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COMPLEX NUMBERS
= {x} + i{y},
0 −1 0 −1 −1 0
i2 = = = {−1}.
1 0 1 0 0 −1
89
90 CHAPTER 5. COMPLEX NUMBERS
Complex numbers of the form i{y}, where y is a non–zero real number, are
called imaginary numbers.
If two complex numbers are equal, we can equate their real and imaginary
parts:
{x1 } + i{y1 } = {x2 } + i{y2 } ⇒ x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 ,
if x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 are real numbers. Noting that {0} + i{0} = {0}, gives the
useful special case is
and (using the fact that scalar matrices commute with all matrices under
matrix multiplication and {−1}A = −A if A is a matrix), the product of
two complex numbers is a complex number:
THEOREM 5.2.1
If w is a non–zero complex number, then the equation z 2 = w has a so-
lution z ∈ C.
x2 − y 2 = a and 2xy = b.
5.2. CALCULATING WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS 93
Solution. Because every complex number has a square root, the familiar
formula √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
z=
2a
for the solution of the general quadratic equation az 2 + bz + c = 0 can be
used, where now a(6= 0), b, c ∈ C. Hence
√ q√
−( 3 + i) ± ( 3 + i)2 − 4
z =
2
√ q √
−( 3 + i) ± (3 + 2 3i − 1) − 4
=
√ p 2 √
−( 3 + i) ± −2 + 2 3i
= .
2
√
Now we have to solve w2√ = −2 + 2 3i. Put w = x + iy. Then w2 =
x2 − y 2 + 2xyi = −2 + 2 √3i and equating
√ real and imaginary parts gives
x2 − y 2 = −2 and 2xy = 2 3. Hence y = 3/x and so x2 − 3/x2 = −2. So
x4 + 2x2 − 3√= 0 and (x2 + 3)(x2
√ 2− 1) = 0. √ Hence x2 − 1 = 0 and x = ±1.
Then y = ± 3. Hence (1 + 3i) = −2 + 2 3i and the formula for z now
becomes
√ √
− 3 − i ± (1 + 3i)
z =
√ 2 √ √ √
1 − 3 + (1 + 3)i −1 − 3 − (1 + 3)i
= or .
2 2
EXAMPLE 5.2.3 Find the cube roots of 1.
f (z) = an (z − z1 )(z − z2 ) · · · (z − zn ).
6 z1 + z2
z 2
@
@
@
@
R
* z1
-
@
@
@
R z1 − z2
@
?
1. z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 ;
2. −z = − z.
3. z1 − z2 = z1 − z2 ;
4. z1 z2 = z1 z2 ;
5. (1/z) = 1/z;
6
z
>
y
x
-
Z
Z
Z
~z
Z
8. With the standard convention that the real and imaginary parts are
denoted by Re z and Im z, we have
z+z z−z
Re z = , Im z = ;
2 2i
9. If z = x + iy, then zz = x2 + y 2 .
z 4 = −1
Solution. The equation z 4 = −1 has real coefficients and so its roots come
in complex conjugate pairs. Also if z is a root, so is −z. Also there are
98 CHAPTER 5. COMPLEX NUMBERS
clearly no real roots and no imaginary roots. So there must be one root w
in the first quadrant, with all remaining roots being given by w, −w and
−w. In fact, as we shall soon see, the roots lie evenly spaced on the unit
circle.
The following theorem is useful in deciding if a polynomial f (z) has a
multiple root a; that is if (z − a)m divides f (z) for some m ≥ 2. (The proof
is left as an exercise.)
From theorem 5.4.1 we obtain a result which is very useful in the explicit
integration of rational functions (i.e. ratios of polynomials) with real coeffi-
cients.
f (z) = an (z − z1 ) · · · (z − zr ) ×
×(z − zr+1 )(z − z r+1 ) · · · (z − zr+s )(z − z r+s ).
(z − zj )(z − z j ) = z 2 − (zj + z j )z + zj z j
= z 2 − 2Re zj + (x2j + yj2 ),
where zj = xj + iyj .
A well–known example of such a factorization is the following:
6
z
|z|
>
y
x
-
Solution. Clearly there are no real roots. Also we have the preliminary
factorization z 4 + 1 = (z√2 − i)(z 2 + i). Now the roots of z 2 − i are easily
√
verified to be ±(1 + i)/ 2, so the roots of√z 2 + i must be ±(1 − i)/ 2.
In other words the roots are w = (1 + i)/ 2 and w, −w, −w. Grouping
conjugate–complex terms gives the factorization
The following properties of the modulus are easy to verify, using the identity
|z|2 = zz:
(ii) |z −1 | = |z|−1 ;
100 CHAPTER 5. COMPLEX NUMBERS
z1 |z1 |
(iii) =
z2 |z2 | .
z − z1
(ii)
z1 − z2 = |t|.
where a and b are distinct complex numbers and λ is a positive real number,
λ 6= 1. (If λ = 1, the above equation represents the perpendicular bisector
of the segment joining a and b.)
5.5. MODULUS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER 101
y
6
-x
?
|z+2i|
Figure 5.4: Apollonius circles: |z−2i| = 14 , 38 , 21 , 58 ; 41 , 38 , 21 , 85 .
So we obtain
2
2 2 2
z − a
= λ ⇔ z − a − λ b = λ |a − b|
z − b 1 − λ2 |1 − λ2 |2
a − λ2 b λ|a − b|
⇔ z − = .
1 − λ2 |1 − λ2 |
The last equation represents a circle centre z0 , radius r, where
a − λ2 b λ|a − b|
z0 = and r= .
