Water From Pounds Pans and Dams PDF

TECHNICAL HANDBOOK No.
32
Water from ponds, pans and dams

A manual on planning, design, construction and maintenance
Technical handbook (TH) series

Agroforestry handbook for the montane zone of Uganda
Technical handbook series, continued...
Agroforestry manual for extension workers in Central and Lusaka provinces, Zambia
Alex Lwakuba, Alice A. Kaudia and John Okorio. 2003. TH No. 31. ISBN 9966-896-55-4
Soil fertility and land productivity
Joseph A. Banda, Penias Banda and Bo Tengns. 1997. TH No. 14. ISBN 9966-896-31-7
Facilitators manual for communication skills workshops
Charles K.K. Gachene and Gathiru Kimaru. 2003. TH No. 30. ISBN 9966-896-66-X
Soil and water conservation manual for Eritrea
Pamela Baxter. 1996. TH No. 13. ISBN 9966-896-25-2

Useful trees and shrubs in Eritrea: identification, propagation and management for agricultural and pastoral communities
Amanuel Negassi, Estifanos Bein, Kifle Ghebru and Bo Tengns. 2002. TH No. 29. ISBN 9966-896-65-1
Management of Rangelands: Use of natural grazing resources in Southern Province, Zambia
Estifanos Bein, B. Habte, A. Jaber, Ann Birnie and Bo Tengns. 1996. TH No. 12. ISBN 9966-896-24-4
Agroforestry extension manual for northern Zambia
Evaristo C. Chileshe and Aichi Kitalyi. 2002. TH No. 28. ISBN 9966-896-61-9
Edible wild plants of Tanzania
Henry Chilufya and Bo Tengns. 1996. TH No. 11. ISBN 9966-896-23-6

Useful trees and shrubs for Uganda: identification, propagation and management for agricultural and pastoral communities
Christopher K. Ruffo, Ann Birnie and Bo Tengns. 2002. TH No. 27. ISBN 9966-896-62-7
Tree nursery manual for Eritrea
A.B. Katende, Ann Birnie and Bo Tengns. 1995. TH No. 10. ISBN 9966-896-22-8
The soils of Ethiopia: annotated bibliography
Chris Palzer. 2002. TH No. 26. ISBN 9966-896-60-0

ULAMP extension approach: a guide for field extension agents
Berhanu Debele. 1994. TH No. 9. ISBN 9966-896-21-X

Curriculum for training in soil and water conservation in Kenya
Anthony Nyakuni, Gedion Shone and Arne Eriksson. 2001. TH No. 25. ISBN 9966-896-57-0
Drip Irrigation: options for smallholder farmers in eastern and southern Africa
Stachys N. Muturi and Fabian S. Muya (eds.) 1994. TH No. 8. ISBN 9966-896-20-1
Soil conservation in Arusha Region, Tanzania: manual for extension workers with emphasis on smallscale farmers
Isaya V. Sali. 2001. TH No. 24. ISBN 9966-896-77-5

Water from sand rivers: a manual on site survey, design, construction, and maintenance of seven types of water structures in riverbeds
Per Assmo and Arne Eriksson. 1994. TH No. 7. ISBN 9966-896-19-8

Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania: identification, propagation and management for agricultural and pastoral communities
Erik Nissen-Petersen. 2000. TH No. 23. ISBN 9966-896-53-8

Rainwater harvesting for natural resources management: a planning guide for Tanzania
Nuhu Hatibu and Henry F. Mahoo (eds.). 2000. TH No. 22. ISBN 9966-896-52-X
Agroforestry handbook for the banana-coffee zone of Uganda: farmers practices and experiences
L.P. Mbuya, H.P. Msanga, C.K. Ruffo, Ann Birnie and Bo Tengns. 1994. TH No. 6. ISBN 9966-896-16-3
Agroforestry manual for extension workers in Southern Province, Zambia
I. Oluka-Akileng, J. Francis Esegu, Alice Kaudia and Alex Lwakuba. 2000. TH No. 21. ISBN 9966-89651-1
Land resources management: a guide for extension workers in Uganda
Jericho Mulofwa, Samuel Simute and Bo Tengns. 1994. TH No. 4. ISBN 9966-896-14-7
Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia: identification, propagation and management for agricultural and pastoral communities
Charles Rusoke, Anthony Nyakuni, Sandra Mwebaze, John Okorio, Frank Akena and Gathiru Kimaru. 2000. TH No. 20. ISBN 9966-896-44-9
Wild food plants and mushrooms of Uganda
Azene Bekele-Tessema, Ann Birnie and Bo Tengns. 1993. TH No. 5. ISBN 9966-896-15-5
Guidelines on agroforestry extension planning in Kenya
Bo Tengns. 1993. TH No. 3. ISBN 9966-896-11-2

Agroforestry manual for extension workers with emphasis on small-scale farmers in Eastern Province, Zambia
Anthony B. Katende, Paul Ssegawa, Ann Birnie, Christine Holding and Bo Tengns. 1999. TH No. 19. ISBN 9966-896-40-6
Banana production in Uganda: an essential food and cash crop
Samuel Simute. 1992. TH No. 2. ISBN 9966-896-07-4

Curriculum for in-service training in agroforestry and related subjects in Kenya
Aloysius Karugaba and Gathiru Kimaru. 1999. TH No. 18. ISBN 9966-896-39-2
Agroforestry extension manual for eastern Zambia
Stachys N. Muturi (ed.). 1992. TH No. 1. ISBN 9966-896-03-1
Samuel Simute, C.L. Phiri and Bo Tengns. 1998. TH No. 17. ISBN 9966-896-36-8
Water harvesting: an illustrative manual for development of microcatchment techniques for crop production in dry areas
Mwangi T. Hai. 1998. TH No. 16. ISBN 9966-896-33-3

Integrated soil fertility management on small-scale farms in Eastern Province of Zambia
Thomas Raussen (ed.). 1997. TH No. 15. ISBN 9966-896-32-5

...continued on inside back cover
Chapter 1
Introduction
he purpose and scope of this book are presented in this chapter, followed by a detailed description of the most common kinds of ponds and dams. Pans used on seasonal basis by pastoral herders are also described.
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose and scope of this manual

Background Africa is considered a water-scarce continent with most of the countries regularly experiencing extreme water shortage during periodic dry spells. Rapid population growth and inefficient use of resources increases the deficit between available water supplies and the needs of people. Many regions in East and Southern Africa are drought prone and the vulnerability of the population to drought is high with more than 40 per cent of the regions people living in dryland areas. As resources dwindle and water demand increases, large scale water supply projects become unviable. There is a need to decentralize water supply to household and small community level. There is great potential to make beer use of water resources by harvesting rainwater and storing it locally for household and productive purposes. The need for more ponds and dams The lack of water is the largest constraint to sustainable livelihoods in many parts of Africa. Rapid runoff during the rainy season frequently results in a high proportion going to waste or even becoming destructive. Soil erosion, vegetation degradation and decreases in soil fertility are severe problems throughout the region. Harvesting rainwater where and when it falls presents opportunities to address both water scarcity and soil degradation at a local level. Water can be harvested and used for many purposes but reliable water storage facilities are required. Communities/individuals need help to identify suitable sites for water harvesting and storage structures, which types are most suitable, how much water the catchment area gives during the rains, and the water needs for household, livestock and crops. Local knowledge is valuable in answering these questions. Local communities must be involved and feel ownership from the planning stage all through the construction phase, if the project is to endure. Aim and scope of this book The purpose of this handbook is to provide a practical guide to extension workers and technicians who assist communities and farmers intending to construct a water storage structure for agricultural, livestock watering or domestic purposes. The reader will find out how to involve the community in all steps, so they become the true owners of the project and ensure the sustainability of the water storage structures (Chapter 2). Guidance is provided on planning and feasibility study including environmental impact and legal aspects
(Chapter 3). Various options for water storage are discussed and the design and construction of ponds and small earth dams are covered in detail (Chapter 4). The handbook also deals with the operations and maintenance once the pond or dam is built (Chapter 5). The last chapter (Chapter 6) presents several useful tools to use in the planning, design and construction stages.
1.2 Types of ponds and pans

Ponds and pans are naturally occurring or excavated water storage structures without a constructed wall. They usually store surface runoff, even though there are examples of constructed ponds storing roof water. The terms pans and ponds are oen used interchangeably with slightly indistinct meaning. In Kenya both natural and dugout structures are called pans, while in Zambia pans are larger natural water sources and ponds are smaller excavated structures. In general, the term pan is used to describe structures used by herders, while pond most oen refers to structures used by farmers. There are also various local terms to add to the confusion. Naturally occurring pans Natural pans have provided water for wildlife, livestock and humans since ancient times. They form in depressions in which rainwater accumulates during the rainy season and they do not have an outflow (see Figure 1). Today, most natural water sources are used for watering livestock during rains and a few months thereaer. Some people still use them for domestic water supply even though they are dirty and not suitable for drinking or washing.
Figure 1. Natural pan in a pastoral area with livestock and wildlife.
In some very dry areas such as the Kalahari Desert large natural salt pans are found. These usually hold water only for a few weeks a year and have been formed by wind action. Smaller natural pans include the silanka ya ndovu (elephant dam) common on the eastern African savannah, scooped out on flat land by elephants, digging for water many years ago. The animals trample and compact the sediment when they enter to drink, making the pans floor watertight. Many pans suffer from high evaporation losses. As they fill with sediment over time and the water becomes shallow, the problem of evaporation gets worse. Although it may not always be feasible to build new pans, it is sometimes worth deepening or enlarging existing natural or artificial ones. Herders in particular appreciate the benefits which natural pans can bring even though most are seasonal and cannot store water throughout the year. Excavated ponds Excavated ponds come in sizes from the household level of 200 to 500 m3 up to community level of 10,000 m3. They can easily be started with a small capacity and expanded over the years by digging deeper and wider. In areas with impermeable soils and a suitable site the only cost of construction is the labour, so a group can dig their own pond with lile cash expense.
Figure 2. Illustration of a charco pond, note silt traps and spillway.
Ponds should be situated at a low point in the catchment area so rainwater runoff flows by gravity towards the excavated pond. The catchment area can consist of any type of surface such as cropland, grasslands or compounds around homesteads. Hard road surfaces or rock outcrops may also make suitable catchment areas. Rainwater runoff can be diverted from a nearby gully, provided the pond is situated at a lower elevation than the gully. Soil excavated from the pond can be used to make soil bunds for diverting runoff water to ponds. In Sudan the name hafirs describes dugout enlargements of natural depressions on the savannah. They range in size from 500 to 10,000 m3 and provide water for both livestock and domestic purposes. In the past most hafirs were dug by hand. Today however, heavy machines, i.e tractors and bulldozers, are commonly used to build them. In Tanzania dugout ponds are commonly referred to as charco ponds, or malambo in Kiswahili. The charco are common in the drylands of Tanzania where they are used for watering livestock. In some cases, they are also used through necessity for domestic supply despite the poor water quality. Farmers build these ponds in stages during dry seasons until they are satisfied with the capacity. The farmers do not follow a standard design for their charco ponds and excavate them in many different shapes and sizes (see Figure 2). Borrow pits Borrow pits (also known as murram pits) are excavated to supply soil and gravel for road construction, but opportunistically used for water storage, usually from road runoff. As the ownership oen is unclear nobody takes proper responsibility for the borrow pits and they may even be sources of conflict. If proper regulations were in place to determine how these dugouts could benefit both the road construction and the neighbouring communities, the structures would be more valuable for a longer time. When borrow pits are dug in firm soil with lile seepage and have a large catchment area from the road runoff, even small rain showers will fill them. If they do not normally fill this way, they can fairly easily and at low cost be filled by digging a trench sloping from the road to divert rainwater runoff. This rainwater runoff may contain tar and other pollutants, making water from borrow pits unsuitable for human consumption.
1.3 Types of dams

Dams are water storage structures on slopes, with walls or embankments on the downhill side. They come in all shapes and sizes from the giant Kariba Dam on the Zambezi River to small check dams built across gullies. In drylands these include various types of earth dams, rock catchment dams, sub-surface dams and sand dams. This handbook covers the design and construction of small earth dams with storage capacities up to 10,000 m3 and embankments of up to approximately 3 m in height. It will deal with two types of earth dams only: Small dams in valleys built with straight embankments, which is a common and economical type of dam.
Small earth dams on hillsides built with curved embankments on sloping land, a less common but practical type for individual farmers. Site investigations, design and construction of medium and large dams require experienced engineers and cannot be constructed by field technicians and farmers. For this reason they are beyond the scope of this handbook. A word of warning: It must be remembered that the construction of any dam introduces a small risk of failure such as collapse of the dam wall. Therefore always seek experienced technical advice to minimize such risks. Earth dams in valleys If a suitable site can be found, constructing a small earth dam at a valley site is a cost effective way to create a water storage reservoir (see Figure 3). This is because it has a high water storage capacity per cubic metre of soil moved. Nevertheless, the impact of a small earth dam being washed away in a flood could be very serious and endanger lives and property. This is particularly so for valley dams where a large quantity of water suddenly released would be channelled down the valley. For this reason experienced technical help should always be sought for the design and construction of any dam which might present a threat to downstream households or communities. Small earth dams, below 1,000 m3 can be built manually, using draught animals, a farm tractor or a bulldozer. The medium sized, 10,000 to 50,000 m3, and large earth dams, above 50,000 m3, are nearly always built using heavy machinery.
Figure 3. Illustration of a valley dam. Note sill in spillway, rock toe.
Earth dams on hillsides Small earth dams on hillsides or sloping land are one of the simplest and least costly type of dam to design, construct and maintain. Suitable sites can be found on almost any sloping land that produces rainwater runoff. They may be built small the first year and enlarged over time (see Figure 4). Rock catchment dams Rock catchment dams store rainwater runoff collected from rock outcrops. In large rock catchments cement and stone guers are used to extend the catchment area to gather runoff from several hectares of rock surface. Rock catchments typically have reservoirs with capacities of up to 5,000 m3. Sub-surface dams and sand dams In semi-arid areas where dry sandy riverbeds are common, their water storage capacity can be improved by building sub-surface or sand dams. These are a kind of weir constructed across the sandy riverbeds to block flood water. Water that infiltrates into the sandy riverbed is trapped in the spaces between the sand particles. This form of water storage has the advantage of protecting the water from evaporation as well as helping to protect it from contamination.
Figure 4. Illustration of a hillside dam.
The major difference between sub-surface and sand dams is that subsurface dams can be built cheaply of soil or stone-masonry to the level of sand in the riverbed, while a sand dam can be built to a height of several metres above the sand level. Although sand dams should produce more water than sub-surface dams, most of the hundreds constructed in recent years are not functioning well.
One of the oldest rock catchment dams built in Kitui, Kenya, in 1956.
Sand dam with masonry apron in Nyando District, western Kenya.
Chapter 2
Community participation
ll development practitioners should realize by now how important community participation is. Many are still struggling with how to go about it. Chapter 2 provides clear guidelines, in a logical sequence. It begins with project identification, forming management structures, and setting SMART objectives. With structures in place, the text explains the communitys role in feasibility and planning, design and construction. Throughout, emphasis is given to the need for capacity building, with a detailed description of the kinds of training that need to be provided. The roles of government departments are discussed, as well as the need for monitoring of progress by the community groups themselves. At the end, there is a discussion on ways to manage conflicts should they arise.
Chapter 2 Community participation
2.1 Introduction
There are many examples of community water projects that were built and ended up being abandoned or broken down soon aer the development agency le. Such experience highlights the need to involve the community in all stages of a project in order to ensure that the community owns the project and willingly takes responsibility for it. Community participation is essential to ensure a genuinely sustainable project. Very small pond or dam projects may also be done at an individual rather than community level. In order to make sure that projects are sustainable, there is need to identify clear steps in the project implementation process. Turn to page 28 for a useful flow-chart that shows all steps in sequence. Such steps include: Project identification Community social organization and management structures Feasibility, design and planning Construction Capacity building Operation and maintenance Monitoring and evaluation
2.2 Project identification

