neural adaptation rather than muscle hypertrophy. Thus, the argument that strength training increases body weight and thereby might impair endurance performance might not be a valid one. It was hypothesized that maximal strength training based on a few repetitions and high loads with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force improves aerobic endurance performance. First, the maximal strength training resulted in improved work economy that is, reduced oxygen cost at a standardized aerobic workload in double poling by cross-country skiers (Hoff, Helgerud, & Wislff, 1999; Hoff et al., 2002a). Later, it was shown that running economy improved after maximal strength squat training by 4.7% in two experiments (Helgerud et al., 2003; Hoff & Helgerud, 2003). Maximal strength training using a few series of a few repetitions at high loads, with the emphasis on fast mobilization of force in concentric actions, has resulted in a good training response in terms of aerobic endurance, due to improved running economy (Figure 4), as well as improvements in sprinting and jumping height. The current advice for training strength to improve running economy is to perform four sets of four repetitions of half-squats, with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric action and an increase in load each time the training regimen is performed. This recommendation is the same as that described for improving sprint performance and jumping height. Testing endurance variables Endurance performance for soccer players is represented by the amount of work carried out

Figure 4. Improvements in running economy (ml kg70.75 m71) at the lactate threshold from pre to post test for a group of junior elite soccer players undertaking four sets of four repetitions of squats three times a week for 8 weeks (after Hoff & Helgerud, 2003).

during a match. This output is not easily calculated. Distance covered during a match is a good indicator, but also number of sprints and time spent at different intensities inuence overall endurance performance. Testing the endurance performance of soccer players may be carried out in several ways. Typical performance tests include the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test (Bangsbo, 1994), the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle test (Nicholas, Nuttall, & Williams, 2000), as well as several others (Leger & Lambert, 1982; Ramsbottom, Brewer, & Williams, 1988). Most of these tests try to simulate the activity patterns during a soccer match and to obtain the highest correlation possible with endurance performance during a match. This is a development that from a physiological point of view might not be very logical, as distance covered during a game correlates highest with endurance performance in the game itself. Physiologists would be more interested in the training response by the different biological mechanisms that affect endurance performance in soccer, and the effect of these within the performance context of the match itself. Some authors have argued that anaerobic tness differentiates between standards of play better than aerobic endurance (Green, 1992; Tumilty, 1993). However, a soccer match lasts 90 min, and approximately 98% of the total energy is derived from aerobic metabolism, with the remaining 2% generated from anaerobic processes (Bangsbo, 1994). Aerobic endurance performance in soccer is _ O2max, the lactate threshold and determined by V running economy (Pate & Kriska, 1984), of which _ O2max is the most important (Bangsbo, 1994; V

Training and testing physical capacities Helgerud et al., 2001; Hoff and Helgerud, 2003; Reilly, 1994). For running economy in soccer players, both the oxygen cost at the lactate threshold and the oxygen cost at 11 km h71 have been measured (Helgerud et al., 1990, 2001; Hoff & Helgerud, 2003). The most accurate method for _ O2max, the lactate threshold and runmeasuring V ning economy in soccer players is treadmill testing, which is straightforward if there is access to relatively expensive equipment and trained staff. Several sport-specic eld tests (Balsom, 1990; Bangsbo, 1994; Bassett & Boulay, 2000; Brahler & Blank, 1995; Ekblom, 1989; Ramsbottom et al., 1988; Smith, Hopkins, & Taylor, 1994; Smekal et al., _ O2max, normally 2000) are available for estimating V within + 10 15% (Astrand & Rodahl, 1986). Tests to exhaustion, such as the Cooper test (Cooper, 1968), are more accurate than submaximal tests. Since the 12-min performance test is carried out on _ O2max cannot normally be an athletic track where V reached because of running technique limitations strand & Rodahl, 1986), and contains an anaero(A bic element as well as differences in running economy and lactate threshold, accuracy higher than 5 7% cannot be expected. As the precision in training intervention increases in professional soccer, it is necessary to be able to discriminate at least _ O2max and running economy responses, between V and possibly also the lactate threshold, even if the lactate threshold appears primarily to follow changes _ O2max (Helgerud et al., 2003). An accuracy in V of + 10 15% is in that respect not acceptable, and the eld test alone cannot discriminate between _ O2max and those due to improvements due to V running economy. The development of small portable metabolic measurement systems has made it possible to measure oxygen uptake directly during soccerspecic tests. It has previously been shown that an inclined treadmill recruits a larger muscle mass at a slower cadence, which allows the individual to reach _ O2max, compared with running on a his or her true V strand & Rodahl, 1986). However, at surface (A Reilly and Ball (1984) reported an additional oxygen demand during ball dribbling in soccer-like movements, which compensates for the extra load of the inclined treadmill, as applied during standard _ O2max (Hoff et al., 2002c). laboratory tests of V Thus, the track shown in Figure 1 is reported to be _ O2max, using a portable reliable for examining V metabolic test system (Kemi, Hoff, Engen, Helgerud, & Wislff, 2003). The current advice for testing the endurance of _ O2max directly on elite soccer players is to measure V a treadmill or in the eld. The test should be supplemented by tests of running economy to evaluate specic training intervention effects. Testing strength variables

