The Set of Real Numbers

1. Introduction
This chapter mainly talks about the set of real numbers and the operations
involving them. It includes a review discussion of the properties of real numbers,
the laws of exponents, polynomials, special products, the Binomial Theorem, and
factoring of polynomials.


2. The Set of Real Numbers
Everyday situations reveal that the set of real numbers is very important,
specifically the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0. This is known as the
number system in base ten. This was developed by the Hindus and, later, was
translated to Arabic. There are other number systems which are of major
importance. Three of these are the base two system, the base eight system, and the
base sixteen system. In base ten system, a number may be used singly or in
combination to indicate (a) quantity there are three sides in a triangle; (b) order
I came first. You came second; (c) construction the numbers 1 and 2 may be
used to form any of the numbers 12, 21, 0.12, 0.21 (the zero is used to indicate
that the number is less than 1); (d) place 0 is used to established the place value
as used in the numbers 60, 703, and 0.0009.

In another manner, the significance of base ten can be demonstrated by the
following examples:
4728 =
3 2 1 0
4 10 7 10 2 10 8 10 + + +
0.5163 =
1 2 3 4
5 1 6 3

10 10 10 10
+ + +


3. Subsets of Real Numbers
The set of real numbers has many important subsets. Some of these
subsets are enumerated below:

Natural Numbers
The set of natural numbers is also called the set of positive integers. This
set is also known as the counting numbers. This set is denoted by , and may
be written as { } 1, 2, 3, ... =

Whole Numbers
The set of whole numbers is composed of the set of natural numbers and
the number zero, 0, and is denoted by . W By set notation, { } 0 W = which
may be written as

{ } 0, 1, 2, 3, ... . W =
Negative Integers
The set of negative numbers, or the set of all negative n for all , ne

arouse to allow solutions to the equation , x a b + = where , . a be Equivalently,
for each positive integer , n there exists a negative integer such that if it is added
to , n the sum is 0. For example, if 10 is added to 10, then the sum is equal to 0.

The negative numbers, denoted by ,

may be written as
{ } ..., 3, 2, 1 .

=

Integers
The set of integers is the union of three disjoint sets: the positive integers,
zero, and the negative integers, and denoted by , is given by
{ } ..., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... =

Rational Numbers
These numbers are commonly called fractions. Rational numbers arouse to
allow solutions to the equation bx a = for all , , a be and 0. b = The set of
rational numbers is denoted by .

When 1, b = x a = . That is, . xe Hence, . c

Some numbers in decimal form are considered rational. These numbers
may be either repeating or terminating decimals. For example, consider the
following rational numbers with their corresponding decimal form:

1
2
= 0.5,
25
90
= 0.2777...,

357
999
= 0.357357...,
817
900
= 0.90777...

Irrational Numbers
When a number x cannot be considered as a rational number, then it is
called an irrational number. This means that no fraction corresponds to x.
Examples of this set of numbers are e, , t and 0.2314527... . The set of irrational
numbers is denoted by '.

In the examples, the first and the second of the numbers have infinitely
many digits that are not repeating when written in decimal form. With the third
number, the digits before the three dots did not repeat. Thus, these numbers are
nonrepeating, nonterminating decimals.

When the rational and the irrational numbers are combined, the set of real
numbers will be formed. Thus, . ' =
Figure 1.1 (a to c) shows different representations of the set of real
number. It also shows the subsets of and their relationship with each other.











Other subsets of such as the odd numbers, the even numbers, the prime
numbers, the multiples of 2, multiples of 3, etc may be added.


4. Properties of Real Numbers
The Real Number System is composed of , together with the binary
operation addition ( ) + and multiplication ( ) or . This enables us to
conclude that the system forms a field.

Suppose , , , a b ce we define the field axioms.
a. , a b ab + e e Closure Law
b. ; a b b a + = +

a b b a = Commutative Law
c. ( ) ( ) ; a b c a b c + + = + + Associative Law
( ) ( ) a b c a b c =
d. ( ) ; a b c a b a c + = + (Right) Distributive Law
( ) a b c a c b c + = + (Left) Distributive Law
e. 0 0 ; a a a + = + =

1 1 a a a = = Identity Law
f. ( ) 0; a a + =
1
1
a
a = Inverse Law

The 0 and the 1 in and (e) and (f) are called the additive and
multiplicative identity elements, respectively. To further elaborate law f, consider
the following arguments:
For any , ae there exists a be such that 0. a b + =
For any , ae there exists a be such that 1. ab =

In the first statement, b is commonly known as the opposite. In the
second statement, b is commonly known as the reciprocal.

W

'

'
{ } 0
W
'

'
'
W

Figure 1.1a Figure 1.1b Figure 1.1c
5. Geometric Representation of Real Numbers
Often, real numbers can be represented by points on a line. This is called
the real number line. This permits us to speak of the set of points rather than the
set of real numbers, hence, the statement: For each real number, there corresponds
one and only one point on the line and vice versa. This can easily be understood
with Figure 2.






In the number line, observe that between two rational (irrational) numbers
there are infinitely many rational and irrational numbers. This leads to the idea
that the set of real numbers is dense everywhere.