1 − λ2 |1 − λ2 |
There are two special points on the circle of Apollonius, the points z1 and
z2 defined by
z1 − a z2 − a
= λ and = −λ,
z1 − b z2 − b
or
a − λb a + λb
z1 = and z2 = . (5.3)
1−λ 1+λ
It is easy to verify that z1 and z2 are distinct points on the line through a
and b and that z0 = z1 +z2 . Hence the circle of Apollonius is the circle based
2
|x + iy − 1 − i| = 2|x + iy − 5 − 2i|
or
|x − 1 + i(y − 1)| = 2|x − 5 + i(y − 2)|.
Squaring both sides gives
6
z
>
r y
θ -
x
q
so the centre is( 19 7
and the radius is 68
3 , 3) 9 .
Method 2. Calculate the diametrical points z1 and z2 defined above by
equations 5.3:
z1 − 1 − i = 2(z1 − 5 − 2i)
z2 − 1 − i = −2(z2 − 5 − 2i).
Solution. Referring to Figure 5.6, we see that Arg z has the values
α, π − α, −π + α, −α,
where α = tan−1 34 .
An important property of the argument of a complex number states that
the sum of the arguments of two non–zero complex numbers is an argument
of their product:
? ?
y y
6 6
-x -x
α Zα
Z
Z
=
~ 4 − 3i
Z
−4 − 3i
? ?
ez = ex eiy .
For example,
iπ iπ
e 2 = i, eiπ = −1, e− 2 = −i.
The following properties of the complex exponential function are left as
exercises:
5.7. DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM 107
ez = 1
ζ2
7
|z| = 1
* 1
ζ
2π/n
2π/n
H - -
HH2π/n ζ0
HH
H
HH
j ζn−1
z1
|z| = (|a|)1/n
* z0
2π/n
α
P -
PP
PP
PP
PP
q zn−1
2kπi
e n , k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1, or
iα 2kπi i(α+2kπ)
zk = |a|1/n e n e n = |a|1/n e n , (5.4)
|z| = |a|1/n
and are generated from the special solution having argument equal to (arg a)/n,
by incrementing the argument in steps of 2π/n. (See Figure 5.8.)
Now
2πi 2πi
) = z 2 − z(e
−2πi −2πi
(z − e 5 )(z − e 5 5 +e 5 )+1
2 2π
= z − 2z cos 5 + 1.
110 CHAPTER 5. COMPLEX NUMBERS
Similarly
4πi
) = z 2 − 2z cos 4π
−4πi
(z − e 5 )(z − e 5
5 + 1.
π
Solution. |i| = 1 and Arg i = 2 = α. So by equation 5.4, the solutions are
i(α+2kπ)
zk = |i|1/3 e 3 , k = 0, 1, 2.
First, k = 0 gives
√
iπ π π 3 i
z0 = e 6 = cos + i sin = + .
6 6 2 2
Next, k = 1 gives
√
5πi 5π 5π − 3 i
z1 = e 6 = cos + i sin = + .
6 6 2 2
Finally, k = 2 gives
9πi 9π 9π
z1 = e 6 = cos + i sin = −i.
6 6
EXAMPLE 5.7.3 If
prove that
nθ nθ
sin 2 (n−1)θ sin 2 (n−1)θ
C= cos 2 and S = sin 2 ,
sin 2θ sin 2θ
if θ 6= 2kπ, k ∈ Z.
5.8. PROBLEMS 111
Solution.
EXAMPLE 5.7.4 Express cos nθ and sin nθ in terms of cos θ and sin θ,
using the equation cos nθ + sin nθ = (cos θ + i sin θ)n .
+ (i sin θ)n .
Equating real and imaginary parts gives
cos nθ = cosn θ − n2 cosn−2 θ sin2 θ + · · ·
5.8 PROBLEMS
1. Express the following complex numbers in the form x + iy, x, y real:
2 + 3i (1 + 2i)2
(i) (−3 + i)(14 − 2i); (ii) ; (iii) .
1 − 4i 1−i
[Answers:
√ 5π 5π 11π 11π
(i) z = 4 2(cos 12 + i sin 12 ); (ii) z = 27/2 (cos 12 + i sin 12 ).]
5π 5π
[Answers: (i): (a) 6(cos 12 + i sin 12 ); (b) 32 (cos π
12 + i sin π
12 );
(c) 32 (cos − 12
π π
+ i sin − 12 ); (d) 32 11π
9 (cos 12 + i sin 11π
12 );
pz + pz = 2n,
where p = l + im.
(ii) Use (ii) to deduce that reflection in the straight line
pz + pz = n
pw + pz = n.
(i) Prove that each of the following sets in the complex plane rep-
resents a circular arc and sketch the circular arcs on the same
diagram:
114 CHAPTER 5. COMPLEX NUMBERS
z−a
Arg = α, −α, π − α, α − π.
z−b
z−a
Also show that Arg = π represents the line segment joining
z−b
z−a
a and b, while Arg = 0 represents the remaining portion of
z−b
the line through a and b.
(ii) Use (i) to prove that four distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 are con-
cyclic or collinear, if and only if the cross–ratio
z4 − z1 z3 − z1
/
z4 − z2 z3 − z2
is real.
(iii) Use (ii) to derive Ptolemy’s Theorem: Four distinct points A, B, C, D
are concyclic or collinear, if and only if one of the following holds:
AB · CD + BC · AD = AC · BD
BD · AC + AD · BC = AB · CD
BD · AC + AB · CD = AD · BC.