In the past, the needs of a community were taken for granted. Top down approaches meant that communities were given whatever projects the aid agencies or government had funds for. Communities were not consulted and their real felt needs were never identified. This resulted in unwanted projects which were neglected and became white elephants. Pond and dam projects can be identified in many different ways but in all cases the demand for the project should come from the community. Community needs or demands can be identified by assessing their development priorities using techniques such as participatory rural appraisal (PRA). Alternatively, there may be a direct request to a local development agency or government department from an established community group. Establishing the nature of the group or individual requesting assistance should be the first part of the project implementation.
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2.3 Community social organizations and management structures

Forming a management structure In order to implement a successful water project, the community will need to select a suitable management structure. Possible approaches might include: Starting by understanding the existing structures, including traditional council of elders. Raising awareness about the project and the need for a management structure with the local leadership. Helping the community to develop the roles and responsibilities of the proposed commiee. Within most communities in Africa, there are traditional management structures for water resources that existed in the past and possibly current management structures for new projects. It is important to understand the responsibilities of these structures with regards to using water resources. Analysing these structures can be done for each type of management structure using the following checklist to establish the gaps in knowledge and skills: What do you see and think should be their responsibilities? Which of the responsibilities mentioned above can they comfortably take on? What reasons do you give for their inability to carry out the rest of their responsibilities and what possible solutions do you suggest? Compare roles of the two management structures (traditional and current) and come up with important roles each can provide that cannot be provided by the other. The responsibilities that the management structure will have to take on behalf of the community for the sustainability of the project include: Coordinating construction and maintenance of the pond/pan or dam in the community. Operation and maintenance of the pond/pan or dam. Having the technical know how to carry out repairs with lile or no reliance on external support. Charging for providing services. Establishing the best revenue collection method. This includes a cost recovery system for operation and maintenance and managing the funds.
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Supervising staff who work on the water supply system, i.e. operators, fee collectors. Aending meetings and having periodic elections in acceptable format for all community members. Implementing decisions discussed and taken in meetings. Equitable distribution of water resources, formulation and enforcement of by-laws to ensure effective distribution. Engaging community members on their own terms, minimising and resolving conflict, and identifying and resolving community problems. Having analysed the existing management structures, it is possible to agree with the community on the most appropriate structure for the planned project. This is oen a commiee that combines both traditional and modern resource management structures as shown in the example below.
Formation of management structures for water projects in Mandera District, Kenya

There is a history of traditional water management in Mandera District through the council of elders or aba-heriga. Stakeholders at the start of a new water project debated the strengths and weaknesses of both this and a modern, elected committee style management structure. The stakeholders explored methods of combining modern and traditional systems and the measures to be taken to ensure representation and accountability, including how to reduce the influence of dominant personalities on the process. It was concluded that: The inclusion of elders brings considerable advantages to the management of community water supplies, but may increase conflict within the committee. Comprehensive and enforceable by-laws can play an important role in ensuring genuine representation by committee members and, by clearly defining roles and responsibilities, can reduce the influence of dominant individuals.
Good record keeping and regular monitoring by support agencies is essential to check the effectiveness of a committee.
Ownership, land tenure and legal issues Suitable sites for earth dams are normally found in valleys and seasonal water courses which are oen boundaries between two or more landowners. In such cases, it is important that the landowners make a wrien agreement on sharing the ownership. This agreement should
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include construction cost, usage of water and maintenance of a pond or dam and be finalized before any survey and construction work takes place. It is also important for the landowners to agree on the location of an access road to the dam site and on any soil conservation methods to reduce soil erosion and siltation. Catchment protection can consist of digging trenches, making terraces and planting of grasses or trees in rows along the contours (lines of equal elevation). It also includes the building of check dams and silt traps in gullies. All land-users in a catchment area should be encouraged to participate in all the soil conservation activities including the maintenance of structures and vegetation cover. Before a pond/pan or dam project can be implemented it is important to ensure that the ownership of the site is clear and that access to all users is guaranteed. The box below is an example of the importance of land ownership.
Gathingi dam, Sweetwaters, Laikipia District, Kenya

During the initial stages of a project to rehabilitate an old colonial dam for a community near Sweetwaters game reserve, the implementing agency surveyed the site and compared the boundary of the proposed dam impoundment area with land settlement maps of the area. During this process, it became apparent that the actual location of the dam spanned both the communal land set aside for the dam and private land owned by an individual in the community. The project could not proceed because the eventual ownership of the dam and the water resource was not clear and community access could not be guaranteed. Following intensive facilitation by the development agency the committee and the land owner agreed to exchange the private land within the dam area for alternative land nearby. The community arranged for the legal process of transferring title deeds and establishing the whole dam impoundment area as public land. This process took three months and only then could the dam rehabilitation project start.
Initial discussions should be held with the community, or their representatives, using this checklist: Who owns the land? Who has access to the land? Who owns any existing water source? Who will own this project? Who will manage it?
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How will the money collected be used? Who will maintain the project? Ideally a community water project must be established on community owned land. If any part of the water supply passes over private land, it is necessary to obtain a wayleave which is a legal document signed by the land owner that ensures access by the community members to the water supply facilities on his/her land. Compliance with water resource regulations on dam construction Legal requirements will vary from one country to another. It is always advisable to ask the authorities before starting any construction work in order to avoid disappointment and legal cases. Generally, it is understood that farmers may construct ponds on their land without asking for permission from anyone, provided the ponds are small and do not block water runoff to people living downstream. If in doubt of the legality, the authorities should be asked before starting on the construction work. In the case of earth dams built in valleys, however, these may interfere with peoples water supply downstream. Since dams can collapse during exceptionally heavy rainfall due to poor maintenance, incorrect design or poor construction work, this could endanger people and structures downstream. For these reasons, approval for the design and permission for the construction works must be obtained from the authorities. Legal aspects of community organization Different countries have different laws governing associations and community based organizations. The way in which a community group is registered usually dictates how they can operate and how effective they can be at managing a communal resource such as a dam. Typical legal guidelines for different organizations in Kenya are shown in the box below.
Self-help groups registered with Ministry of Social Services

Can: Hold meetings without license Raise funds for the group Open a bank account Apply for small grants from local donors or NGOs
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Cannot: Make legal transaction (e.g. legally binding contract) Seek legal redress against individuals or organizations (e.g. for misappropriation of funds) Own land on which to place project assets (e.g. dam, borehole, tanks etc.) Own equipment (e.g. generator, pipeline, vehicles etc.)
Associations registered with the Registrar of Societies

Can: Do all the above plus: Legal transactions Own land Own assets and equipment Go to court to seek legal redress
In addition if registered as water users association with Ministry of Water can: Have status and rights of water undertaker, i.e. right to legally sell water.
It is advisable to check with the relevant government department to make sure the community group is properly registered and can have the legal authority to handle any problems that might arise. Setting project objectives It is important for everyone involved in a project to have a common understanding of what they are trying to achieve. Seing clear objectives at the start of the project and making sure they are achievable is part of the preparation for the project. Simple clear objectives should be defined with the community and bearing in mind the rule that objectives should be SMART, i.e.: S = Specific M = Measurable A = Achievable R = Realistic T = Time bound
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A typical example of an objective for community water projects which is not SMART is improved community health. This is not specific, measurable, achievable, realistic or time bound because it is difficult to measure improvements in community health and even more difficult to relate them directly to the construction of a water facility such as a pond or dam. A more reasonable, SMART objective for a pond or dam project would be to reduce the time women spend collecting water from 2 hours to 30 minutes by the end of the two year project. This is very specific about what is being achieved and for whom, by when and the achievement can be measured.
2.4 Feasibility, design and planning

Community involvement in feasibility and design The important principle for community participation in feasibility, design and planning is to remember who owns the project. Technicians must ensure that the community takes part in site selection, survey, environmental impact assessment (EIA) and any other investigations or discussions forming part of the feasibility and design. This may mean spending time explaining the design to key members of the community and ensure that the project is not disowned at a later stage. The design must also consider community preferences, hygiene and water use practices. Use the following list of questions to gather basic social data necessary to ensure that the design meets the needs of people. 1. How many people are likely to use the pond or dam? Where are they? How are they distributed? Are they seled or nomadic? 2. Are there other water and sanitation needs apart from human or domestic? (e.g. irrigation, tree nurseries, livestock) If so, what are the demands? 3. What security factors may interfere with peoples access to the pond or dam? 4. What are the current or likely water and sanitation-related diseases? How can transmission of these diseases be reduced? 5. What are peoples normal household sanitation and hygiene practices, including disposal of childrens faeces? 6. What are the environmental conditions, including drainage, waste disposal, and location of defecation areas relative to water sources? 7. What are the typical water use habits in the community, including collection practices, preferences for washing selves, clothes and utensils and sources of drinking water?
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Capacity assessment At this stage it may be useful to carry out a community capacity assessment. The aim of the assessment is to determine what capacity the community has to sustainably manage the pond or dam aer construction. Sustainability aspects that need to be looked at include: Technical sustainability, referring to balanced demand and supply of water from the ponds and dams. Institutional sustainability, referring to the capacity of the institutions within the community to plan, manage and operate the system. Social sustainability, referring to the willingness of the community to contribute to the project Economic sustainability, referring to sustainable economic development and improvement of the welfare of the community. Financial sustainability, referring to cost recovery. Environmental sustainability, referring to there being no longterm negative or irreversible effects to the environment owing to the establishment or use of the ponds and dams. An analysis of the gaps in knowledge and skills required to manage the water supply and maintain the structure can assist in the design of a community training component (see Section 2.6). Once the design is complete the detailed planning can take place. There is a need to facilitate a planning exercise with the community in which community and implementing agency roles are clearly defined. Cost sharing Most development organizations have adopted a cost sharing policy towards their community projects. The reason is that if communities have to pay for at least part of the project cost, they are more likely to value the facility and feel a sense of ownership. The willingness and ability to pay a cost contribution varies from community to community and should be assessed carefully. The actual community contribution should be negotiated with the community and not determined by an external agency. A fixed contribution set at a percentage of the cost of the project tends to result in unaffordable contributions in cases where mechanical construction is required. An in kind contribution in the form of labour and local materials is often easier for poor communities with limited cash. It is important to monetarize in kind contributions to establish the actual value of the community contribution. Negotiating the cost of contribution should be done alongside discussions about the design and construction planning of the project. It
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is important to make sure that communities understand the full scale and cost of the project so that they can appreciate the need for their contribution. Demanding a certain percentage without explaining where the figures come from can lead to communities feeling that they are being asked for a bribe to get the project started. Where there is an option of mechanical, animal draught or manual construction, it may also be appropriate to give the community the choice of technology they prefer to contribute to. It is unrealistic to expect communities to provide intensive labour for building a large dam or pond without payment.
Pan desilting in Wajir District

Several large pans were desilted following the drought of 19992001 in Wajir. The development agency decided to use Cash for Work to help drought affected families to recover. Providing cash to families who contributed labourers for desilting did not undermine the community sense of responsibility for the pan because the community fully understood that the cash was being paid as a drought recovery measure. In these communities, even if the labour had been provided as a community contribution someone within the community would have had to pay the workers. No-one is expected to work without being given something.
For large, complex projects where considerable revenue collection, operation and maintenance will be required it is advisable to carry out an awareness raising exercise with the whole community. This will help the community to understand their roles and responsibilities and to feel part of the planning and implementation process. Restricting community contact to the selected few in the management commiee oen results in conflict and confusion at later stages.
2.5 Construction
Roles of who should do what should be clear. Typical community roles during construction include: Clearing the site, uprooting trees, removing stones. Supervising earth works. Providing labour for minor earth moving (if mechanically dug). Organizing, supervising and monitoring work (if manually dug).
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Providing local materials for cement works where required (sand, ballast and water). Providing accommodation and/or food for skilled workers. Fencing and other auxiliary works, i.e. planting grass on embankments, stone pitching the spillway. The management commiee and possibly other members of the community should be involved in measuring and approving the work carried out. This ensures that the community is in control of the project and the commiee can answer any queries that the community members may have about the construction. In addition, where it is not possible to employ manual labour, the community should decide on the possibilities of tendering or contracting the work to establishments with relevant equipment.
2.6 Capacity building

Rationale Historically, government water departments played a prominent role in the development and rehabilitation of dams. More recently, the capacity of the water departments to undertake this work has diminished and very lile rehabilitation of community dams takes place. Under new government water policies, communities have a greater role and responsibility in the management and operation of their water supplies. This responsibility is only meaningful if the communities genuinely have the interest and capacity to manage their water supplies. Typically, the community has a strong interest, being the principle beneficiary of the water supply. However, the operation and management of a water supply requires awareness, skills and experience that the communities do not necessarily have, especially if their dam is new or has not been operational for a long time. The capacity of the community may need strengthening so they can manage their water supply. A capacity building exercise for community operation and management of water supplies involves the following steps: Training needs assessment. Development of an appropriate training programme. Training of management commiee and other key community people. Follow up to monitor progress on operational and management issues.
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Capacity building should result in the following: that the commiee selected by the community gains skills on leadership, financial management and technical operation and management; that the community gains knowledge on water related hygiene and sanitation; and that the community learns how the pond/pan or dam will be operated and learns to demand accountability from their commiee (community empowerment). Training needs assessment The training needs assessment is a detailed exercise with the community in which participatory tools are used to: Discuss the overall project objectives with the community. Establish existing organizational and management structure. Establish the capacity of existing management system to handle existing water supply system and rehabilitated system. Discuss expectations and responsibilities involved in community management of the proposed dam rehabilitation and the subsequent operation and maintenance. Identify who should be trained. Identify external factors that can affect the training and project. Identify the roles of other stakeholders (e.g. Water Department). Where a comprehensive capacity assessment was carried out during the feasibility stage it may not be necessary to undertake a full training needs assessment. However, discussions should be held with community representatives to identify what training they think is necessary. The format of the training needs assessment involves discussions with the community using PRA tools that help the community to identify their priorities. This ensures that the opinions of different members of the community (e.g. women, youths, agriculturists, pastoralists) are expressed. The community is able to identify their strengths and weaknesses, with the result that the topics covered in the training programme can clearly be identified as arising from the community. The output from the training needs assessment is a report which provides details on the key issues that need to be addressed during the community capacity building exercise. Development of an appropriate training programme Each community is different. It is important to adapt approaches and topics to the needs of each individual community. The general approach is to develop a training programme which uses participatory tools (drama, role plays, picture games) to build the capacity of the
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community to operate and manage their water supply. Historically most pans have a traditional, communal ownership background. This means that capacity building for community management should build on existing systems. The following features are recommended for pond or dam management training: Community mobilisation/awareness is a key part. Training should be on-site and make use of participatory approaches. Thorough training/capacity building in management at few sites is preferable to partial training in many sites. Long-term follow-up process is essential. Training should involve and encourage women in decisionmaking. A typical training programme is divided into modules dealing with different topics including: Community organization and optional management structures. Other issues covered include leadership, gender, equity and conflict resolution. Community self reliance and organizational sustainability which deals with issues of dependency, organizational records, constitutions and by-laws. Building financial sustainability, financial records (budgeting, book keeping and accounting). Operation and maintenance which deals with technical sustainability and includes accessing technical services, spare parts, and routine maintenance activities. This module also covers catchment conservation measures and environmental impacts. Water, sanitation and hygiene education. Typically, health benefits from improved water supplies are only obtained through changes in water use habits. The management commiee members are generally cast in the role of community leaders and so have a responsibility to the community to raise awareness on good environmental health practices at the household, homestead and community level. Community action plans and community monitoring and evaluation. Indicators are discussed to help the community monitor their adherence to their action plans and to monitor any environmental or social impacts.
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An additional module that is useful for dam projects would cover sustainable water and land use practises. This module would explore ways of making use of the water facility to enhance the environment (tree nurseries etc.), to create opportunities for coage industries (e.g. fisheries) and to encourage micro-irrigation. Community training approach Community training takes place in the community area and takes the form of a one to two week exercise in which the different training modules are explored with the community members. Special aention is given to the possibility that individuals within management commiees may be transitional. It is therefore important to ensure that the community as a whole is involved in the training. This helps to reduce the likelihood of generating an elite of trained individuals. The training has to be appropriate for the community as a whole, hence the limited use of wrien material. Additionally, the training may be conducted in the local language. Staffing Staffing for the community training component requires a community training specialist and one or two community mobilizers. The training specialist will be responsible for the content, coordination and reporting of the community training component. The community mobilizers, who speak the local language, will undertake the community training and follow-ups.
2.7 Monitoring and evaluation