6. Operations Involving Real Numbers
There are two predefined operations involving the set of real numbers:
addition and multiplication. These operations were discussed below.

In adding two numbers with like signs, find the sum of their absolute
values and prefix the common sign. For example, ( ) ( ) 3 5 8; + = 11 8 20. + =

In adding two numbers with unlike signs, find the difference between their
absolute values and prefix the sign of the number with greater absolute value. For
example, ( ) 17 6 11; + = ( ) 11 8 3. + =

In multiplying two numbers with like signs, find the product of their
absolute values. For example, ( ) ( ) 13 6 78; = 21 7 147. = In multiplying two
numbers with unlike signs, find the product of their absolute values and prefix a
minus sign. For example, ( ) 9 6 54; = ( ) 8 9 72. =

For simplicity, the product of a and b can be written as . ab Also, two
operations subtraction and division were considered when involving . They
are defined as ( ) a b a b = + and
1
,
a
a
b b
= , , a be where ( ) b and
1
b
| |
|
\ .
are
the opposite and the reciprocal of b, respectively, that follows from the previous
operations. Thus, ( ) 13 19 13 19 6; = + = ( ) 17 28 17 28 11; = + =
( )
57 1
57 3;
19 19
| |
= =
|

\ .

72 1 9
72 4.5.
16 16 2
= = =

1 0 2 3
1
2

10

3

6

Figure 2. The Real Number Line
Seat Work 3

Name: Score:
Program, Year & Section: Date:

A. Determine whether each statement is true or false.

_________ 1. Every integer is a rational number.
_________ 2. Some real numbers are integers.
_________ 3. If , xe then x can be both a rational and an irrational.
_________ 4. A real number can be both an integer and a rational.
_________ 5. There are as many real numbers between 0 and 1 than between 1 and 100.

B. Determine the properties involved in every statement. Assume that , , . a b ce

___________________ 1. ( ) 2 7 2 14 a a + = +
___________________ 2. ( ) ( ) 3 3 c a c a + + = + +
___________________ 3. ( ) ( ) 2 2 0 a b a b + + + =
___________________ 4. ( )( )
1
2
2 1
ab
ab =
___________________ 5. ( )( ) ac bc a b c + = +

C. Perform the indicated operations.

1. ( ) ( ) 2 3 7 1 + +
2. ( ) 5 2 7 +
3. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 6 1 7 3 + +
4. ( ) ( ) 4 2 3 +
5. ( ) ( ) ( ) 11 7 9 15 +
6. ( )( )( )( ) 1 4 3 2
7. ( )( )( )( )( ) 5 3 1 2 1
8. ( ) ( ) 1 2 1 2
9. ( ) 72 2 3 12
10. ( ) ( ) ( ) 36 1 3 4

D. Discuss each of the following statements.

1. The set of natural numbers is closed under division.




2. Some counting numbers are fractions.





E. Classify each of the following numbers according to categories by completing the
table below. Use a check mark if the number belongs to the set.



'
' '
None of the
given sets
1. 3.25
2. 3t
3. 0.0000025
4. 0
5.
2
7

6.
4

7. 9
8.
11
23

9.
0.809523

10.
8





7. Properties of Equality
Let , , . a b ce The following are equivalence properties:
a. Reflexive property: . a a =
b. Symmetric property: If , a b = then . b a =
c. Transitive property: If a b = and , b c = then . a c =
d. Addition property: If , a b = then . a c b c + = +
e. Multiplication property: If , a b = then . ac bc =
f. Substitution property: If , a b = then you may consider b in
place of . a

To include subtraction and division, we have
g. Subtraction property: If , a b = then . a c b c =
h. Division property: If a b = and 0, c = then .
a b
c c
=

8. Properties of Zero
Let . ae The following are the properties of zero:
a. 0 ; a a + = 0 . a a = 8 0 0; 8 0 8. + = =
b. 0 0. a = ( ) 12 0 0. =
c.
0
0,
a
= 0. a =
0
0
132
=
d. ,
0
a
undefined = 0. a =
3
0
undefined

=
e. If 0, ab = then either 0 a = or 0 b = or 0. a b = =
This is known as the ZeroProduct Property.
f.
0
1, a = 0. a =
0
123456789 1 =
g.
0
0 , indeterminate =

0
.
0
indeterminate =

9. Order of Operations
In any case, the convention PEMDAS Parentheses, Exponent,
Multiplication, Division, Addition, and Subtraction will be used. It is important to
note that the parenthesis or any other symbols of groupings comes first before
other operations. Then comes the exponents, and so on. For example, consider
( ) ( ) ( ) | | | |
2 2
3 8 4 7 4 3 5 4 7 12 25 4 5 25 20 5. + = + = = = (



When no groupings are involved, this convention goes down to
EMDAS. This does not imply that multiplication should be used first before
division. It follows the First In, First Out Principle. The same is the case with
addition and subtraction. As such,
2 3
9 3 4 3 6 2 27 16 3 6 8 27 32 8 3. + = + = + =
10. Symbols of Groupings
Often it is desired to group two or more terms to indicate that they are to
be considered first or to be treated as though they were one term, even though it
may contain other operations. Thus, symbols of grouping were presented below.
( ) parentheses { } braces

| |
brackets aaa vinculum


11. The Laws of Exponents
Let . ae The product of a n times to itself and written as
n
a a a a
is denoted by ,
n
a where a is called the base and n is called the exponent. For
instance, if there is an N such that
n
a N = then N is called the n
th
power of a .