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Strength training has been adopted in almost all sports that require high acceleration as part of performance (Wilson, Newton, Murphy, & Humphries, 1993). Strength is dened as the integrated result of one or several muscles undergoing contraction, either isometric or dynamic, during a single voluntary effort of a dened task. Typically, maximal strength is dened in terms of one-repetition maximum (1-RM) in a standardized movement, as in the squat exercise. Power is dened as the product of force and movement velocity that is, the ability to perform as much work as possible in the shortest possible time. As there are correlations between strength and the power and acceleration needed for sprints and jumps, strength testing for soccer players should involve squat 1-RM for elite soccer players, if they are familiar with the exercise and have no back problems. The 1-RM test for soccer players should be performed as half-squats that is, down to 908 between femur and tibia. When the body itself is moved, scaled relative strength (kg 1-RM kg body mass70.67) is of importance, which makes it important to follow any development in body mass. Hoff et al. (2001) improved 1-RM in a group of World Cup ski jumpers with no change in body mass, with increased acceleration and jumping height as a result. The rate of force development typically changes to an even greater extent than 1-RM using training for neural adaptations (Hoff et al., 2002a,b; Hoff & Helgerud, 2003). The rate of force development represents the recruitment pattern in the muscle, and increased recruitment of high threshold motor units affects acceleration and improves performance. Increased rate of force development is closely related to balance. Rate of force development is calculated using a force platform measuring the vertical forces during a squat jump. Jumping height is a performance measure that changes with alterations in 1-RM. This variable can be measured using a force platform that calculates centre of mass displacement, or a movement registration system that can follow the displacement of a xed point. Both Seargents test and a test mat, using time for calculation of jumping height, have a higher variation than desirable, but are useful for estimates of leg power. Acceleration and sprints are also performance measures most often tested over 10 40 m, and measured using photocells. For trained soccer players, however, strong correlations are found between strength and sprints/jumps (Figure 3). The current advice for testing the strength parameters of elite soccer players is to use 1-RM in half-

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Bangsbo, J., Nrregaard, L., & Thorse, F. (1991). Active prole of competition soccer. Canadian Journal of Sports Sciences, 16, 110 116. Bassett, F. A., & Boulay, M. R. (2000). Specicity of treadmill and cycle ergometer tests in triathletes, runners and cyclists. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 80, 214 221. Behm, D. G., & Sale, D. G. (1993). Intended rather than actual movement velocity determines velocity-specic training response. Journal of Applied Physiology, 74, 359 368. Bergh, U., Sjdin, B., Forsberg, A., & Svedenhag, J. (1991). The relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake during running in humans. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 23, 205 211. Brahler, C. J., & Blank, S. E. (1995). VersaClimbing elicits higher _ O2max than does treadmill running or rowing ergometry. V Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27, 249 254. Bu hrle, M., & Schmidtbleicher, D. (1977). Der einuss von maximalkrafttraining auf die bevegungsschnelligkeit (The inuence of maximal strength training on movement velocity). Leistungssport, 7, 3 10. Cooper, K. (1968). Correlation between eld and treadmill testing as a means for assessing maximal oxygen intake. Journal of the American Medical Association, 203, 201 204. Costill, D. L., Thomas, H., & Roberts E. (1973). Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 5, 248 252. Davis, J. A., Brewer, J., & Atkin, D. (1992). Pre-season physiological characteristics of English rst and second division soccer players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 10, 541 547. Ekblom, B. (1986). Applied physiology of soccer. Sports Medicine, 3, 50 60. Ekblom, B. (1989). A eld test for soccer players. Science and Football, 1, 13 15. Gledhill, N., Cox, D., & Jamnik, R. (1994). Endurance athletes stroke volume does not plateau: Major advantage in diastolic function. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 1116 1121. Green, S. (1992). Anthropometric and physiological characteristics of South Australian soccer players. Australian Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 24, 3 7. Heck, H., Mader, A., Hess, G., Mucke, S., Muller, R., & Hollmann, W. (1985). Justication of the 4-mmol/l lactate threshold. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 6, 117 130. Helgerud, J. (1994). Maximal oxygen uptake, anaerobic threshold and running economy in women and men with similar performance levels in marathons. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 68, 155 161. Helgerud, J., Engen, L. C., Wislff, U., & Hoff, J. (2001). Aerobic endurance training improves soccer performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33, 1925 1931. Helgerud, J., Ingjer, F, & Strmme, S. B. (1990). Sex differences in performance-matched marathon runners. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 61, 433 439. Helgerud, J., Kemi, O. J., & Hoff, J. (2003). Pre-season concurrent strength and endurance development in elite soccer players. In J. Hoff & J. Helgerud (Eds.), Football (soccer): New developments in physical training research (pp. 55 66). Trondheim, NTNU. Hermansen, L., & Stensvold, I. (1972). Production and removal of lactate during exercise in man. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 86, 191 201. Hoff, J., & Alma sbakk B. (1995). The effects of maximum strength training on throwing velocity and muscle strength in female team-handball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9, 255 258.

squats, sprint times on 10 and 20 40 m and jumping height. For closer analyses, the test battery can be expanded to include tests for recording the rate of force development, using the force platform. Conclusions The current recommendations for improving _ O2max in soccer players based both on theory and V evidence is to use 4 6 4-min bouts at 90 95% of maximal heart rate interspersed with 3 min jogging at 70% of maximal heart rate to remove lactate accumulated, by running uphill, on a treadmill, or with a ball on the specially designed track. The current advice for training strength to improve sprint and jumping height for elite soccer players is four sets of four repetitions of half-squats, with the emphasis on maximal mobilization of force in the concentric phase and an increase in load each time the training regimen is carried out, which has also been shown to be an effective way of improving running economy. For testing elite soccer teams in terms of endur_ O2max is ance parameters, it is recommended that V tested directly on a treadmill or in the eld. The test should be supplemented by an assessment of running economy to evaluate specic training intervention effects. Strength parameters include 1-RM in halfsquats, sprints over 10 and 20 40 m and jumping height. For closer analyses, the test battery can be expanded to tests for recording the rate of force development, using a force platform.

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