The community should develop a suitable system for monitoring their performance. In addition, the project should involve the community in evaluation of their works. This is important for management, readjustment or introduction of new approaches towards improving on the existing systems or solving of problems. Tools for monitoring the performance of the dam or pond and planning operation and maintenance work are presented in Chapter 6.
2.8 Important considerations in working with communities

Gender Traditional gender roles relating to water in the household are oen divided according to whether the water is for productive or
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reproductive use. For example, domestic water for cooking, drinking or washing is the womans responsibility. Water for agriculture or livestock is usually the mans responsibility. Women may be responsible for water collection for kitchen gardens or small livestock raised for the household rather than cash income. Understanding gender issues within the community where the pond/pan or dam is to be constructed is an important factor in planning a sustainable project. It is useful to analyse womens and mens work and their control over resources to establish who is likely to have the time, interest and authority to take on the management of a pond or dam (see box for questions for gender analysis).
Questions for gender analysis
What role do women have in water issues? Who controls water sources? Who is responsible for maintaining water supplies? Who is responsible for water use in the household? If the community manages the water supply, should women be involved? How should they be involved? In the committee or through womens groups? What resources do women control and what decision-making power do they have in the community?* Do women have time available for community activities?* What other constraints are there to womens involvement in water management? What steps can be taken to reduce these constraints? Who should take these steps?
* these issues can be explored using PRA tools such as Gender access and control to resources and Gender activity schedule.
Women are clearly the ones who benefit from improving availability of water in terms of: Reduced time spent fetching water Improved family health More opportunities for girls to go to school Potential for market gardening and/or small-scale livestock production to increase household income and/or improve nutrition.
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Women therefore have higher interest in improving access to water and are eager to participate in construction. However, in many cases their ability to participate in decision making concerning the planning, operation and maintenance of the pond or dam is restricted by traditional practices. There are obvious advantages of including women in the management of water facilities because they are highly motivated to construct new water supplies and keep them operational. It is therefore important that communities are encouraged to include women in the decision making. However, the presence of women in a water commiee is not always sufficient to ensure genuine participation in decision making so technicians and extension workers may need to carry out gender awareness exercises for the whole community to empower women and encourage them to actively participate. Gender issues should also be taken into account when designing the pond or dam and thinking about how water for domestic use will be collected. Womens priorities for water collection facilities may be different from mens and they should therefore be consulted. In some communities watering livestock is given priority over domestic water collection. It may be necessary to provide separate abstraction facilities for domestic water to ensure women have access to the water. Understanding of gender roles in the community is also necessary when designing follow on projects which make use of pond water, such as market gardens, tree nurseries or brick making. The extent to which both women and men will benefit from these activities needs to be considered. Conflict mitigation Conflicts over access to water can undermine or even destroy a community water project. All potential conflict situations should be thoroughly explored with the communities involved and conflict mitigation measures agreed and put in place. This may take time and should involve traditional conflict resolution bodies to ensure that an agreement can be reached where more than one tribe or group are involved. Where conflicts over land have not been resolved, review of land acts with consequent reforms should be pursued by the local leadership in conjunction with government officials. The community should be educated on such issues. The box below depicts an example of conflict mitigation in northern Kenya.
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Conflict mitigation in northern Kenya

Unreliable and uneven seasonal distribution of rainfall in pastoral regions of northeastern Kenya results in great differences in surface water availability from year to year. Dams and pans in some areas may fill up while others go dry even in the same district. Such disparities in rainfall and available water force livestock herders to migrate in search of water, sometimes far from traditional grazing grounds and water points. In northeastern Kenya, this often means crossing international borders into Ethiopia or Somalia. This perennial search for water is the underlying source of conflict between pastoral communities. The level of conflict will vary, and can be among individuals, between clans, between water management committee and the local community, or between communities across national borders. Causes of conflict Lack of defined ownership of water sources (pans and dams). Complex clan relations which are highly heterogeneous within communities, leads to competition between clans for access to water. Lack of clear by-laws for water users associations in agropastoral and pastoral communities Absence of, or corrupt water management committees. Disparities in water fees charged by management committees. Individuals fencing off access to pans/dams. Upstream water abstraction
Mitigation initiatives Local communities, especially with support from the relevant authorities or external agencies, have taken initiatives to manage/mitigate conflict over water at different levels. In Kenya (and other countries) the key approach has been facilitating dialogue aimed at creating mutual understanding among groups and fostering peaceful coexistence. The following are some options that have been used in Mandera for resolving conflict. Forming water user associations and management committees. Ensuring such management structures have clear and enforceable by-laws. Capacity building programmes that target both users and management committees to strengthen their ability to deal with conflict.
Forming village and cross-border peace committees to facilitate dialogue and awareness raising.
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Figure 5. Planning and design flow chart for ponds and dams
Problem identification, identify project objectives Community mobilization
Estimate water demand > Establish scale of project Site identification and assessment > Site gradient, along and across valley site (if a dam) > Pond/pan or dam: is wall structural and how high?
NO
Does site appear feasible? YES General feasibility and planning > Water quality-health considerations? > What quantity needed vs. available? > Is it economically feasible? > What environmental impacts? Preliminary costing
Community management structure, Training needs assessment
NO
Is project still feasible? YES NO

If a valley dam with wall higher than 3 metres...
Ownership, legal aspects, land tenure
YES
Get technical assistance!
Planning [Manual labour, draught animal traction, or mechanized excavation?] Final technical design > Detailed topographical survey > Position of the dam wall and spillway > Capacity of the water reservoir, height and length of the dam wall > Design the foundation > Design the dam wall > Design spillway > Design water extraction
Community cost sharing
Community socio-economic survey
Legal issues, permits
continues to next page
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Review costs, prepare detailed plan, including:

> Construction plan > Bill of quantities > Design report & drawings
NO
Project still justifiable, affordable sustainable? YES
Examine alternative technologies, e.g. ground water
Project financing
Community Approval
Community contribution
(in cash and/or in kind)
Construction schedule
Community supervision, manage construction
Construction
Community and water committee training
Operation and maintenance

Monitoring and Evaluation
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Chapter 3
Feasibilty and planning
his chapter tells you what to do to find out if the proposed pond/pan or dam is feasible. It provides information on estimating how much water the community uses, determining the quantity of runoff water a catchment can produce and how to identify the best site for the dam, pond or pan. Following a logical order, there are sections dealing with examining the economic costs and benefits of the project, and which construction methods are more or less expensive. The chapter ends with a section addressing the potential environmental and social impacts of building pans and dams. Dont forget to use the ideas and methods in Chapter 2 to involve the community. After all, it is their dam or pond.
Chapter 3 General feasibilty and planning
3.1 Introduction
To determine whether a pond or dam project is feasible requires looking closely at its technical and economic viability as well as the environmental and social impacts. It is important that these are shown to be positive. A detailed format for doing a thorough feasibility report appears in Annex 1. The most successful projects are those identified and implemented by community groups. This instils a greater sense of ownership by the community who are then more likely to engage in the active maintenance of the dam, pond, reservoir and catchment area. Key questions These are some of the key questions that you will need to answer at the outset: What will the water be used for? Will the water be clean enough for the intended purpose and if not, can it be improved? How much water is needed? How much water will the new source provide? What will the project cost? What percentage of this can the community afford? How much will the facility cost to maintain and operate? Can the community afford this? There are five components to the feasibility assessment. These are: 1. Assessing the quality of the water that will be harvested. 2. Estimating how much water will be needed, to compare with the capacity of the catchment to supply water. 3. Making a preliminary site assessment. 4. Estimating the costs of constructing the pond or dam. 5. Doing an Environmental Impact Assessment. This is required by law in most countries.
3.2 Water quality and sanitation

The rainwater runoff which fills ponds and reservoirs flows over ground that is usually contaminated. The ground on catchment areas can have animal droppings, human excreta (especially from young children) and other rubbish on it that will pollute the water. While this
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water is suitable for livestock, small-scale irrigation and construction work it is NOT safe for drinking. When planning, be sure to survey the catchment and identify all possible sources of contamination that could jeopardize water quality and users health.
Catchment pollution in northeastern Kenya

Korondille is a small settlement in Wajir District. The people rely on a large pan, located close to the settlement, for their water supply. There are no draw off structures so women collect water directly from the pan. The main catchment for the pan is on the other side of the pan, away from the settlement but population growth and livestock coming to drink at the pan has meant that a pathway has been formed through town and into the pan. In the rainy season this pathway carries runoff into the pan, collecting all the waste, including human faeces, from the town and depositing them into the pan. Even though care has been taken to protect the main catchment, the pan is still being polluted via an unanticipated catchment. The community at Korondille are unaware of the health risks caused by the runoff through the town and have made no attempt to correct the problem. Possible measures to reduce the pollution would be to divert town runoff away from the pan. Alternatively the temporary settlements in the new catchment could be moved away from the runoff path and the catchment rehabilitated to provide better quality runoff.
If the purpose of a pond or a dam is to get clean water for domestic needs, then the water should be drawn from an enclosed hand-dug well below the dam wall. Drinking untreated water from open water sources is not recommended (unless it has first been boiled) as it may cause water-borne diseases such as dysentery, diarrhoea or typhoid. If water based diseases such as schistosomiasis (bilharzia) carried by water snails are present in the area, people should be discouraged from entering the water.
3.3 Estimating water demand

To estimate how much water is required and for how long a period some simple calculations are required. The demand for water for domestic purposes, livestock and irrigation can be estimated by filling in the relevant rows in Table 1 below. First, determine from available rainfall data for your district, or from asking knowledgeable community member, how long the typical dry season lasts or the length of period when stored water is being used. To determine the water requirement for any particular household or community, information on the number of people, livestock and any
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irrigation requirements needs to be gathered. By making a copy and filling in the table below you can calculate the approximate water use of a given village or group of households (to find an average). At the district level, recent census data is usually available on human and livestock populations. In Tanzania this data is available even at village level. In areas where beer quality water sources are available for domestic consumption, such as a hand-dug well or rainwater tank, water from a dam or pond will only be required for livestock or irrigation. Be sure to ask about such sources when doing the feasibility study. Estimating water demand A copy of Table 1 also appears in the feasibility report in Annex 1. Table 1 Estimating water demand
Item Population Consumption rate (litres/day) Total
(litres/day)
People Camels Cattle Sheep/goats Donkeys Irrigation Other
x 20 x 15 x 15 x 3.5 x 15 x 20 l/buckets/day + 10% (seepage+ evaporation loss)
Total (litres/day) Total (m3/day*)

*divide total litres by 1,000.
Livestock water demand There are standard figures for the different types of livestock, as shown in Table 1. It is oen the case that once a large new water supply is built within a community, people will bring their animals to drink rather than go to other sources further away.
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Irrigation water demand To estimate the water requirement for irrigation, consider the main factors, such as the irrigation method used (furrow, bucket, drip), the soil type (sandy, loamy, clay), climate, type of crop and its growing period. See Annex 2 for a table showing typical crop-water requirements of major crops. It is beer to over estimate the quantity of water needed for irrigation than underestimate. The capacity of a catchment to supply water Usually the runoff from a catchment will be more than sufficient to fill the pond or reservoir. Only in cases where a catchment is very small and there is lile sign of runoff will further investigations need to be undertaken. Usually, the descriptions from local people who have watched rainwater runoff produce temporary streams or even floods during torrential downpours in the wet season should provide sufficient evidence that there will be sufficient water to fill the reservoir. More details are provided under site selection below.
3.4 Site investigation and selection

Topographical survey Potential sites for dams and ponds need to be measured to establish what volume of water they might be able to store. For very small reservoir areas (less than 500m3) you might be able to use a simple tool such as a line-level or circular level (see Tool 1 in Chapter 6). For larger dams or pans (above 3 metre dam wall height) it will be necessary to bring a survey team to site and map out the whole area. Site selection for ponds The best sites for constructing ponds are in places with deep clay, or silty soils, where surface run-off accumulates during the rainy season. The land surface should be fairly flat, ideally with a slope of not more than 4 per cent (4cm per metre). A natural depression where water collects during rainy seasons is a suitable site. The catchment area should be sufficiently large to generate adequate runoff water to fill the pond. Ideally, a pond should be located near a gully or a natural waterway, which carries water during and after rainfall events as this water can easily be diverted. Avoid digging ponds near or downstream from livestock enclosures or mines as these are likely to suffer from organic or chemical pollution. A suitable site should have deep fine textured soils, preferably clayey. Coarse textured sandy soils should be avoided as these are highly
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permeable and water will drain through them easily. Soils with a low permeability (e.g. soils with high clay content) should be used for the floor and sides of the pond to avoid seepage losses. If seepage is high, puddling and compacting of the floor may be necessary. Sites with underlying strata of sand, gravel, limestone or fractured rock at a shallow depth may result in high seepage losses and should be avoided (see Soil analysis on page 38). All other factors permiing, a pond should be located in such a way that the stored water may be used directly without the need for pumping and piping. Site selection for dams When undertaking the site investigation the following points need to be considered. The seasonal runoff from the catchment feeding into the valley needs to be sufficient to fill any reservoir constructed. The walls of the earth dam should be situated in a narrow part of the valley. Preferably at a place with a natural depression just up stream producing some additional storage capacity (see Figure 6). The dam wall needs to be built in a part of the valley which provides a water-tight valley floor and sides of either clay or uncracked rock. The valley floor should not be too steep and sloping as this will reduce the storage volume of the reservoir. The dam wall should be situated at least 100 m from any bends in the valley to prevent currents causing erosion when heavy runoff occurs. Suitable clay soils for building the dam wall needs to be available. Preferably these should come from a borrow pit in the reservoir and from excavating the spillways. Reservoirs should not contain boulders or rock outcrops because they might cause leakage unless covered with clayey soil. Natural depressions in the banks of a reservoir should, when present, be used for spillways in order to reduce construction costs (see Figure 7).
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635m 630m 625m
Dam site in narrow valley
620m Resevoir in Seasonal water course natural depression
Con to ur li
620m 625m
nes o
n 1:50,000 map
630m 635m
Figure 6. Site selection for a valley dam. Choose a narrow point in a valley with a natural depression upstream.
Contour lin es Contour li nes Contour lin es
Bench mark
Embarkment
Low spot
A-A profile:
Embankment
Figure 7. Siting of a valley dam spillway. If possible choose natural depression in the banks of a reservoir for the spillway to discharge surplus water.
Sp ill w ay
spillway
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Soil survey and analysis The purpose of this exercise is to see whether the local soils are suitable to use when constructing the dam wall, and to estimate the permeability of the soil in the impoundment area to understand whether the site will hold water or lose it all through seepage. Soils can be classified on the basis of their texture. The finest soils are clayey and these are impermeable (watertight) and do not allow water to pass through them. Silty soils are not as fine as clays and more permeable and unstable. Sandy soils are coarser still and quite permeable allowing water to pass through them easily. Gravel and soils with a high gravel content are very permeable. Most soils are made up of a mixture of clay, silt, sand and gravel. The first step is to dig adequate test pits along the dam wall and throughout the floor of the dam or pond to provide soil samples for testing (see Tool 2 in Chapter 6). There are various tests which can be carried out to determine what type of soil is available at the site. The first analysis is to establish the seepage rate of the soil (see Tool 4 in Chapter 6). This is a comparative test so it is helpful to compare the results with a soil with high clay content (and low permeability) in order to establish the relative permeability of the soil samples. Aer testing the permeability the soil should be tested to determine the clay content. A simple field tool for establishing the percent clay content is described in Tool 3, Chapter 6. It is important to recognize that some sorts of clay (e.g. black coon soil) must not be used for construction because it cracks badly when it dries out. In order to decide whether the available soil is suitable for storing water or dam wall construction it is necessary to have a minimum of 30 per cent clay content. Simple guidelines for dam construction are as follows: The soil with the highest clay content should be used for the key (cut-off trench), core and diaphragm of the dam wall. The soil with the next highest clay content should be used for the upstream side of the dam wall and for a blanket to cover the whole dam when completed. The soil with the lowest clay content (the most sandy soil) should be used for building the downstream side of the dam wall. Estimating spillway size The surplus water of a small earth dam reservoir must be discharged safely, otherwise the dam wall will be washed away. Surplus runoff must therefore pass over a spillway that is large enough to safely
38
discharge the overflow water from the highest recorded rainfall plus a lile extra in case the next El Nio storm breaks the record. All spillways must have a firm surface or a constructed sill to prevent erosion and avoid reducing the reservoir storage capacity. The size of a spillway will depend on the volume of water running off its catchment during peak times. A common mistake is the belief that a small dam only needs a small spillway. If the total runoff volume is large a spillway of matching capacity is essential. It is therefore not economical to build a small dam on a large catchment because the risk of under-estimating the spillway. On the other hand if the volume of rainwater runoff from a catchment area is too small and the earth dam reservoir does not fill on a regular basis the investment of building the dam will have been partly wasted. For small earth dams built in valley sites, estimating the volume of runoff from a catchment is vital to ensure that spillways are large enough to cope. The amount of runoff depends on the size and condition of the catchment and other factors (rainfall intensity, soil type, slope, vegetation cover). If reliable local rainfall data and/or contour maps 1:50,000 cannot be obtained an alternative method to estimate the required spillway capacity can be used. This involves measuring the maximum flood level in the valley proposed for a dam and adjusting for the different gradient and vegetation conditions between the natural water course and the improved spillway. Maximum flood levels Determining the maximum flood level may involve enquiries with long-time residents regarding the highest flood water level they can remember. Using this information the maximum cross-sectional area of the water in the valley at the highest flood level ever observed can be estimated. See Tool 5a and 5b in Chapter 6 for detailed instructions.
3.5 Economic feasibility