Suppose , . m ne Then the following holds true for .
a. .
m n m n
a a a
+
=
4 7 11
5 5 5 ; =
b. , 0.
m
m n
n
a
a a
a

= =
7
4
3
2
2 ;
2
=
c.
( )
.
n
m mn
a a =
( )
2
3 6
4 4 ;

=
d. ( ) .
n
n n
ab a b =
( )
3
3 2 6 3
12 2 3 2 3 ; = =
e. , 0.
n
n
n
a a
b
b b
| |
= =
|
\ .

7
7
7
2 2
;
3 3
| |
=
|
\ .


In ( ), b m n = leads to
0
1 a = while 0 m= results to
1
.
n
n
a
a

=

12. Polynomials
A polynomial is an algebraic expression composed of one or more terms.
A term in a polynomial may consists of ordinary numbers and/or letters which
represents numbers. These numbers and letters are interrelated by addition,
subtraction, and multiplication. This implies that no letters appear in the
denominator. Thus,
2
13ab c and
3 2
4x y may be considered as terms in a
polynomial.

In a term, the number is known as the numerical coefficient (or simply
coefficient) while the letters is commonly known as the literal coefficients (or
simply variables). For instance, in
4 3
6 , s t 6 is the numerical coefficient while
4 3
s t is the literal coefficient. If a term has no variables, then it is said to be a
constant. Otherwise, it tends to vary given arbitrary values of the variables.

Two or more terms that differ only in their numerical coefficients are said
to be similar terms; otherwise, they are dissimilar terms. Thus,
3
2x y and
3
7x y
are similar terms while 5xy and
2
8xy are dissimilar terms.

The degree of a term is determined by the sum of all the exponents of the
variables present. Thus, the degree of
3 2 5
2x y z is 3 2 5 10. + + =

The degree of a polynomial is defined as the highest degree of the terms in
the polynomial. For instance, the polynomial
3 3 4 2 4
3 7 4 xy x y z xy z + is of degree
9 because the second term has the degree 3 4 2 9 + + = and is the highest of the
three degrees. The first and the third terms are only of degrees 4 and 6,
respectively.

A polynomial may be classified according to the number of terms it has.
These are: monomial one term; binomial two terms; trinomial three terms;
and multinomial four or more terms. As such, 2xy is a monomial;
3
11 7 a ab +
is a binomial; 3 4 m n p + is a trinomial; and 4 8 3 9 a b c + is a multinomial.

When the terms of a polynomial is written such that the exponents of the
variable is decreasing from left to right, then the coefficient of the first term is
called the leading coefficient. For example,
3
5 3 1 x x +

can be written as
3
3 5 1 x x + + and 3 is the leading coefficient.


13. Elementary Operations Involving Polynomials
Occasionally, two or more polynomials were combined to form another
polynomial. The combinations of these polynomials may be done by addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Sum of Polynomials. In adding polynomials, combine similar terms by
adding their numerical coefficients. This process follows ( ) . ad bd a b d + = + For
example, ( )
2 2 2 2
3 8 3 8 11 . x y x y x y x y + = + = Also, 3 8 3 8 a b a b + = + because the
terms are dissimilar.

When symbols of groupings are involved where a + precedes a symbol of
groupings, then this symbol of groupings may be removed without affecting the
signs contained terms.
For example,

( ) ( )
2 2
5 6 3 2 7 6 x x x x + + + =
2 2
5 6 3 2 7 6 x x x x + + +
=
2 2
5 2 6 7 3 6 x x x x + + +
= ( ) ( ) ( )
2
5 2 6 7 3 6 x x + + + +
=
2
7 3. x x +

Difference of Polynomials. In subtracting polynomials, combine similar
terms by subtracting their numerical coefficients. This process follows
( ) . ad bd a b d = For example, ( )
4 4 4 4
12 7 12 7 5 . pq pq pq pq = = Also,
2 2
5 3 5 3 m n m n = because the terms are dissimilar.

When symbols of groupings are involved where a precedes a symbol of
groupings, then this symbol of groupings may be removed if the sign of each term
contained is changed. For example,

( ) ( )
2 2
9 4 6 7 5 11 y y y y + + =
2 2
9 4 6 7 5 11 y y y y + +
=
2 2
9 7 4 5 6 11 y y y y + +
= ( ) ( ) ( )
2
9 7 4 5 6 11 y y + + +
=
2
2 9 17. y y +

Product of Polynomials. Multiplication of polynomials can be attained by
multiplying the terms of the factors. Generally, this follows the distributive
property.

When multiplying two monomials: Apply the laws of exponents and the
rules of sign. For example,

( )( )
7 3 2 4 3 8 6 5
3 4 w x y z w x y z = ( )( )
7 3 3 8 2 6 4 5
3 4 w x y z
+ + + +

=
10 11 8 9
12 . w x y z

When multiplying a monomial to a polynomial: Multiply the monomial to
each term of the polynomial. For example,

( )
2 3 3 4 3
3 2 7 a b a b a b =
( )( ) ( )( )
2 3 3 2 3 4 3
3 2 3 7 a b a b a b a b +
=
2 3 3 1 2 4 3 3
6 21 a b a b
+ + + +

=
5 4 6 6
6 21 . a b a b

When multiplying a polynomial to another polynomial: Multiply each
term of the first polynomial by each term of the second polynomial.

For example,
( )( ) 3 4 2 5 a b p q + = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 2 3 5 4 2 4 5 a p a q b p b q + + +
= 6 15 8 20 . ap aq bp bq +

This product may also be accomplished by considering the first
polynomial as a monomial and follows the second concept.
( )( ) 3 4 2 5 a b p q + = ( )( ) ( )( ) 3 4 2 3 4 5 a b p a b q + + +
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 2 4 2 3 5 4 5 a p b p a q b q + + +
= 6 8 15 20 . ap bp aq bq +

Still, this product may be accomplished by aligning the polynomials
vertically and follows a procedure similar to multiplying two or more digit
numbers and combine similar terms.

3 4
2 5
6 8
15 20
6 8 15 20
a b
p q
ap bp
aq bq
ap bp aq bq
+

+

+


Similarly, it is better to arrange the terms with decreasing exponents. The
product
( )( )
2 3 2
3 4 2 4 x x x x + + can be done as

3 2
2
5 4 2
4 3
3 2
5 4 3 2
3 4
4 2
4 12 16
3 4
2 6 8
4 11 10 4 8
x x
x x
x x x
x x x
x x
x x x x x
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ +


Division of Polynomials. The division of polynomials generally follows
the laws of exponents. Two cases will be discussed: polynomial divide by a
monomial, and polynomial divided by polynomial.

When dividing a polynomial by a monomial, divide each term of the
polynomial by the monomial. For example,

7 4 3
2
12 18 6
3
x x x
x
+
=

7 4 3
2 2 2
12 18 6
3 3 3
x x x
x x x
+



=
5 2
4 6 2 . x x x +
( ) -
( ) -
When dividing a polynomial by a polynomial, write the dividend into the
form with decreasing exponents from left to right. Then, the long division
algorithm that was introduced in arithmetic can be used. For example,

2
3 2
3 2
2
2
00 0000
0
3 4
2 5 10 8
2

3 1 0 0
00 000
00 000
00 000
00
0
3 6
4 8
4 8
0 000 4
x x
x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x
x
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
+ + +

Thus,
3 2
2
5 10 8
3 4.
2
x x x
x x
x
+ + +
= + +
+


In the next example, you will see that the set of polynomials is not closed
under division. That is, a polynomial divided by a polynomial may not always
results to a polynomial. Consider the division below.

2
3 2
3 2
2
2
2
3 2 2
3


00 00
00 0
00 0

00
00 000
00
3
2 2
2 000
00 000 4
6
8
x x
x x x x
x x
x
x x
x x
x
x
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+

+ +
+
+ +
+

Thus,
3 2
2
2 2 8
2 .
3 3
x x x
x x
x x
+
= + + +


To check,

2
3 2
2
3 2
2
3
2
3 3 6
2 6
x x
x
x x x
x x
x x x
+ +

+ +




and
( )
( )
3 2 3 2
2 6 8 2 2 x x x x x x + = + which results to the dividend.
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) -
Seat Work 4

Name: Score:
Program, Year & Section: Date:

A. Determine the degree n of each of the following polynomial.
1.
2 3 4 2
5 9 7; s t u v + n =
2.
9 7 5 6 7 4 3 11 5 8
7 11 21 ; a m p u v x z b c d n =
3. 37; n =
4.
4 33 12 23
5 19 ; s t u v + n =
5.
2 13 5 12
0 ; c e k m n =

B. Classify each of the following expressions according to categories by completing
the table below. Use a check mark if the number belongs to the set.

Monomial Binomial Trinomial Multinomial Polynomial
1.
3
2
5a b
cd

2.
2
3 7 3 m m +

3. ( )( ) 7 3 2 5 k k +
4.
2 2
8 6 5 3 d e d e e +

5. 12
6. ( )
2
3 4 5 x y z +
7. ( ) 5 4 5 a b a b +
8.
2 2 2
x y z
a b c
| | | | | |
+ +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .


9.
1
3
x
y
+

10.
3 3
8a

C. Remove the symbols of grouping in each of the following polynomials and
simplify the resulting expression.

1. ( ) 7 4 9 ; m m n +
2. ( ) 5 4 4 5 ; h h j (


3.
( ) { }
2 2 2 2 2
5 11 6 7 8 ; a b a b ab ab a b
(
+


4. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 2 3 2 3 4 ; r s r s r s r s + + + + ( (


5. ( ) ( ) ( ) 3 4 5 4 2 3 5 2 3 ; de f d de f de + +

D. Evaluate the following powers and express the result without zero or negative
exponents.
1.
( )( )
4 7 9 13
2 16 ; d e d e
2.
4 8 2 3 11 1
1 6 10 7 5 9
;
x y z x y z
x y z x y z



3.
( ) ( )
0
3 4 1
3 4
5 3 4 5
2
2
;
m n
m n m n
p

| |
|
\ .