Methods and costs of excavation and construction A family or community group can build a pond or dam using either manual labour, draught animal power using an ox scoop or with hired machinery (e.g. a tractor or bulldozer). Work should be carried out in the dry season when people have less work in the fields and when uncompleted excavation and construction work is less likely to get washed away.
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Manual labour Ponds and small earth dams can be constructed manually in several ways: A community can provide manual labour during a dry season for construction of their pond or dam. The value of their labour may be regarded as cash input by a donor organization willing to contribute a similar amount for payment of technicians to assist the community. A farmer can hire people to build his pond or dam for a fixed price, usually between Ksh 100 and Ksh 150 (US$ 1.25 to $2) for every cubic metre of soil excavated and transported in wheelbarrows to the dam wall. An able bodied person can excavate and transport up to three m3 of soil in a day. A simple way to distribute the work is to divide up the area to be excavated. Each cubic metre of soil to be removed can be marked as a plot (see photo section) and given to a person on contract basis. Plots can be pegged out in different shapes, all having a volume of 1 cubic metre. Draught animal power Ox scoops have been used for construction of ponds and earth dams in Machakos and Kitui districts of Kenya since the 1950s, and more recently in Garissa. A man with two trained oxen, a plough and an ox scoop can excavate and transport up to 30 m3 of soil in a day, or ten times as much as could be moved manually. In areas where few households are able or willing to provide manual labour, it might be viable to use ploughs, scoops or carts pulled by oxen, donkeys or camels. The cost of the scoops, ploughs and carts can be covered by the need to purchase fewer hand tools and by the lower cost per cubic metre of soil. Mechanised excavation Mechanised excavation using soil moving equipment can be used in places where farm tractors are used instead of animal draught. In some cases, particularly for the construction of larger reservoirs where several hundred cubic metres of soil needs to be excavated, it might be economically the most viable option (see Table 2). Even if it may be slightly cheaper to hire a tractor, this needs to be balanced against the employment opportunities and degree of ownership that will result from hiring local manual labour. Such decisions should be made with the community and will also depend on the local economic conditions at the time. For example, compare the cost of hiring a farm tractor or community members willingness to provide free or subsidised labour. The most expensive option is to hire a bulldozer for earth mov-
40
ing. In addition to the cost of about Ksh 5,000 per hour, a mobilisation fee of several hundred thousand shillings has to be paid plus daily allowances for two or three drivers and their supervisor. In all, the total cost may be about Ksh 60,000 per working day. Estimating costs The table below gives an example of the theoretical costs of excavating three different types of water storage reservoirs of volumes ranging from 500m3 to 5,000m3 using different methods of excavation: manual (by hand using shovels and wheelbarrows); oxen (as draught power to pull ox scoops, ploughs and carts); tractor with plough, scoop and trailer and bulldozer. The same table can be used for estimating these costs, first by finding out actual local rates for each option, then filling in the quantity of soil to be excavated. Table 2 Worksheet for estimating cost of excavating
Type of Construction Reservoir reservoir method* volume (m3) Water to soil ratio Excavated Cost soil (m3) per (m3) Total cost (Ksh) Cost per m3 of water storage (Ksh) 150
example: Tractor Pond Manual* Tractor* Oxen* example Hillside dam Tractor Manual Tractor Oxen example Tractor Bulldozer Manual Tractor Oxen
500
1:1 1:1 1:1 1:1
500 x x x x 333 x x x 1,670 x x x x x x
150 ___ ___ ___ 150 ___ ___ ___ 150 ___ ___ ___ ___
= 75,000 = = = = 49,950 = = =
500
1.5:1 1.5:1 1.5:1 1.5:1
100
5,000
3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 3:1
= 250,500 50 = = = =
*This relates to whether excavation is done manually with shovels and wheel barrows, using draught animals with ox scoops, ploughs and carts or by hiring a bulldozer.
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Estimating the benefits The main cost for a dam or pond is paid at the time of construction but the benefits can be calculated over the life of the reservoir or at least 10 years, assuming it will eventually fill with silt and need to be rehabilitated. Economic benefits will include the value of labour and time saved fetching water and watering livestock. Benefits may also result from improvements in the condition of livestock and small stock, cash from sale of irrigated farm produce and value of food grown for the household. It is helpful to estimate the cash value of the benefits - especially if a community is currently spending scarce cash on buying water. The feasibility study should consider additional income, time and labour saved resulting from any project and comparing these with the cost (see Table 3). Table 3 Estimated annual value of benefits from a 1,000 m3 water reservoir
Examples of annual income and savings Value (Ksh)
Labour saved on fetching water (Ksh 5,000 x 3 months) Labour saved on watering livestock (Ksh 5,000 x 3 months) Income from sale of tomatoes and kale from one quarter irrigated acre Savings from household consumption of tomatoes and kale Total income from a 1,000 m3 water reservoir after a rainy season
15,000 15,000 12,000 500 42,500
Establish the most cost-effective options If suitable sites exist the construction of valley dams is less expensive per cubic metre of stored water than the construction of excavated tanks and ponds. This is because less material needs to be moved for each cubic metre of storage capacity created. The most expensive option (assuming the labour is being paid) is the manual excavation of tanks and ponds because only one cubic metre of water storage capacity is created for each cubic metre of soil excavated. The cheapest construction method is to use oxen if available. The cost can be as low as Ksh 20 per cubic metre of storage capacity created in the case of valley dams. This type of dam is, however, the most difficult for a community, farmer and/or water technician to construct. Where feasible another option is a small hillside dam constructed
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with a reservoir volume of 500m3. Although not the cheapest option for each cubic metre of water storage capacity created, it is the most affordable. It will cost about Ksh 20,000 if oxen are used. In one good rainy season it can potentially fill and produce savings and cash income worth about Ksh 10,000. So it could pay for itself aer just two years.
3.6 Environmental impact and other considerations

If the answers to the questions listed at the beginning suggest that building a pond or dam is technically and economically feasible then another set of questions need to be asked. These relate to the possible environmental and social impact of the project and the role of the community in managing, operating and maintaining the pond or dam. These questions should include the following: Will the project have any major impact on the environment? What will the impacts of the project be on local people and how are they involved in its planning and management? Does the project address gender issues, meaning those which affect the roles and work of men and women in the community? Are there any laws, cultural or ownership issues associated with the project which need to be addressed? New legislation in Kenya and Tanzania requires an environmental impact assessment for ponds and dams. In Kenya, the specific legislation is the Environment Management and Coordination Act of 1999, and Environmental Impact Assessment and Audit Regulation, 2003, Kenya Gazee Supplement #56. All new dams or pans must seek approval from the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), which may require doing an environmental impact assessment. Technicians should check with the local water authorities in your country for regulations which apply to your proposed project. Small earth dams and ponds do not individually have a major impact. Nevertheless, if many are constructed in the same catchment area their combined effect could be significant. The larger the earth dam or pond is, the more impact it will have on the environment. The impacts can be negative or positive. If the negative impacts are significant or outweigh the positive ones, then the dam should not be constructed. The list below can be used as a checklist for positive and negative impacts.
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Any environmental impact assessment should include a risk assessment to consider the likely effects of a worst case event, such as an earth dam wall being washed away in a major flood. An alternative location for the dam should be found if households or downstream selements might be put at serious risk by a washout. Checklist of impacts of earth dams, pans and ponds
Positive impacts 1. Irrigating fields and tree nurseries for generating income and replanting forests. 2. Watering livestock near villages saves time and reduces erosion caused by cattle tracks. 3. Providing domestic water from a hand-dug well generates income and can lead to health improvements. 4. Raising ducks, geese and fish farming for food and income. 5. Making bricks and construction works for income generation. 6. Reducing water-borne diseases by providing improved water supply for domestic use. 7. Saving peoples time by reduced walking distances to fetch water. 8. Reduced impact of floods by storing initial floodwaters, controlling erosion. 9. Raising the water table downstream of ponds and dams, higher water levels in hand-dug wells. 10. Increasing the value of land near an earth dam, because of all the above benefits. 11. Improving incomes using the water, through the money-making activities described above. Negative impacts 1. Loss of some land taken up by the pond or reservoir and its spillway(s). 2. Risk of increased cases of malaria (can be reduced by introducing Tilapia nilotica to eat mosquito larvae). 3. Risk of increased cases of bilharzia (schistisomiasis), cholera, dysentery and typhoid. [Note: disease risk can be reduced by fencing reservoir and drawing water from hand-dug wells or draw-off pipes and if people do not bath and wash clothes in the reservoirs]. 4. Increased soil erosion along roads due to people and animals coming for water at the dam or pond. 5. Risk of dam wall collapse if poorly designed or constructed incorrectly, releasing a violent flash-flood damaging everything in its path. 6. Siltation of dam reservoirs shortens the lifetime of dams unless proper soil conservation is implemented in the catchment areas. 7. Risk of people and animals drowning if they try to bath or swim across a dam reservoir. 8. Impact on downstream users who may be deprived of water or subject to pollution or increased sediment load due to upstream usage.
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Chapter 4
Design and construction
Once the feasibility study has shown which type of water storage structure is viable, this chapter explains: How to calculate the exact volume of the water reservoir, the height and length of the wall for dams and embankments for ponds. How to design the foundation, dam wall or embankment and spillway. How to prepare the bill of quantities, calculate the exact costs and develop the construction plan. How to peg to the site and what is involved in the construction.
Chapter 4 Design and construction
4.1 Introduction
For small ponds and earth dams on sloping land of sizes not exceeding 1,000 m3, these calculations are fairly easy and are done using simple methods. For larger structures, always seek technical assistance for the calculations, as small mistakes in the design phase can make the whole project fail and not hold water. In particular, earth dams in valleys involve advanced construction methods that require experienced technical assistance to design the structures and supervise the construction. This is because valley dams are situated in seasonal water courses which flood during heavy rains. Spillways must be designed to discharge surplus water safely. The dam wall must be strong enough to withstand several metres of water pressure from flash-floods.
4.2 Design and construction of small earth dams in valleys