4.
( ) ( ) ( )
2 4 3
3 4 3 5 4 5
2 ; a b a b a b



5.
( )
( )
2
1 3 4
3 1
4 2 6
3 5
;
s t
s t
s t
s t

| |

|
\ .


E. Perform the indicated operations and simplify.
1.
( ) ( ) ( )
5 3 5 4 3
3 4 2 5 ; m m m m m m m + + + +
2.
( ) ( )
( )
2 2
5 4 3 7 3 4 ; e e e e e
(
+ + +


3. ( )
( )
2
3 2 6 3 5 ; +
4.
3 3 2 4 2 5 4 3
2
75 25 50 15
;
5
o | o | o | o |
o |
+

5.
3 2
4 8 11 18
;
2 3
u u u
u
+

14. Special Products
Some products occur in mathematics that it is advantageous to recognize
them at once. These products are enumerated below.

I. ( ) a b c d + + = ab ac ad + +

II. ( )( ) a b a b + + =
2 2
2 a ab b + +

III. ( )( ) a b a b + =
2 2
a b

IV. ( )( ) x a x b + + = ( )
2
x a b x ab + + +

V. ( )( ) ax by cx dy + + = ( )
2 2
acx ad bc xy bdy + +

VI. ( )
3
a b + =
3 2 2 3
3 3 a a b ab b + + +

VII. ( )
2
a b c + + =
2 2 2
2 2 2 a b c ab ac bc + + + + +

Lets solve several examples for each of these products.
a.
( )
2 3
3 4 9 s r s t rst + = ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( )
2 3
3 4 3 3 9 s r s s t s rst + +
=
2 4 2
12 3 27 r s s t rs t +

b.
( )
3 2 4 3 4 2
5 2 7 3 x y x y xy x y + =
3 2 4 3 3 3 4 2
5 2 5 7 5 3 x y x y x y xy x y x y +
=
5 5 4 4 7 3
10 35 15 x y x y x y +

c. ( )
2
6 5d + = ( )( ) ( )
2
2
6 2 6 5 5 d d + +
=
2
36 60 25 d d + +

d.
( )
2
2
3 7 mn p q = ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
3 2 3 7 7 mn mn p q p q + +
=
2 2 2 4 2
9 42 49 m n mnp q p q +

e. ( )( ) 2 11 2 11 j k j k + = ( ) ( )
2 2
2 11 j k
=
2 2
4 121 j k

f.
( )( )
3 4 2 5 3 4 2 5
2 5 2 5 a b c m np a b c m np + =
( ) ( )
2 2
3 4 2 5
2 5 a b c m np
=
6 8 2 4 2 10
4 25 a b c m n p
g. ( )( ) 13 12 x x + = ( ) ( ) ( )( )
2
13 12 13 12 x x + + +
=
2
156 x x

h. ( )( ) 5 3 5 7 abx cd abx cd + + = ( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
2
5 3 7 5 3 7 abx cd cd abx cd cd + + +
=
2 2 2 2 2
25 50 21 a b x abcdx c d + +

i. ( )( ) 4 5 3 2 x y x y + = ( ) ( )
2 2
4 3 4 2 5 3 5 2 x xy y + + + (


=
2 2
12 7 10 x xy y +

j.
( )( )
2 2
10 3 9 5 A^ O A^+ O
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
10 9 10 5 3 9 3 5 A^ + + A^ O + O (


=
2 2 2 4 2
90 23 15 A ^ + A^ O O

k. ( )
3
3 2 a b + = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
3 2 2 3
3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 a a b a b b + + +
=
3 2 2 3
27 54 36 8 a a b ab b + + +

l.
( )
3
2 3 4 2
9 11 w v y z
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
3 2 2 3
2 3 2 3 4 2 2 3 4 2 4 2
9 3 9 11 3 9 11 11 w v w v y z w v y z y z + + +
=
6 9 4 6 4 2 2 3 8 4 12 6
729 2673 3267 1331 w v w v y z w v y z y z +

m. ( )
2
2 3 5 m n p +
= ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
2 2 2
2 3 5 2 2 3 2 2 5 2 3 5 m n p m n m p n p + + + + +
=
2 2 2
4 9 25 12 20 30 m n p mn mp np + + +
or
= ( )
2
2 3 5 m n p + (


= ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 2
2 3 2 2 3 5 5 m n m n p p + +
=
2 2 2
4 12 9 20 30 25 m mn n mp np p + + +

n. ( )
2
4 5 3 2 a b c d + + = ( ) ( )
2
4 5 3 2 a b c d + (


= ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 2
4 5 2 4 5 3 2 3 2 a b a b c d c d + + +
=
2 2 2 2
16 40 25 24 16 30 20 9 12 4 a ab b ac ad bc bd c cd d + + + + + +
Seat Work 5

Name: Score:
Program, Year & Section: Date:

A. Find each of the following products.
1.
( )
2 2 3 3 2 4
3 5 2 8 x y x y x y xy + =


2.
( )
2
2
3x y + =




3.
( )
2
3 2 7 5
7 9 m x n y

=




4.
( )( )
2 3 4 6 2 3 4 6
4 5 4 5 a b b c a b b c +

=




5.
( )( )
2 2 2
5 2 3 4 u vw v u w + =




6. ( )( ) xy yz xz xy yz xz + + =


7.
( )( )
2 2 2 2
x xy y x xy y + + + =


8.
( )
2
2 2
a bc d + + =


9.
( )
3
2 2
x y xy =


10.
( )
2
3 2
3 4 j kl m n + =





B. Use the special products

1. 12 13 21 12 12 18 + =



2.
2
498 =



3. ( )( ) 479 521 =





4. ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) 689 531 689 376 689 93 + + =





5.
2 2
362 638 =




15. Binomial Theorem
The product of a binomial n times to itself written as ( )
n
a b + follows a
certain pattern. For instance,
( )
0
a b + = 1
( )
1
a b + = a b +
( )
2
a b + =
2 2
2 a ab b + +
( )
3
a b + =
3 2 2 3
3 3 a a b ab b + + +
( )
4
a b + =
4 3 2 2 3 4
4 6 4 , . a a b a b ab b etc + + + +

With this, the expansion ( )
n
a b + can be summarized by Definition 6.









With Definition 6, the binomial expansion ( )
n
a b + has several properties.
These are the following:
a. There are 1 n + terms in the expansion.
b. The first term a appears in the first term with exponent , n in the second
term with exponent ( ) 1 , n in the third term with exponent ( ) 2 , n and
in the
th
r term with exponent ( ) 1 . n r +
c. The second term b appears in the second term with exponent 1, in the
third term with exponent 2, in the fourth term with exponent 3, in the
th
r
term with exponent ( ) 1 , r and in the last term with exponent . n
d. The sum of the exponents of a and b in each term of the expansion is
equal to . n
e. The coefficient of the first term in the expansion is 1, of the second term is
,
1
n
of the third term is
( ) 1
,
1 2
n n

of the fourth term is

( )( ) 1 2
,
1 2 3
n n n


and so on. The coefficient of any term can be computed using combination
and is given by

th
r term =
1 1
1
n r r
n r
C a b
+

=
( )
1 1
1
n n r r
r
a b
+

Definition 6. The Binomial Theorem

( )
n
a b + =
( ) ( )( )
1 2 2 2 2
1 1 2
1 2 1 2 3
n n n n
n n n n n
a na b a b a b


+ + +



( )( ) ( )
( )
1 1 1
1 2 2
1 !
n r r n n
n n n n r
a b nab b
r
+
+
+ + + +

where
1 n r
C

=
( ) ( )
!
1 ! 1 !
n
n r r +
=
( )( ) ( )
( )
1 2 2
.
1 !
n n n n r
r
+

f. The coefficients of terms equidistant from the ends of the expansion are
the same.
g. There are two middle terms when n is odd.
h. There is only one middle term when n is even.

In the expansion of
( )
10
2 3
, r s + let
2
, a r =
3
, b s = and 10. n = Then the
expansion is

( )
10
2 3
r s + =
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
10 9 1 8 2 7 3
2 10 2 3 10 2 3 10 2 3
1 2 3
r r s r s r s + + +

( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
6 4 5 5 4 6
10 2 3 10 2 3 10 2 3
4 5 6
r s r s r s + + +

( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
3 7 2 8 1 9 10
10 2 3 10 2 3 10 2 3 3
7 8 9
r s r s r s s + + + +


( )
10
2 3
r s + =
20 18 3 16 6 14 9 12 12 10 15
10 45 120 210 252 r r s r s r s r s r s + + + + +

8 18 6 21 4 24 2 27 30
210 120 45 10 r s r s r s r s s + + + + +

Consider another example, the expansion of ( )
6
3 4 . p q Let 3 , a p =
4 , b q = and 6. n = Then the expansion is
( )
6
3 4 p q = ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
6 5 1 4 2 3 3
6 6 6
1 2 3
3 3 4 3 4 3 4 p p q p q p q + + +

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 4 1 5 6
6 6 6
4 5 6
3 4 3 4 4 p q p q q + + +

( )
6
3 4 p q =
6 5 4 2 3 3 2 4
729 5832 19440 34560 34560 p p q p q p q p q + +

5 6
18432 4096 pq q +

Now, suppose only certain terms are required such as the eighth and the
middle terms of
( )
10
9 4
. h k Here,
9
, a h =
4
, b k = and 10. n = The middle term
is the
( )
2
1
th
n
+ term when n is even, and the
( )
1
2
th
n+
and
( )
1
2
1
th
n+
+ terms when n
is odd. Thus, the middle term is
( )
10
2
1 6
th
th
+ = term. Hence,
8
th
term =
10 8 1 8 1
10 8 1
C a b
+

=
( )( ) ( )
3 7
10 9 4
7
h k

=

27 28
120 . h k
6
th
term =
10 6 1 6 1
10 6 1
C a b
+

=
( )( ) ( )
5 5
10 9 4
5
h k

=

45 20
252 . h k

Seat Work 6

Name: Score:
Program, Year & Section: Date:

A. Expand following using binomial theorem and simplify.
1.
( )
3
2 3 4
5 x y z + =



2.
( )
5
3 5 3 2
2 m n p q =





3.
( )
4
2 3
1 2
4 3
x y yz + =





4.
( )
5
6
3 5 e fg

=





5.
( )
3
5 3 2 7
3 r s t u + =





B. Find the indicated term and simplify.
1. Fifth term of
( )
7
5 3
3 4 c d =

2. Third term of
( )
10
5 3
3 ac d g + =

3. Fourteenth term of
( )
15
2
2xy wz =

4. Middle term of
( )
6
4 3
3 f wx + =

5. Middle terms of
( )
9
5 2 3 6
2
3
h k m p =





C. Write the first five terms of the following expansion.

1. ( )
30
y z =







2.
( )
20
3 2
4 3
a b =







16. Factoring Polynomials
Factoring process for polynomials is finding factors such that when
multiplied together will result to the given polynomial.

The factors required here should be primes, that is, the obtained factors
cannot be factored according to the following restrictions:

a. Factors are said to be prime if its factors are only 1 and plus or minus of
itself. This is in accordance with the definition of prime numbers such as
2, 3, 5, and 7.

b. All factors of polynomials should also be polynomials with integer
coefficients. For instance,
( )
3
4
4 3 4 x x = shall not be considered as
factored form. Also,
( )( )
4 2 2 x x x = + is not allowed because the
factors are not polynomials.

c. Trivial changes in sign shall be allowed. Thus,
2
4 3 x x + can be factored
as either ( )( ) 1 3 x x or ( )( ) 1 3 . x x

d. Many cases require us to factor polynomials with rational coefficients. As
an example,
( ) ( )( )
2 2
9 9 3 3 1 1 1
2 8 2 4 2 2 2
y y y y = = + may be allowed in
these cases. Otherwise, we adhere to the previous limitations.


17. Factoring Methods
Factoring expressions such as polynomials and rational expressions
follows certain procedures to facilitate the factoring process. Previous discussions
in multiplication will be of great help here. Thus, there is a need to master them
before going to this topic.

The following procedures are very useful.
a. Greatest Common Factor. This method factors the greatest common factor
from each term, thereby simplifying the given expression.
ab ac ad + + = ( ) a b c d + + where . GCF a =
i.e.
2 3 4 2
3 6 x y x y =
( )
2 2 2
3 2 . x y y x

b. Difference of two squares. The given expression is the difference of two
squares and the factors are the sum and the difference of two terms.

2 2
a b = ( )( ) a b a b +
i.e.
2 4 6
9 16 x y w =
( ) ( )
2 2
2 3
3 4 xy w =
( )( )
2 3 2 3
3 4 3 4 . xy w xy w +


c. The square of a binomial. The given expression is a perfect square
trinomial, thus, it is a square of the binomial.

2 2
2 a ab b + + = ( )( ) a b a b + + = ( )
2
a b +
i.e.
2 2
4 36 81 m mn n + = ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 9 9 m m n n + = ( )
2
2 9 . m n

2 2
49 84 36 u uv v + + = ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 2
7 2 7 6 6 u u v v + + = ( )
2
7 6 . u v +

2 2
100 160 64 f fg g + = ( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 2
10 2 10 8 8 f f g g + + = ( )
2
10 8 . f g

d. Other special products. The given expression follows certain pattern
similar to those that can be obtained by multiplication.
( )
2
x a b x ab + + + = ( )( ) x a x b + +
( )
2
acx ad bc x bd + + + = ( )( ) ax b cx d + +

3 2 2 3
3 3 a a b ab b + + + = ( )
3
a b +

2 2 2
2 2 2 a b c ab ac bc + + + + + = ( )
2
a b c + +

i.e.
2 2
6 v vw w + = ( )( ) 3 2 . v w v w +

2 2
2 3 s st t = ( )( ) 2 3 . s t s t +

3 2 2 3
27 54 36 8 e e f ef f + = ( )
3
3 2 . e f

2 2
4 1 4 4 2 p q pq p q + + + = ( )
2
2 1 . p q +

Note that it is very advantageous on your part if you can easily recognize
the pattern present in the given expression.

e. The difference or sum of two cubes. The factors of the difference of two
cubes follows the form

3 3
a b = ( )
( )
2 2
a b a ab b + +
i.e.
3 3
8 27 v w = ( ) ( )
3 3
2 3 v w = ( )
( )
2 2
2 3 4 6 9 . v w v vw w + +

9 6 3
64i j k =
( ) ( )
3 3
3 2
4i j k =
( )( )
3 2 6 3 2 4 2
4 16 4 . i j k i i j k j k + +

Unlike the sum of two squares that is not factorable, the sum of two
cubes is indeed factorable and it follows the form

3 3
a b + = ( )
( )
2 2
a b a ab b + +
i.e.
3 6
64m p + = ( )
( )
3
3
2
4m p + =
( )( )
2 2 2 4
4 16 4 . m p m mp p + +

6 3
1000 c d + =
( )
( )
3
3
2
10 c d + =
( )( )
2 4 2 2
10 10 100 . c d c c d d + +
f. Grouping of terms. This is a method wherein the terms are group in such a
way that there is a common factor among the terms in the groups formed.
This method may be best illustrated by an example.