This section will lead the reader through the steps of designing and constructing a valley dam. Earth dams in valleys should always be designed, calculated and supervised by an experienced person, and always seek advice or a second opinion from skilled engineers if there are any hesitations. This is because failure of a valley dam may have disastrous consequences. Design Through the feasibility study we already have good information about the site. We have a fair idea how the dam will look and what costs are involved. Now we need to precisely position the dam wall and spillway, design the dam in detail and make exact cost calculations, to allow us to hire contractors and/or go ahead with the construction work. Now we need to make a detailed topographical survey and on the map precisely locate the dam wall and the spillway, to enable us to exactly calculate its storage capacity and the height and length of the wall. Thereaer we will design the foundation, the wall and the spillway. This will give the basis for preparing the bill of quantity (the volume of soil to be moved) and planning for and calculating the costs of the construction phase.
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Equipment needed for designing the dam is: All the data from the previous feasibility study, including rainfall data and the catchment area marked out on a 1:50,000 contour map. Survey equipment: dumpy level/engineers level and accessories. Drawing equipment: drawing paper, drawing board, drawing pens and other equipment, a calculator. Detailed topographical survey The detailed topographical survey should be prepared by a surveyor (engineer or technician), to produce a topographical map over the dam area of the scale 1:1,000 and a vertical interval of 0.5 m between the contours. The topographical survey starts off positioning one or two benchmarks as reference points on a tree, rock or some stones concreted together near one end of the proposed dam wall. Mark the benchmark point with white paint to make it visible from a distance. The position of the bench mark is ploed onto the topographical map being created. All measurements and levels during the topographical survey, the design and the construction of the dam should be taken from this benchmark. Position of the dam wall and spillway On the 1:1,000 topographical map, indicate the exact position for the dam wall and spillway. Mark the centre line of the proposed dam wall, which is an imaginary line drawn through the centre of a dam wall at the crest (top of the wall), (see Figure 8). Use the map to prepare a profile drawing of the dam site. The depth from the centre line to the floor of the valley must be indicated at several points (see Figure 9).
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Figure 8. Indicate the position for the dam wall and the spillway on the map.
Bench Mark Horizontal centreline
4.5 1.8
1.7
4.0
5.1
5.5
Rocks
Distance Point
0 1.5 1
5.2 2
8.0 11.7 14.0 3 4 5
4.8
1.2
17.0 6
20.7 22.0 7 8
1.1 27.6 9
41.6 10
Figure 9. Profile of the dam site.
Capacity of the water reservoir, height and length of the dam wall The approximate capacity of the reservoir taken from the feasibility study, should guide the estimation of the height and length of the dam wall. This calculation will have to be repeated a couple of times until the height of the dam wall is finally established. First find and mark out the contour line that you believe corresponds to the approximate water capacity. On the same topographical map, the shape of the water reservoir is marked, which gives the maximum width, maximum depth and the throw-back, that is the full length of the reservoir when it is full of water, (see Figure 10). See Chapter 6, Tool 6 for two methods of calculating the reservoir volume.
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The top of the dam wall should exceed the estimated full supply level (normal water level). The distance between the full supply level and the top of the wall is called freeboard, and includes flood water level (maximum water level at heavy rain), waves generation and some allowance for selement aer the dam wall is completed (see Figure 11).
Flow
Bench mark
Centre line Max. depth
ax w id . th
Figure 10. Plan of maximum width, depth and throw-back of a dam reservoir.
Crest level
MFL NWL NF MFD GF
Reservoir
Spillway sill level
MFL - Maximum flood level NWL Normal water level MFL - Maximum flood level NF - Net freeboard NWL - Normal water level GF - Gross freeboard
MFD - Maximum flood depth Gross freeboard = Crest level - Spillway level GF = NF + MFD
Figure 11. Section of dam wall showing freeboard.
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Design the foundation To prevent seepage passing under the dam wall, it is necessary to build a key or core trench. The key consists of a trench dug immediately below the centre line of the dam wall. It must extend along the dam wall and include all sections that lie below the maximum water level of the reservoir (see Figure 12). A key must be excavated through all layers of sand and gravel until it is at least 0.6 m into watertight (impervious) soil, like clay and murram. The width of a key should be at least 2.5 m with its sides sloping at 45 degrees. The key is re-filled and compacted with the soil with high clay content, preferably sandy clay with a higher proportion clay than sand. Avoid pure unstable soils like black coon soil.
Bench mark Freeboard Convex crest Centre line Water level
Clay key
Figure 12. Longitudinal section of the dam wall with the key underneath, along the centre line of the wall below the highest water level.
Design the dam wall When the height and length of the dam wall is calculated, adjust the height of the centre line on the profile drawing of the dam site. Make sure the freeboard (difference between normal water level and crest) is included. Convex crest. The crest (top) of an earth dam wall should always be highest at the middle and lowest at the ends (convex). This is to avoid a washout of the middle section of the dam wall in case the spillway is blocked or cannot cope with the peak discharge in a heavy storm. Should a washout happen, it is easier to repair the end of a dam wall instead of repairing the deep middle section. The height of a convex (upward curving) crest should be about 10 per cent of the maximum depth from the centre to the valley floor. Selement allowance. Also allow for selement of the soil in the dam walls. No maer how much the soil is compacted, the height of a newly built dam wall will always sink when the reservoir is filled with water for the first time. This selement occurs because the soil, made pliable and heavy by water, will press air out of the voids in the soil. Dam walls must therefore be built with at least 30 per cent allowance for selement, to thereaer remain higher (convex) at the middle.
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Gradient of slope of dam walls The gradient of the slope (also called baer) of the dam wall is determined by the height of the dam wall and the type of soil. The more stable the soils are, the steeper the slopes. Usually they range between 1:2 and 1:3. The slopes are used when calculating the outline of the base and determine the amount of material to be deposited (see Figure 13).
Figure 13. Cross section with gradients of the batters for an earth dam. Pegs and strings indicate the slopes (batters) and base of the dam wall.
Good soil for construction should be coarse grained material containing sufficient clay to assure reasonable imperviousness. The clay content (minimum) should be in the range of 20 to 30 per cent. Dams built with soils with good granular distributions should have upstream and downstream slopes of 1:2.5. Those soils which are predominantly clay in nature should have upstream and downstream slopes of 1:3 and 1:2.5 respectively. Zoned dams should have an upstream and downstream slope of 1:2 respectively while the dam core should have slopes of 1/2:1 respectively. The outline of the base for a dam wall is determined by multiplying the vertical measurements from the centre line to the ground with the gradient of the upstream and downstream baer. The upstream measurements are taken from the upstream side of the key and the downstream measurements are taken from the downstream side of the key (see Table 4). For each height above the base, at the measuring points taken earlier, indicate the depth, gradient, length from the key of both the upstream and downstream baer. The width of the crest of a dam wall should be wide enough to allow traffic to use the crest as a road spanning across a valley but should
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Table 4 Example: Calculating the outline of the base for a dam wall
Point Depth from centre to the ground (m) Gradient of upstream batter 3:1 Upstream length of base from key (m) Depth from centre line to the ground (m) Gradient of downstream butter 2.5 :1 Downstream length of base from key (m)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.2 1.7 4.0 5.1 5.5 4.8 4.5 1.8 1.1
X X X X X X X X X
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
= = = = = = = = =
3.6 5.1 12.0 15.3 16.5 14.4 13.5 5.94 5,4
1.2 1.7 4.0 5.1 5.5 4.8 4.5 1.8 1.1
X X X X X X X X X
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
= = = = = = = = =
3.0 4.25 10.00 12.75 13.75 12.00 11.25 4.50 2.75
not be too wide for that will increase the volume and cost of earth works. The minimum width of a crest should be 3 to 4 metres, for letting vehicles pass over the dam wall. On very small dams (less than 1,000 m3) two metres is enough. The type of earth dam wall to construct depends on the availability of different types of soils. At this stage, the soil analysis from the feasibility study may have to be complemented with further tests to make sure enough of the needed types are available. Three common types of earth dam wall are as follows: Homogeneous dam wall. If the soil samples of a dam site have the same type of stable soil with 20 to 30 per cent clay (especially clayey gravel, clayey sands) or alternatively inorganic clay, a dam wall is built of the same type of soil throughout. This is called a homogeneous dam wall, i.e. all made of the same material (see Figure 14a). It is the easiest type of dam wall to construct. Normally, homogeneous dam walls should only be built on smaller dams, at the most up to a height of 6 metres. Where higher dam walls are required the design should be changed to a zoned dam wall as described below. Zoned dam wall. This is the most common type of dam wall. It consists of a key and a core of clayey soil whose sides are supported with graded gravels and sands or sandy soil (see Figure 14b). It is suitable where clayey soils are available only in limited supply. It is also a more stable and economical design than a homogenous dam wall because it is built with steeper slopes, thereby reducing the cost of earth
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works especially for higher walls. The width of the clay core at the bottom should not be less than the height of the dam. If more clayey soils are available, the soil with the next highest clay content should be used for the upstream side of the dam wall and for a blanket to cover the whole dam when completed, while the soil with the lowest clay content (the most sandy soil) should be used for building the downstream side of the dam wall. Diaphragm dam wall. In situations where plenty of rocks, stones or gravel are available on site but too lile impermeable material, a diaphragm design may be used (see Figure 14c). In this case a watertight blanket (diaphragm) of clayey soils with a clay content of 1240 per cent is placed over the rocks, stones or gravel on the upstream side of the dam wall. This clay soil layer should be 0.6 m thick for a dam wall up to 5 m in height. It should start in the key at the front toe of the dam wall to prevent seepage.
Reservoir
Figure 14a. Homogeneous dam wall.
Reservoir
Shell
Core
Core Trench
Shell
Figure 14b. Zoned dam wall.
Reservoir
D
gm ra h iap
Figure 14c. A diaphragm dam wall.
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Design spillway A spillway should be sited at a distance of at least 10 m from the ends of a dam wall to avoid flood water eroding the dam wall. Further protection from erosion is achieved by building a low wall of large stones set in mortar along the side of the spillway next to the dam wall. Where the spillway crosses the extension of the centre line of the dam wall the depth of the spillway should be equal to the lower line of the freeboard. The depth of the floor for a spillway is therefore found by measuring the depth of the gross freeboard down from the centre line. Where the floor of a spillway does not consist of weathered rock, then small walls (called sills) of stone-masonry should be constructed across the width of the spillway to distribute water flow evenly across the spillway to prevent erosion. To calculate the required size of a spillway, you need to know the maximum flood flow coming from the catchment in a heavy rainfall and the freeboard depth. First calculate the actual size of the catchment area in hectares. This is done by either using the results from the topographical survey, or alternatively find the size of the catchment area in hectares using the contour map on which the boundary of the catchment was traced during the site investigation. For example using a 1:50,000 map, each square kilometre (1 km2) is equal to 100 hectares. The size of a catchment in hectares is found by counting the number of squares in the area and multiplying them by 100. Once the height of the freeboard and catchment area have been established it is possible to determine the width of the spillway, provided some basic information on soil type, soil cover, slope and mean annual rainfall are available. There are different ways to calculate the maximum flood flow (or peak runoff ) and therefore the required size of the spillway(s). Two methods are given in Chapter 6, Tools 5a and 5b. The height of the freeboard can be reduced but that would require a wider spillway. When the reservoir has been filled with water for some months and the soil in a newly built dam wall has seled completely, it might be feasible to reduce the freeboard. This is done by raising the spillway by building a low wall of stones (known as a sill) embedded in mortar across it. Design water abstraction At this stage, the water abstraction should be designed. Different options are presented in Section 4.5.
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Design drawings Drawings useful to prepare for the construction are: plan of the dam wall and spillway. cross section of the dam wall. profile of the dam site (longitudinal drawing of the dam wall including key and crest). An example of a plan of an earth dam with homogenous wall is shown in Figure 15. The plan compiles all data on the catchment, dam wall, core trench, spillway, reservoir and water abstraction method.
A spillway being lined with stone.
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Pipe Concrete collars Rock Downstream batter Crest Centre line
Upstream batter
Bench mark Freeboard
Allowance for settlement Convex crest Centre line Water level
Clay key
Figure 15. Complete plan and data for an earth dam.
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Gradient
Spillway
Gradient
Spillway
Name of dam_________________
Survey by ................. Date............ Drawn by ..................Date............ Checked by .............. Date............ Designed by ............. Date............ Checked by .............. Date............
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Bill of quantity for design and construction In order to work out the needs for soil for the dam construction, a bill of quantity needs to be prepared (see Annex 2). It is also used for costing the survey, design, tools, equipment, materials and labour. It is first necessary to calculate the amount of material which needs to be excavated (the soil works). The example below shows how this is calculated. To get the different soil types needed for the construction, it will have to be taken from borrow pits. It is especially important to select the best clay soil for making a watertight key and foundation of the dam wall. The excavation of the borrow pit within the reservoir has the advantage of increasing the reservoir volume and also of not leaving a scar on the landscape as the borrow pit will be submerged when the reservoir fills. If it is within the reservoir it is important that the depth of a borrow pit is never deeper than the boom of the key, otherwise water might seep under the key. It also must be at least 10 m upstream of the front of the dam wall to avoid seepage under the wall. In the ideal situation, the dam wall should use the same amount of soil that is excavated from the spillway. In most cases this is not possible, and additional labour is required for digging a borrow pit. The borrow pit site should be as close as possible to minimize transport cost. The quantity from each source can now be worked out as shown below. There are also situations where the spillway has to be built up. Calculating the embankment volume The length of the entire dam is divided into segments of equal lengths. The volume of each segment is determined and the sum gives the volume of the dam wall. The procedure is as follows (see also Table 5): 1. Plot the layout of the embankment using a suitable scale. 2. Divide the entire length into segments of equal length, e.g. 5 or 10 metres. 3. Calculate the cross section area of the embankment at equally spaced distances. 4. Calculate the volume of each segment by multiplying the length with the average area of the end sections of each segment. 5. The sum of the segments gives the total volume of the embankment.
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The results will be more accurate if the wall is divided into several segments as opposed to a few segments. Use the following example as a guide. total length of dam wall is 100 metres. top width is 4 metres. The dam will be divided into segments each with a length of 10 metres. Total borrow material required = (embankment volume + coretrench volume). Table 5 Calculating volume of embankment and core trench
X section chainage (m) Height (m) Top width (m) Botton width (m) Computed area (m2) Computed volume (m3)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0.5 1 2 3 4 6 4.1 2.9 2.6 2 1.5
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
6.5 9 14 19 24 34 24.5 18.5 17 14 11.5
2.6 6.5 18 34.5 56 114 58.4 32.6 27.3 18 11.6 Core trench total volume Total vol. 45.6 122.5 262.5 452.5 850 862 455 299 226.5 148 1000
4,725
Detailed cost analyses Where manual labour is being hired the cost obviously has to be calculated. Even if the labour is being provided voluntarily it is necessary to calculate how many person days are required. It is worth estimating the value of this local contribution so the significance of this contribution is rightly recognized and shared with the community. Permits and approval of designs Before the actual construction can start on the ground, make sure all permits and necessary approvals are received. For example in Kenya permits are obtained from the District Water Office, and they need
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complete design drawings, design reports, and must be signed by a qualified engineer. Make sure all documentation for the dam project is archived safely for any future extensions, repairs or other alterations. Construction Before construction work begins check that the following criteria have been met and relevant procedures followed: 1. A suitable site for the dam has been identified and its feasibility investigated in terms of the issues highlighted in Chapter 3. 2. A wrien agreement on the ownership of the dam site, an access road, usage of water from the dam and conservation of the catchment has been completed. 3. Design drawings and bill of quantity for the dam are ready. 4. A decision is taken regarding the method of excavation of soil works whether manual labour, draught power or machinery. Obtain quotations for purchases and hiring labour or machinery or make prior agreement with community regarding labour inputs. 5. Any legal requirements have been addressed. 6. Funds for construction of the dam have been secured. 7. The community is fully aware and involved. 8. A construction schedule for the project is prepared. Construction schedule The construction of valley dams should only be done during dry seasons when there is very lile risk of heavy rainfall because a dam under construction can easily be swept away by a thunderstorm. If the water flow has been diverted, construction can be done in the wet season, unless there is heavy rain. In the wet season, the soil is easier to handle than in the dry season, and it does not need to be weed for compaction, but it can be too wet for good compaction and heavy machines can get stuck. To make sure all work is done in the right order, and work is finalized at agreed times, all activities should be listed and given a timeline in a construction schedule (see the example in Table 6). A more detailed construction plan appears in Chapter 6, Tool 7.
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Table 6 Example of a construction schedule

Item description Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6
Site clearing and pegging Core trench and foundation preparation Abstraction system Spillway excavation Embankment/ wall construction Finishing works incl. catchment protection Water points and cattle troughs
****** ********* ****
********* ********* ********* ********* **** *********
*********
Site clearing and pegging Site clearing involves excavation and disposal of the top vegetation soil up to a depth of 0.2 to 0.30 metres. from the embankment area, borrow pits and spillway section. It also involves removal of all stones, uprooting of tree stumps and disposing the same on the downstream side. Measure out and peg all designs on the site, always starting from the benchmark. Mark the pegs in different colours. Peg as follows: Mark the centre line of the proposed dam wall by placing a peg at both ends of the dam wall and drawing a nylon string between the pegs. Peg the core trench. Peg the base of the dam. Mark the outline of the foundation. Mark the position for the spillway. The outline of a spillway is marked with pegs spaced about 10 m apart. Core trench and foundation preparation When a key has been excavated to a depth of 60 cm below any layer of sand or sandy soil, the vertical sides of the key are cut to a slope of 45 degrees for stabilising the excavation. It is extremely important
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to select the best soil and compact well to get a watertight key. The soil is filled into an excavated core trench in layers of 15 cm depth all along the length of the trench. If the soil is dry, water should be used to moisten the soil before compacting it. Foundations of earth dams, as well as keys, should be made watertight to prevent seepage under the dam walls. This is achieved by removing all vegetation including the roots and all patches of sandy soil within the base of dam walls. Water abstraction method Where an outlet pipe is required it should be laid aer clearing the foundation of vegetation, roots and sandy soil. Spillway excavation The floor of a spillway is made level at the centre line. From there the floor should slope 3 cm for every 100 cm towards its upstream and downstream edge. The area to be excavated is divided into plots with a volume of one cubic metre (see Figure 16).
Figure 16. Determining the level of the spillway floor.
To minimize the risk of a thunderstorm flooding a reservoir and destroying an incomplete dam wall, be sure to excavate a part of the spillway to its final depth before major construction work on the dam wall begins, so the water can escape if necessary. Determine the height of the spillway using topographical survey instruments during the excavation phase to avoid digging too deep. Preferably a surveyor should be brought in to assist in supervising excavation.
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Embankment construction When a key has been filled with clayey soil, compacted and the foundation cleared of vegetation, roots and sandy soil, the construction of the dam wall can begin. It is built in layers of 20 cm and each layer compacted. If the core of the dam wall is to be constructed with a different soil type this has to be placed first along the centre line to its design width and the sides placed thereaer, for each layer. Between each layer, the wall needs compaction. This step determines the future strength of the wall and must be done correctly. If compaction of dam walls cannot be done with machinery (more oen the case in remote rural areas) the allowance for selement must be increased to 30 per cent. The construction materials should be spread uniformly to the specified thickness (20cm). Roots, vegetation and boulders over 15 cm diameter should be removed. The materials must not be allowed to dry, i.e. to lose moisture. When areas of the fill are not fully compacted or the material is too dry to allow full compaction, that area will sele upon weing and weaken the dam wall. In all cases, the embankment should be built in horizontal layers which should be of similar thickness. The degree of compaction is sufficient if hand excavation using a shovel is not possible otherwise the compaction is not sufficient. The stage of constructing the wall mustnt take too long, as there is always a risk of an unexpected thunderstorm that may produce a flood that could wash it away before it is completed Finishing works, including catchment protection Upon completion of a dam wall with its convex crest and selement allowance, make its sides and crest even and smooth. Cut down and remove trees and bushes in the reservoir. Fill holes made by rodents in the floor of the reservoir with soil and smooth the ground. Place riprap on the dam side of the wall from the boom up to the maximum height of the water level. Riprap is a barrier of rocks to break the erosive force of waves washing against the wall. Pack medium-sized stones at the base of the downstream side of the dam wall to form a rock toe (or backtoe) and grass planted between the stones. This stone apron will prevent erosion of the dam wall by any water seeping out through the downstream toe (see Figure 16). To protect the sides and crest of a dam wall, plant deep-rooted grasses with runners such as Kikuyu grass where rainfall is good, or star grass in dry areas. Plant the grass on contour lines spaced 30 cm on both sides of the dam wall. The dam and especially the dam wall should be fenced, and no animals allowed onto the wall.
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Completion certificate When all work is finalized, especially if it is contracted out, it is important to carry out a detailed assessment to be sure it was carried out according to the specifications. For example, the district water office (Ministry of Water or Natural Resources) can appoint a technician or engineer to issue a completion certificate.
4.3 Design and construction of ponds

Design Ponds or pans are excavated below the natural ground level or on inclined slopes. These structures may be of any shape, although a circular design is common. They are mostly built in areas with flat slopes or inclined slopes, where construction of an earth dam will not be technically feasible. The storage volume created is equal to the volume of excavated soil. For pans or ponds excavated using machinery, other shapes as opposed to circular ones are preferred since machines work more efficiently in straight lines. The size of the pond will depend on the following factors: The water demand plus silting allowance. Normally 10 per cent of the storage is le for silting. The size of the catchment area draining into the pond and the expected volume of runoff water from the catchment. The area available for constructing the pond. The soil type. The amount of money available for excavation. If the size of the pond is small, e.g. below 1,000 m3, a simple design is done on site and sketched onto paper. Simple field equipment such as tape measure, line level, strings and pegs, are sufficient. The design of larger ponds and pans, from 1,000 up to 30,000 m3, follow in general the same procedures as for valley dams. Planning for such structures should follow the same feasibility study as outlined in Chapter 3. A detailed topographical map (scale 1:1,000) of the proposed site is needed and a surveyor should be assigned to prepare it. On the prepared map, first locate the position for the pond. Next indicate the inlet channels, location of overflow channels, silt traps, and the embankment. Calculate the amount of runoff as well as the maximum flood flow to determine the size of pond or pan and the overflow channels. Detailed design of the various components should be done to enable
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the bill of quantities to be prepared (see Annex 3) as well as the construction plan. Normally, shallow storage depths are discouraged due to high evaporation rates. The depth of storage should not be less than three metres. Another way to reduce evaporation and conserve water towards the end of the dry season is to create a gentle slope at the bed of the pond or pan towards the inlet. As the water level drops, remaining water accumulates in the deeper side minimizing the surface area exposed to evaporation The slope of the sides depends on the soil types and topography. The slopes usually vary between 1:4 and 1:5 at the inlet side and 1:3 to 1:2.5 for the rest of the sides. Generally, a slope of 1:2.5 is adequate for soils with good granular distribution as well as impervious soils. For sandy soils and heavy clay soils, a slope of 1:3 is adopted. The bed and the sloping sides of the excavated pond or pan should be watertight. If the pond or pan is located in areas with porous soils such as sand, then lining with an impervious clay blanket of 20 to 30 cm to minimize seepage should be considered. Pans and ponds can also be lined with heavy polythene sheets if clay is unavailable, but this is costly. Inlet design and catchment protection A natural channel leading water into the pond may exist. If not, excavate one or two trenches to lead the water into the pond. Dig silt traps to collect sediment and minimize the silt entering the pan or pond. Their design capacity depends on the surface condition and the sediment yield of the catchment. They should be located some distance away from the mouth of the reservoir, between 5 and 20 metres, depending on the topography. The silt traps need to have reasonable size and depth, depending on the expected siltation rate. Their depth is usually one to two metres. At the design stage, it is important to assess the vegetation cover/ soil status of the catchment and take measures to control erosion within the catchment area. Embankment design The embankment should be highest in the middle (convex), opposite the inlet to the pond. There is no need for detailed embankment calculations as the construction of the embankment is a maer of heaping the soil. The embankment will not need any compaction. The excavated soil should be placed to form an embankment around the pond or pan but any soil dug from the reservoir should be placed in a way that its weight will not endanger the stability of the sides. Also rain must not be allowed to wash soil back into the pond so
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embankments are built up at a distance from the sides of the excavation. Embankments of large pans (1,000 to10,000 m3) should be made large, up to seven meters. For small pans below 1,000 m3, embankments can be less. If there is space around the pond for future enlargement, place the embankment further away from the pond. If the space is limited and no future enlargements will take place, leave it at two metres. Embankments also help to reduce wind speed and help vegetation to re-grow at the site to protect it from erosion. Planting trees outside the embankment is wise, especially on the side towards the prevailing wind. These will eventually form a windbreak which will reduce evaporation losses. The overflow channel There is need for overflow arrangements before the inlet to the pan to divert excess flow when the pan is full. If more water is permied into the pan at this stage, the pan will act like a silt trap and overflowing water will damage the embankments. The channel is designed in such a way that its inlet level is slightly below the lowest edge of the pan. The peak flood (during a 20-year period) should be used to determine the dimensions of the overflow channel. Preparation of design drawing, bill of quantity, cost calculations For larger ponds and pans, complete design drawings showing the construction details should be prepared with plans and cross-sections (see Figure 15). Bill of quantity and costing should be produced to give the basis for hiring contractors. These drawings and supporting documentation are needed for securing permits from the relevant government authorities. All details in Section 4.2 on valley dams also apply to ponds and hillside dams.
Construction
Construction plan The construction plan describing activities to be done, when, and by whom should be prepared. The plan forms the basis for procuring equipment and recruiting labour or contracting out the construction. Site clearing and pegging The construction site should be cleared of all vegetation, tree stumps and other material which will hinder the excavation works. The outlines of the pond and the dumping site should be pegged out with wooden pegs. The overflow channel should also be cleared and pegged.
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Excavation Aer clearing the site, start the excavation work in strips from the lowest section. Excavation should be carried out to the required depths. The excavated soils should be transported to the designated locations for the embankment. The supervisor should guide the operator to deposit the soil at the correct places to avoid long distance movements and loss of time. The pan excavations should be continued in steps progressively toward the inlet. The pan should be shaped according to the designed slopes once the correct depths have been achieved. The embankment should be progressively shaped as the excavation work continues. Once the pan is completed, construct the overflow channel to the required depth and slope. The final phase involves the completion of the abstraction structures and finishing works including silt traps, fencing, other catchment protection works and riprap protection of the cale ramp and silt traps. Manual excavation of pans and ponds Consider the following issues in planning and supervising construction, or when rehabilitating ponds or pans: Provide labourers with the necessary tools so they work efficiently. Carefully mark out the area to be manually excavated to make sure the volume of soil removed can be measured and the cost of work estimated. For smaller ponds each worker may remove one m3 of soil at a time. For larger constructions have the labourers work in pairs digging 3 m3 plots. Check the depth of the excavation regularly to ensure the required depth is not exceeded and the excavation has not gone into permeable material. Organize labourers into teams of two people, one to dig/loosen soil and one to carry it away. Draught animal traction teams will also need two tools, one for loosening soil and one for scooping. Plan construction to coincide with the dry season. Drinking water will have to be provided on site for labourers and/or draught animals. Labourers who are going to be on site all day, for weeks at a time may need lunch provided. Make arrangements for camping at the site if necessary. Arrange accommodation for machinery drivers and assistants.
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Charco ponds
Charco ponds, which are commonly built in Tanzania, are usually excavated manually by individuals near their homesteads for watering livestock. The water may also be used for some domestic purposes, although, as it is easily contaminated, it is not suitable for drinking. The size and shape of charco ponds varies depending on the owners preference. A preferred shape in some areas is that of a calabash used for scooping water. The handle is used for the inflow channel and for giving access to people and livestock. Farmers dig their ponds during dry seasons and may enlarge them every year until the owner is satisfied with the capacity of the pond. The main problem with most charco ponds is that their storage capacities are too small to supply sufficient water throughout the long dry season. High evaporation losses are difficult to address on the hot, windswept plains where most are located. Reduced storage capacity due to siltation is sometimes made worse by a lack of silt traps or where the sides of ponds are so steep that they collapse.
B
Sp il lw ay
Run-off A inflow
Dam Resevoir Dam Wall
Silt traps
Staircase
Figure 17. Plan of charco pond with silt traps, stone sides on both spillways and staircase/cattle ramp.
Berm
il Sp ay lw
PLAN
Catchment
Reservoir
Max. WL
Dam Wall
Figure 18. Cross section view showing cattle ramp design.
Profile A-A
Max. WL
Figure 19. Cross section at centre of reservoir.
Profile B-B
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4.4 Design and construction of small earth dams on sloping land

Small earth dams on sloping land described in this section are very small dams and their construction does not in general need expert advice. As the embankments must withstand the pressure of water they still need thorough planning as well as proper compacting during construction. One very positive feature of this design is that it is possible to start off constructing a relatively small earth dam and reservoir for storing water from the first rainy season and then enlarge it during the following dry seasons. This is done a number of times until the reservoir has been significantly enlarged to the desired capacity as shown in Figure 23. Design The design of this dam consists of a semi-circular dam wall shaped like a new moon as shown in Figure 20. The wall is made of compacted earth and each end, which is strengthened with rocks, is designed to act as a spillway. Because of this arrangement it is not necessary to estimate the volume of runoff flowing into the reservoir. Once full any surplus water will simply spill over the ends and continue its normal downhill course. It is important that the crest of the dam wall is always higher in the middle than at the ends, to prevent any water spilling over the middle and washing out the earth dam wall see Figure 21 a and b). Although it is not essential to know the runoff volume for this design, the runoff will need to be sufficient to fill the reservoir.
Construction
Excavation work The excavation and soil works for a small earth dam on a hillside site can be done manually, with oxen or machinery. Construction involves excavating soil from a central pit and placing it in a semicircular line along the downstream side of the excavation. The curved heap of soil will become the dam wall with the excavated pit as the reservoir. The size of the dam wall and its reservoir depends on the capacity for removing soil from the reservoir and placing it on the dam wall. Initially, communities might typically build a reservoir with a capacity of about 200m3 in the first year but continue to enlarge the reservoir over a number of years until it is large enough to store water throughout the year.
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Constructing a hillside pond in Zambia

During a training course in Zambia organized by RELMA/ASALCON in 2000, a local farmer built a small hillside pond near his homestead using a farm tractor with a plough for the earth works. The farmers family had previously fetched water from a hand-dug well about 3 kilometres away from their homestead. The farmer wanted to save time on watering his livestock so he decided to construct a small hillside earth dam to enable him to water his livestock at home and to grow vegetables for cash income. Rainwater running off his compound started to create a gully on his farm, eroding the land from where his only income was generated. He felt the dam might also help to protect his land from erosion. Water for domestic purposes would be drawn from a hand dug well situated in a seepage line downstream of his pond. In case insufficient seepage occurred, as a back up, he relied on a roof catchment tank for harvesting clean rainwater. The farmer used his tractor to plough against the pond wall repeatedly, thus moving every line of the ploughed soil away from the excavation pit and towards the wall. This way he completed the construction of his pond within two weeks, while also enlarging it from the proposed storage volume of 150 m3 to about 600 m3 (see Figure 20).
Dam
Figure 20. Using a tractor to enlarge the reservoir of a hillside pond.
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Reservoir
Sp il l
Water reservoir (15m)
wa
Dam wall
ill Sp ay w
Plan
B
Catchment Reservoir Dam wall
Max. WL
Profile A-A
Max. WL
Profile B-B
Figures 21, 22a and 22b. Plan and profiles for a hillside dam.
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The gradient (slope) of the sides of the dam wall should be 2:1, that is for every 2 m in width there is 1 metre of height. The width of a crest varies from 1 metre for a low dam wall and up to 2 m for a high dam wall. The longitudinal section of a dam wall should have a crest that is higher in the middle than at its ends (convex) to prevent surplus water spilling over it. Pegging the outline of the reservoir Place a peg at the proposed centre of the reservoir. Preferably, the centre should be in, or near, a place where run-off collects. Decide whether the pond should be situated in the compound or at a distance from the compound. The safest option is to site the pond some 100 m outside a compound to reduce the risk of small children falling in. Tie a nylon string to the peg in the centre and draw half a circle, using the string as a radius to mark the pond wall on the lower side of the centre peg. The length of the radius is determined by the required size of the pond and the available space. The two ends of the dam wall must be at a horizontal level to function as two spillways (see Figure 21). This is measured using a line level or circular level (see Tool 1 in chapter 6). Building the dam wall Whether using manual labour, draught equipment or a farm tractor, the soil to be excavated should be ploughed to loosen it. Ploughing should start along the inner side of a dam wall with the plough share turning the soil towards the dam wall (see Figure 20).
Aerial photo of a hillside dam in Kajiado District, Kenya.
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Manual labour may be used to throw or transport the ploughed soil in wheelbarrows against the centre line of the dam wall. Whenever the ploughed soil has been removed, the site is ploughed again and the loose soil thrown onto the dam wall, and so on, until a dam wall is built to its final height. Hillside dams are structural and required to hold water so good compaction is essential to achieve a strong water-proof wall. Compaction of the soil in a dam wall with minimum water, which is usually scarce, can be done using; A tractor while adding 10 per cent height to the dam wall for selement. Oxen while adding 20 per cent height to the dam wall for selement. No compacting but adding 30 per cent height to the wall for selement. Procedures for compaction by these three methods are described in Chapter 6, Tool 8. Maintaining the inlet gradient The inlet to the pond should be gently sloping to avoid erosion. Reinforcing the spillways The two ends of the curved wall of hillside dams function as spillways to allow surplus water from a filled reservoir to overflow the dam reservoir safely. Heavy rain showers on large catchments produce huge volumes of runoff water that must pass over the spillways without eroding the ends of dam walls otherwise water might destroy the whole dam wall. Spillways should therefore be reinforced by placing large stones against the ends of dam walls. Long-rooted grass with runners should be planted between the stones to prevent overflowing water from eroding away the stones. The floor of the spillways should also be covered with stones inter-planted with grass to prevent erosion. If the floor of the spillways is steep a concreted stone-masonry structure may be needed. Enlarging the catchment Should the volume of runoff water not be sufficient to fill a pond, then enlarge the catchment by diverting runoff water from another catchment into the pond by making a soil bund or diversion channel.
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Enlarging the reservoir Dams having catchments with sufficient runoff can be enlarged to hold water throughout the year by deepening the reservoir and using the excavated soil to heighten the dam wall (see Figure 23).
4m
5m
Phase 1
4.5m
2m
6m
1m
Phase 2
5m
2.5m
7m
1.5m
3m
2m
Phase 3
3.5m
2.5m
5.5m
8m
Phase 4
Figure 23. Enlarging the capacity of a hillside pond in stages.
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4m
3m
6m
9m
Phase 5
4.5 Options for water extraction