Factor completely:
2
3 2 12 8 x x x +
Applying grouping of terms,

2
3 2 12 8 x x x + =
( )
( )
2
3 2 12 8 x x x +
= ( ) ( ) 3 2 4 3 2 x x x +

2
3 2 12 8 x x x + = ( )( ) 4 3 2 . x x +

Consider another example. Factor completely the following expression:
abx acx bcy aby bcx acy + +

Likewise, by grouping similar terms,
abx acx bcy aby bcx acy + + = ( ) ( ) abx acx bcx aby acy bcy + + + +
= ( ) ( ) ab ac bc x ab ac bc y + + + +
abx acx bcy aby bcx acy + + = ( )( ). ab ac bc x y + +

g. General factors of .
n n
a b
( ) i For , n e the expression ( ) a b is a factor of
( )
.
n n
a b That is,
( )
( )
1 2 3 2 2 1
.
n n n n n n n
a b a b a a b a b ab a

= + + + + +

i.e.
2 2
a b = ( )( ) a b a b +

3 3
a b = ( )
( )
2 2
a b a ab b + +

4 4
a b = ( )
( )
3 2 2 3
a b a a b ab b + + +

5 5
a b = ( )
( )
4 3 2 2 3 4
a b a a b a b ab b + + + +

( ) ii For 2 , n e the expression ( ) a b + is a factor of
( )
.
n n
a b That is,
( )
( )
1 2 3 2 2 1
.
n n n n n n n
a b a b a a b a b ab a

= + + +

i.e.
2 2
a b = ( )( ) a b a b +

4 4
a b = ( )
( )
3 2 2 3
a b a a b ab b + +

6 6
a b = ( )
( )
5 4 3 2 2 3 4 3
a b a a b a b a b ab b + + +

8 8
a b = ( )
( )
7 6 5 2 4 3 3 4 2 5 6 7
a b a a b a b a b a b a b ab b + + + +
( ) iii For , n Odd e the expression ( ) a b + is a factor of
( )
.
n n
a b + That is,
( )
( )
1 2 3 2 2 1
.
n n n n n n n
a b a b a a b a b ab a

+ = + + +

i.e.
3 3
a b + = ( )( ) a b a b +

5 5
a b + = ( )
( )
4 3 2 2 3 4
a b a a b a b ab b + + +

7 7
a b + = ( )
( )
6 5 4 2 3 3 2 4 5 6
a b a a b a b a b a b ab b + + + +

( ) iv For 2 , ne the expression ( ) a b + is not a factor of
( )
.
n n
a b +
However, when n has an odd number p as a factor, and , n pq = then
( )
n n
a b + can be factored using ( ). iii That is,

n n
a b + =
pq pq
a b + =
( ) ( )
p p
q q
a b + and use ( ). iii

i.e.
4 4
a b + =
4 4
a b + because 4 n = has no odd number as a factor.

6 6
a b + =
( ) ( )
3 3
2 2
a b + =
( )( )
2 2 4 2 2 4
a b a a b b + +

10 10
a b + =
( ) ( )
5 5
2 2
a b + =
( )( )
2 2 8 6 2 4 4 2 6 8
a b a a b a b a b b + + +

h. Factoring by completing the squares. This method is only used when all
of the above methods did not work. This is best explained with the
following examples.

Consider factoring completely the expression
4 4
4 . x y + At first,
you may tell that this is not factorable. However, by this technique, it can
be shown that the given expression is definitely factorable. To show this,

4 4
4 x y + =
4 2 2 4 2 2
4 4 4 x x y y x y + +
=
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
2 2 x y xy +
=
( )( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 . x xy y x xy y + + +

In another case, factor
4 2 2 4
36 25 x x y y + completely. Similarly,

4 2 2 4
36 25 x x y y + =
4 2 2 4 2 2
20 25 16 x x y y x y +
=
( )
( )
2
2
2 2
5 4 x y xy
=
( )( )
2 2 2 2
4 5 4 5 . x xy y x xy y +

Seat Work 7

Name: Score:
Program, Year & Section: Date:

A. Factor completely the following expressions over the set of polynomials with
integer coefficients.

1.

2 5 3 3 4 2
15 9 a b c a b c + =



2.
9 11 13 12 8 10 13 9 11
2 18 6 x y z x y z x y z + =



3.

2
20 m m =



4.

2
3 10 ax ax a + =



5.

2 2
3 18 27 b bc c + + =



6.

3 2 3 3
100 80 16 g m g m g + =



7.

2 3 4
8 18 f g f g =



8.

3 2
3 9 9 3 b b b + + + =



9.

( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
27 27 9 1 x k x k x k + + + + =
10.

3 2 3 3
100 80 16 g m g m g + =



11.

4
2 16 hx hx =



12.

2 4
9 16 p q =



13.

6 6
3 81 r s + =



14.

6
64 486 kx y kxy + =



15.

6 5
2 2 x x x + =



16.

3 2
2 4 2 4 i i i + =



17.

4 2 2
r r w r s sw + + + =



18.

6
64 486 kx y kxy + =



19.

3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
a b a c d b d c + =



20.

4 3 2
3 5 6 8 z z z z + =