The most common options for extracting water from small earth dam reservoirs are: Direct extraction A hand-dug well below the dam wall An outlet pipe beneath the dam wall A siphon pipe (where no outlet pipe was laid during construction) Drawing water directly from dam reservoirs Most ponds and dams are not equipped with any means of extracting water from their reservoirs. People simply draw their water directly from the reservoirs and their livestock walk in when drinking. Oen the water in these reservoirs has a soup-like consistency and muddy colour, from animal dung and mud mixing with water. Such practice is a health hazard and shortens the lifetime of ponds and dams due to siltation of reservoirs and erosion of dam walls. It is therefore a good investment to install an extraction device. Hand-dug well for domestic water Domestic water should never be drawn directly from a reservoir but from a hand-dug well located downstream of a dam wall where seepage is found. Dirty water from a reservoir is filtered as it seeps through the soil and is cleaner when drawn from a well. However, it should still be boiled before drinking. The benefits of having a hand-dug well downstream of an earth dam are cleaner water for domestic use, and using water that would otherwise be lost by seepage, while reducing contamination of water in the reservoir. To find the best site for digging a well look for an underground line of seepage by digging test pits, dowsing or looking for greener vegetation. Outlet pipe for watering livestock and irrigation Water for livestock and irrigation can be piped to an outlet below the dam reservoir by means of an underground pipe going through the base of a dam wall. An outlet pipe is used for draining water by gravity for watering livestock downstream of an earth dam. Two-inch diameter (50 mm) galvanized iron (GI) pipe should be adequate. To install the draw-off pipe, lay it in a trench about 30 x 30 cm under the base of a dam wall. To avoid seepage along the pipe, concrete collars, 20 cm thick and 60 cm wide, are built around the pipe in the trench every five metres. Clay soil is thereaer compacted against the pipe.
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The outlet pipe should reach the deepest point of a dam reservoir where it should be lied up without bending it to avoid blockage. The end of the pipe should be covered with plastic mosquito mesh. A large heap of stones are piled around the intake pipe to support it and prevent damage by people and livestock.
e lem 3:1 sett ore f e B ent tlem Set fter
nt
2.5 :1
Key
Figure 24. Cross section of a dam wall with an outlet pipe.
On the downstream side of a dam wall, the pipe should extend to a point at least two metres below the intake to allow water to flow by gravity. Fit a lockable water tap at the end of the pipe. Siphon pipe for watering livestock and irrigation Where an outlet pipe was not installed during construction a siphon pipe can be laid in the spillway as an alternative to an outlet pipe (see Figure 25). A siphon pipe is more complicated to use because it must be primed to start water flowing. Make a siphon pipe as follows:
1. Lengths of two-inch (50 mm) GI pipes are joined together with
a tee placed at the highest point of the spillway. The intake pipe is placed in the lowest part of a reservoir, while the tap stand is situated downstream of the dam wall at a point at least two metres below the intake.
2. A 1 metre length of 2 inch GI priming pipe is joined vertically onto the tee in the spillway and closed with a cap of G.I. 3. A non-return valve, which blocks water from flowing out of the pipe, is screwed onto the end of the intake pipe. 4. Plastic mosquito net is wrapped around the non-return valve to function as a filter to prevent blockage of the pipe. 5. Stones are piled around and over the intake to prevent damage to it. 6. A lockable water tap is screwed tightly onto the end of the outlet pipe.
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The siphon is started by closing the water tap and unscrewing the cap on the primer. The primer is filled with water until it overflows and all air bubbles have emerged. The cap is then screwed on airtight. Water will now flow out of the water tap when opened. If the primer does not fill up with water the reasons may be: he water tap is not completely closed. The non-return valve has not closed automatically as it should. The pipe is not watertight.
2 inch
tee
Figure 25. Cross-section through a spillway with a siphon pipe.
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Chapter 5
Operation and maintenance
ow that the hardest part of the job is done building the dam or pan the most important one begins: that of maintaining it. This chapter explains ways to control livestock, so they dont damage the structures or contaminate the water. It offers suggestions for collecting fees for maintaining the dam or pan. Most important, it gives details protecting the catchment area and reservoir, to reduce the risk of soil erosion and silting up of the pan or dam. As with all previous stages of the work, the more closely you involve the community, the better. A long life for the new pond, dam or pan is the concern of everyone who benefits from it.
Chapter 5 Operation and maintenance
5.1 Introduction
During the operation and maintenance stage it is assumed that a commiee or individual has already taken on responsibility for managing the pan or dam. Their mandate is to ensure that the agreed by-laws are adhered to and that funds are handled properly. For a community project, a monitoring and evaluation system should also be in place for the commiee to follow, and when necessary seek advice or technical help from external sources. Operation entails balancing water demand and supply and scheduling withdrawal/abstraction. Maintenance entails prolonging the lifespan of dams and pans through routine maintenance, repairs and desilting.
5.2 Operation
Controlling access In most ponds/pans and dams it is advisable to control access to the water both to protect the reservoir and embankments and to reduce contamination. Where practical build a thorn fence around the reservoir to keep people and livestock away from the water and dam walls and put up a lockable gate. Open water is dangerous because small children and animals can fall in and drown. In pastoral areas livestock are the primary users of water. During the dry season when there may be large concentrations of thirsty animals, it is not practical to keep them out of the fenced area. However, there are ways to control where the livestock enters and how they are watered. Demand management Very few pans and dams hold sufficient water to meet all demands throughout the dry season, especially during droughts. There is a need for the managers to restrict the water abstraction in order to make sure that some water remains for essential uses. To do this the manager should: Look at the volume of water impounded. Estimate the livestock, irrigation and domestic demands (see Section 3) As the dry season progresses, use a gauge or marker (e.g. a concrete post set in the reservoir) to estimate the volume of water remaining and decide if further restrictions/rationing are needed.
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Controlling livestock and human access to pans in Mandera, Kenya

Pans in northeastern Kenya are normally fenced with separate and adequate gates or entrances for people and livestock. Different approaches are used to water livestock inside the fence, bringing them closer to the water without contaminating the reservoir. Here are two examples. Mergacho system This watering system avoids direct contact between the people/livestock and the water in the reservoir but allows for direct access. It involves creation of soil bunds inside the reservoir but close to the waters edge. As the water recedes, the bunds are also moved back by the users. This allows for systematic seasonal desilting and continuous pollution control. The animal faeces are removed by the owners as they water their animals. Daar system (portable trough) This system entails drawing water by means of small plastic containers (often 20 litre jerrycans) cut in half. The water is then transferred into portable troughs that are made of either a drum cut in half, oval shaped wooden containers or plastic sheet placed in a raised, wooden frame. This watering method is laborious but avoids direct contact between animals and the reservoir.
Look ahead to the dry season and prioritize what demands can be met. Operation of abstraction devices The pan or dam may have abstraction devices such as pumps or pipes and taps which need to be operated efficiently. In the case of several wells and/or pumps there may be a need to appoint an operator. In all cases the equipment should be made as durable and simple to operate as possible. During times when water is rationed the managers may need to prepare a schedule for water collection to minimize queuing and arguments. Revenue collection All pans and dams require money for maintenance whether this is provided by an individual owner or raised in the community. Charging for the use of the water is the most common way of raising funds and payment can be done in several ways: In kind in the form of labour for maintenance. In cash per animal watering or per jerrican collected. Through a monthly/annual fee.
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For community projects the community or dam commiee should establish by-laws to govern the sale of water and set tariffs for different water uses. Collection and use of funds should be transparent and accountable. Good management skills Community projects require good management to ensure sustainable operation and maintenance. Commiees and the community as a whole may require capacity building to assist them to take on new roles and responsibilities for managing and maintaining pans and dams.
5.3 Maintenance
Catchment protection Catchment protection is actually another technical term for soil and water conservation. It is important to make soil conservation structures on farmland to prevent siltation of dam reservoirs, otherwise layer upon layer of silt and soil will fill up a reservoir. Heavy silt loads reduce the volume of water a dam reservoir can hold, and once it becomes shallow the evaporation loss increases as well. In the worst scenario, dam reservoirs will be filled to the brim with soil and cannot hold any water at all. Since desilting of such reservoirs is more expensive than building new reservoirs, silted-up dams are often abandoned. However, for dam reservoirs situated on sandy soils, a thin layer of siltation is beneficial because the silt seals the floor of a reservoir against seepage. Usually there is no need for protection of a catchment having perennial vegetation such as forests and evergreen grassland provided livestock are not watered at a dam in that catchment. However, as soon as a newly built earth dam is holding water, but has not been fenced properly, people bring their livestock to drink which speeds up siltation. Later on, if people start building houses near the dam and clearing land for agriculture without soil conservation, then siltation may reduce the lifetime of an earth dam to eight years, or even less. In these cases it is advisable to agree on a management plan for the catchment with all stakeholders. This is particularly necessary where the catchment is used by several different groups (or tribes) who may not necessarily benefit from the dam or pond/pan water. Catchment protection on farmland can be implemented in several ways. Maintaining the vegetation cover within the catchment by taking steps to avoid overgrazing by livestock and deforestation are key aspects in the bale against soil erosion. The adoption of agroforestry
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is also helpful along with some of the physical measures and planting strategies described below. Contour lines of fodder grasses Contour lines of fodder grasses, such as Napier grass or the more drought-resistant Bana grass, can be planted at intervals depending on the gradient of the land. On land sloping about 3 cm per 100 cm (such as the floor in a spillway) the distance between the contour lines should be about 20 metres. On steeper land the distance should be reduced accordingly. Contour lines with multi-purpose trees Contour lines planted with multi-purpose trees such as leucaena, Melia volkensii and Azadirachta indica (neem, or mwarubaini in Swahili) make good windbreaks for reducing wind erosion of bare cropland. Planting trees, especially in contour lines, in catchment areas will: Reduce soil erosion and siltation of dam reservoirs. Improve rainwater infiltration into the soil for growing crops. Provide a windbreak, firewood, charcoal, fodder, timber and shade. Improve the overall micro-climate. Fanya juu contours Fanya juu contours are made by placing excavated soil on the uphill side of a trench. Although digging contour trenches is heavy work (best done by groups), the trenches increase growth of crops by improving soil moisture retention. Silt traps made of vegetation planted in strips Silt traps can be made of perennial vegetation planted in several strips across the inflow channel to ponds and earth dams. The silt traps reduce the speed of the inflowing water thereby giving soil particles time to sele in and above the silt traps. Aer flooding, most of the accumulated silt should be removed and used for fertilising adjacent farmland if possible. In areas where vegetation is scarce it may be necessary to construct reinforced silt traps. Check dams Check dams are usually made of large stones placed across inflow channels. Perennial grasses are planted in soil packed in between the stones for cementing them together.
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5.4 Reservoir protection and maintenance

Fence the reservoir Where feasible it is oen appropriate to fence off reservoirs to keep livestock out. This helps to maintain beer quality water and avoids the problem of cale geing stuck in the mud. Since fencing material is expensive the planting of live fence may make beer sense. In sandy soils it is actually beneficial to let livestock walk into ponds because they mix soil, silt and dung to form an almost watertight floor which reduces seepage loss. Water mixed with urine and dung from animals is also valuable for irrigation as a natural fertilizer. Such ponds cannot be used for domestic water supply. Do not dig wells in reservoir floor It is common practice in dry areas for people to dig wells in the reservoir floor to abstract water aer the pan/pond has dried up. This should be discouraged as such wells are dangerous and can open up seepage paths through the reservoir floor. Control pollution/contamination To prevent contamination of dam reservoirs by people bathing, washing clothes, and watering livestock directly in the reservoirs, build washing stands and bathing facilities downstream of a dam wall next to the draw-off point. The waste water from washing stands, bathing facilities and draw-off points can be diverted to irrigate a small vegetable garden. Where the slope is sufficient , a watering trough for livestock can be included. Build pit latrines During the rainy seasons rainwater runoff washes the excrement into dam reservoirs where pathogens can multiply and transmit human diseases. The construction of pit latrines is therefore encouraged. The latrines should be situated well away from dam reservoirs, and downstream of hand-dug wells. The usual types of pit latrines with walls of burnt bricks and tin roofs may be too expensive to build. Due to poor crasmanship, some latrines collapse during rainy seasons. Lack of ventilation gives latrines bad smell and flies. VIP latrines equipped with ventilation pipes and built by experienced artisans have been constructed at very lile cost using local materials. Plant windbreaks Evaporation losses from ponds can be high in dry, windy areas. Plant a stand of trees such as neem on the windward side of the reservoir to
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reduce evaporation. To maintain the windbreak the trees have to be densely planted. Hold a desilting harambee Rainwater transports topsoil and other light surface particles from a catchment to a dam reservoir where some of it seles to the floor of the reservoir as a layer of silt. A layer of silt that is only a few centimetres thick is good because it reduces seepage, but thicker layers of silt decrease the water storage capacity, reducing the period during which water can be drawn from a dam reservoir. Catchments without soil conservation and ponds or dams without silt traps may result in dam reservoirs that cannot store any water aer only ten years. Desilting can be done using any of the techniques suitable for construction (manual, draught animal traction or mechanical). Desilting should be done regularly, preferably once a year in areas where heavy siltation occurs. The depth of silt deposited (and hence the quantity to be removed) can be measured easily if a marked post is installed in the reservoir floor at the time of construction. Desilting should be carefully supervised to ensure that the very boom layer of silt, which helps seal the reservoir, is not removed.
5.5 Dam and embankment preventative maintenance and repair

Preventing dam leakage Newly built dams do not usually hold water for as long a period as expected during the first couple of years, due to leakage. There are various reasons for leaks through dam walls but the most common include: Inadequate compaction resulting in air and water filled voids which become water channels over time. Old tree roots and tunnels of small animals which form channels for water to escape through. Porous materials which are not sealed properly with water tight materials in the dam wall. Dam walls which do not key into impervious rock or soil layers under the dam wall. Preventing dam walls from washing out (breaches) There are several reasons why a dam wall gets washed out but the most common one is that the spillway becomes blocked, or was made
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too small and fails to discharge flood water fast enough. The water level in the reservoir therefore overflows the dam wall at its lowest point and causes a washout of that section, or perhaps of the whole dam wall. The most common problem with pond embankments is that blocked and silted overflows cause the water level to rise so that the embankments are acting as structural dam walls. These are not strong enough to hold water and will breach when the pan/pond gets too full. This usually damages the embankment and the excavation. There are several ways to prevent washout of dam walls and ponds: Obstructions such as trees and bushes, carried into a reservoir by floods and block the spillway should be cleared immediately. Dam walls must always be maintained with their crests at least 10 per cent higher at the middle (convex) than at the ends to prevent a breach at the centre. Dam walls should always be carefully compacted. The height of dam walls must be increased 30 per cent to compensate for the selement of soil when the reservoir is flooded. The freeboard may reduce to 1.2 m aer a reservoir has been flooded several times and the soil in the dam wall has seled completely. Erosion of the dam wall should be controlled. This can be done using riprap (stones placed along the upstream face) or by planting grass (but not trees or shrubs) along the dam wall. Routine maintenance of dam walls should include removing roots, repairing cracks and sealing tunnels of burrowing animals. Breached dams are difficult to repair and the cause of the breach should be fixed before repair work is started. Repairing a breach requires reconstructing part or all of the dam wall and compacting it thoroughly (see the photo section for an example of a serious washout in process). Preventing spillways from washing out Spillways can be washedout to such depths that they drain all flood water out of their dam reservoirs either due to erosion caused by excessive flood water, or because the floor of a spillway was not made to withstand erosion. Spillways should be designed to take the maximum possible flood flow without damage. In some cases the runoff from the catchment is greater than originally estimated (due to erosion or changes in land use) and the spillway may need to be enlarged or the design changed to accommodate the increased flood flow.
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Here are several ways to prevent washed out spillways: Planting drought-resistant and short perennial grasses with runners (star grass or Kikuyu grass) in contour lines spaced about 30 cm across the floor of spillways. Cover the floor of spillways with stones packed closely together and inter-planted with the types of grass mentioned above. Construct low walls of stone-masonry, called sills, as horizontal steps across the floor of spillways where they will function as a staircase for the overflowing water. The walls should be built 30 cm below ground level and about two metres apart. The slope of the spillway floor should be maintained at less than 3 per cent.
5.6 Monitoring
Preventative maintenance is the key to ensuring a long life for a pan/ pond or dam. Regular monitoring of the embankments, reservoir and catchment area should be carried out to make sure that maintenance needs are identified early enough to take action. Monitoring should be carried out by the individual or commiee responsible for management and needs to be more frequent in the first year aer construction, preferably once a month. Ideally a technician should assist in the monitoring for the first year. Aer the first year monitoring can be carried out once per year, preferably just aer the rainy season.
95
Chapter 6
Tools
hroughout the previous sections, especially chapters 3 and 4, reference is made to several techniques and tools for assessing and surveying sites. All such tools have been gathered in this chapter, to make them easier to find and use. Before going to the field, you may wish to make a photocopy of this section to use as a reference, or as a handout for training. Then you can make notes on the pages without marring the book. For more complex formulas and site or soil survey methods, there is a list of reference materials immediately after the Tools chapter.
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 1. Equipment for surveying valley sites for small earth dams
1. A 1:50,000 contour map of the catchment area if available. 2. A circular water level to measure horizontal levels (described below). 3. A panga for cuing pegs. 4. Approximately 20 marker pegs cut from branches. 5. A masons hammer. 6. A shovel, spade and maock for digging test pits. 7. Two tape measures, 30 m and 50 m long. 8. Long nylon string. 9. Notebook and pencils. 10. Ten transparent plastic boles and plastic bags for soil samples and marker pen. How to make a circular level Use a 1 metre length of transparent hose pipe. First, the pipe is half filled with water, then bent into a circle. Fit the two ends of the pipe together by heating the ends and sealing with tape (see Figure 26).
Figure 26. Using a circular water level made of transparent pipe.
98
Chapter 6 Tools
Two or more horizontal points can be located by sighting along the two water levels in the pipe towards another person standing at same eye level. When the two persons stand on sloping ground, the gradient is found by knowing a) the horizontal distance between the two persons and b) the vertical distance to the sighting level and the eye level of the person standing some distance from the person using the circular level. How to use a line level to measure slope A simple line level can be used to estimate the slope at a site. The tool requires three people to use it. The equipment required is: Two graduated wooden boards (graduations at 5cm intervals) A spirit level 10-metre length of string Procedure The string is held at the same graduation mark on both wooden boards One person moves down the slope while the other remains upslope. The third person remains at the middle of the string to read the spirit level. The upslope person moves the string mark from the first graduation downwards until the bubble of the spirit level centres. The graduations are counted and then expressed as a percentage drop for that part of the slope. For example: 1 graduation = 5cm = 0.5 per cent slope.
99
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 2. How to collect soil samples

1. Determine the centre line of the top of the proposed dam wall. Peg out a nylon line to mark it. Dig test pits spaced 5 to 10 m apart under the centre line. The pits should be dug deep enough to go through all layers of sand and soil until bedrock or another impervious layer is reached. 2. Take soil samples of the various types of soil in each test pit. Note carefully the depth from the surface from which the sample is taken. The amount of soil taken in each sample should be at least sufficient to almost fill the plastic bole being used for the soil testing. 3. Put the soil samples in plastic bags marked with the number of the test pit and the depth from where it was taken in that test pit. Test the soil texture as described in Tool 3. 4. If the test pits prove that the base for a dam wall is firm and water tight, further test pits should be dug in the floor of the reservoir in rows 5 m apart. These rows should be at a distance of about 15 m from the dam wall centre line (see Figure 27). These pits will show the best place for a borrow pit from where soil could be excavated for construction of the lower part of the dam wall. Soil for the upper part of the dam wall can be taken from excavation of the spillway(s). 5. Draw a sketch showing the test pits and their soil profiles. Show on this sketch the number and depth of each soil pit and their location relative to the proposed dam wall. For each pit, sketch the soil profile. Show the depth of topsoil, amounts of sandy, silty or clayey soil and the depth to the subsoil or bedrock.
Figure 27. Plan of dam site with test pits and their profiles.
100
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 3. How to test soil texture

Materials needed: - Transparent plastic boles (all of equal size) with caps - Soil samples from test pits - Clean water - Salt 1. Take the soil sample from the plastic bag and fill each bole onethird full with soil (see Figure 28). 2. Add water to the boles until they are two-thirds full and add a pinch of salt. 3. Replace the cap and shake the bole vigorously for one minute. 4. Leave the boles for one hour and then shake them again. 5. Aer four hours, measure the thickness of each soil layer. 6. If there are four layers the top layer will be clay, the next silt, then sand and gravel at the boom. 7. By dividing the thickness of each layer by the total thickness of the soil and multiplying by 100 per cent we can calculate the percentage (%) of each soil type according to it texture, as shown below. Clay is the finest (top) layer and gravel the coarsest (boom).
Figure 28. Texture test for soil samples using plastic bottles.
101
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 4. How to measure soil seepage

Materials needed: - Transparent plastic boles, all of equal size with booms cut off - Soil samples from test pits - Clean water 1. Remove caps and cut off the base of the boles and place them upside-down in sand. Support the boles with stones if necessary (see Figure 29. 2. Take the soil sample in its plastic bag and make sure the soil is broken into small particles. 3. Fill each bole half way with soil from each sample and pour water onto the soil until the soil is saturated, or until it can absorb no more water. 4. Fill the boles with more water and then compare the rate of seepage of water through the soil. The slower the water seeps through the soil the beer it is for constructing the dam. Note: A slow seepage rate suggests a high clay content. This can be verified in a separate test to determine the soil texture shown in Tool 3.
Best soil
water Soil No.1 water Soil No.2 water Soil No.3 water Soil No.4
water Soil No.5
Poor soil
water
Soil No.6
less seepage
more seepage
Figure 29. Seepage test for soil samples using plastic bottles.
102
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 5a. Calculating maximum flood level

To determine the maximum flood level in a valley, first stretch a long tape across the valley at the correct level. Next, using a shorter measuring tape, measure the depth of the floor at 1 metre intervals. The profile of the maximum flood cross-sectional area is then drawn on a piece of graph paper. The area can be estimated from counting the squares (see Figure 30). If a scale of 1 metre to 1 centimetre is used on standard 1cm graph paper, each square centimetre on the paper will equal 1 square metre. Each smaller square (millimetre squares) will equal 0.01 square metres. By adding the squares together the crosssectional area of the flood water in the valley at the height of the flood can be calculated.
Max. flood level 10m
Figure 30. Measuring the maximum flood area of a valley.
Tool 5b. Calculating approximate spillway size

The following is a simple way of calculating the size of spillways at the feasibility stage for very small dams. First, estimate what the maximum flood level is on the proposed dam site (above). For example, the illustration shows the width of the flood water in the valley at peak flow is 10 metres, and the average depth is 0.5 metre (see Figure 31). The cross-sectional area is 10m x 0.5 = 5m2. To estimate the crosssectional area of the spillway, add 20% to the cross-sectional area of the maximum flood level, or multiply the figure by 1.2. In the example shown, the spillway will have a cross-sectional area of 1.2 x 5m2 = 6m2.
6m 1m 5sq.m. 1m 10m min 6sq.m.
Max flood area = 10m width x 1m depth/2 = 5m sq
Figure 31. A spillway should be about 20% larger than the maximum flood area.
Minium required spillway width: Max. flood + 20% = 5m sq max. flood area + 20% = 6 m width
103
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 6. How to calculate required storage volume: two methods

Method A Estimating the approximate capacity of the reservoir To estimate the approximate capacity of a reservoir use the formula: V = W x T x D /6 Where V is the reservoir capacity in cubic metres. W is the maximum width of the reservoir when full in metres. T is the throw back (length) of water of a full reservoir in metres. D is the maximum depth of water of a full reservoir in metres. Example: To estimate the storage capacity of a curved dam reservoir with maximum width of 40 metres, throw back length 150 m and maximum depth 4.5 metres. V= WxTxD/6 Reservoir volume = 40 m x 150 m x 4.5 m / 6 = 4,500 m3 Method B Use the contour map of the dam site to determine the storage capacity of the reservoir, as follows: 1. For each contour starting from the base of the dam, determine the surface area enclosed by the contour. 2. This can be obtained by using graph paper. The area is determined from the graph paper by counting the total number of squares enclosed by the contour. 3. The actual area enclosed by each contour is then obtained by multiplying the total area of the squares with the area scale factor from the map. 4. If the scale used is 1:1,000, then 1 cm on the map represents 10m on the ground and 1cm2 represents 100m2. 5. For an enclosed area of 10cm2 from the graph paper, the actual area enclosed by this contour will be 10 x 100 m2 or 1000m2.. 6. Calculate the storage volume between two contours by adding the two surface areas together and dividing them by 2 to get the average area which is then multiplied with the distance between the two areas (which should be 1 metre).
104
Chapter 6 Tools
Table 7 shows the calculations for each contour. Table 7 Calculations for each contour
Contour (m) Surface area enclosed by contour 0 39.1 234.8 778.6 1,580.6 5,871.6 19.5 136.9 506.7 1,184.6 3,731.0 19.5 159.2 665.9 1,850.5 5,581.5 Computed volume (m3) Cumulative volume m3)
86 87 88 89 90 91
7. From the tabulated results, plot a graph of dam height against cumulative storage. 8. From the graph determine the required dam height which will give you the required water storage capacity. Dont forget to subtract a small percentage for siltation storage. 9. Add 1.5 m of free board to the dam height to establish the gross dam height.
105
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 7. Sample construction plan

The construction plan details activities that will be undertaken and who will do these activities. Note TA = Technical Assistant. Activity
Technical survey and design
How it will be done

Existing water reticulation and proposed extentions to be surveyed and designed by a team from the Ministry of Water Development
Who does what

Unskilled labour (clearing etc.) Community Survey team Ministry of Water Coordination: TA
Rehabilite intake
TA to coordinate desilting, Manual works: weir rehabilitation and Community bush clearing Masonry works: Hired artisan and plumber
Construction of storage reservoir/dam embarkments
Technical team and the community will undertake the construction works
Bush clearing, digging foundation: Community Design and technical supervision: TA
Pipeline
A qualified plumber will be hired to install the pipeline
Bush clearing, trenching, backfilling and transportation of pipes: Community Pipe laying and fixing of fittings: qualified plumber Supervision: TA
Construction of community water points
The water point will be constructed by the community, plumber and mason
Excuvation and provision of unskilled labour: Community Masonry works and fixing of tap stand: plumber and mason
106
Chapter 6 Tools
Resources needed
Resources available (Provided by community)

Resources from external sources

Unskilled labour Survey team Meals/accommodation Transport
Unskilled labour Meals
Survey team Transport Accommodation
Unskilled labour Artisan & plumber Cement Reinforcement bars Water proof cement Gunny bags

Fittings Transport Sand Ballast Meals Manual transport Supervisor Water Ballast Blocks Fence supervisor Storage Meals
Unskilled labour Sand Ballast Manual transport Meals
Cement Reinforcement bars Water proof cement Gunny bags Fittings Artisan and plumber Hardcore Cement Reinforcement bars Waterproof Cement Pipes & fittings Shutters Masons Hardcore Pipes Transport Accommodation Plumber Hardcore
Artisans Unskilled labour Cement BRC wire Reinforcement bars Pipes/fittings Sand

Unskilled labour Sand Water Ballast Fence Storage Meals
Pipes Transport Plumber Storage Meals/accommodation Supervisor Unskilled labour Manual transport Stand pipes Concrete Sand Artisan Unskilled labour Cement Taps Doors Fittings Meals/ accommodation Transport Supervisor

Storage Unskilled labour Meals Manual transport
Unskilled labour Sand Water Meals
Cement Pipes Artisans Taps Fittings Accommodation Transport Supervisor
107
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 8. Options for compacting the dam embankment

Motorised machinery A scraper is a specialised machine for scooping and depositing soil on an embankment (see photo section, photo 12). A scraper can compact the soil to some extent but a sheep foot roller is required for full compaction of larger dams. Draught animal traction Equipment required for compaction using draught animal traction: Two 200 litre drums with a piece of pipe welded to each end. A wooden or metal axle to join the two drums so they can rotate freely. Harness and rigid shas for oxen or donkeys to tow the drums. Procedure Fill drums with water and close the bung holes. Aer each 50cm layer of soil is applied, add sufficient water to moisten then roll the drums across the layer several times until fully compacted. Oxen hooves also assist in compaction as they move across the dam. Manual Where machines or draught animals are unavailable, small dams have been compacted manually but the compaction achieved is not adequate and should only be used for small, household ponds. It is preferable to increase the selement allowance to 30 per cent (of embankment height). Procedure Where water is easily available (rarely the case in drylands!), apply just enough water to moisten the soil. Use a heavy wooden plank or concrete mallet to compact each layer of soil.
108
Chapter 6 Tools
Tool 9. Leakage problems in reservoirs and recommended solutions

Problem
1. Water disappears through the floor of a dam reservoir.
Reason
The floor was not prepared for being water-tight.
Solution
Holes made by rodents, rotten tree roots, old ant-hills, forgotten pits and trial pits drainwater into the underground and must therefore be closed with clayey soil and compacted. Stones and boulders must be removed from the floor so water does not seep along them into the underground. If some boulders are too large to remove, these should be covered with a thick layer of clayey soil to prevent seepage. Should a dam reservoir still leak after the floor has been prepared as described above, the floor should be compacted by either driving a tractor or a herd of cattle over the floor of the reservoir repeatedly until the soil has been compacted firmly. Should the floor of a reservoir still leak after compaction, it can be sealed (puddled) with a layer of water-resistant materials, such as clay, powdered ant-hills or lime, which is compacted onto the floor. Floors can be covered with high density polyethelene sheets to make them water tight. This is an expensive solution and the sheeting is easily damaged by livestock. Desilting without damaging the sheeting is also difficult.
2. Water seeps through a newly built dam wall.
The soil in the dam wall contains air and waterfilled voids.
The voids will be compressed and the seepage sealed by the weight of the soil in the dam wall itself, when the soil gets moist and softened by water infiltrating from the reservoir filling with water. If leakage continues, further compaction of the dam should be considered
3. Water seeps under the key of a dam wall
The key does not seal a sandy layer is situated deep under the key.
The layer of sand can be sealed by placing a vertical membrane or barrier made of thick plastic and/or ferro-cement along either the upstream or the downstream toe of the dam wall.
109
Bibliography
Further reading
Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. 1999. Rainwater Catchment Systems for Domestic Supply. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK. Hatibu, N. and Mahoo, H.F. 2000 Rainwater Harvesting for Natural Resources Management: a planning guide for Tanzania, Technical Handbook No. 22, RELMA/Sida, Nairobi. Kenya-Belgium Water Development Programme. 1992. Guidelines for the design, construction and rehabilitation of small earth dams and pans in Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya Mburu, C.N. 1995. Management of watershed and silt load. Kenya-Belgium Water Development Programme, Nairobi. M. T. Hai. Water Harvesting: An illustrative manual for development of microcatchments, techniques for crop production in dry areas, Technical Handbook No. 16, RELMA/Sida, Nairobi, Kenya. Nissen-Petersen, E. 1990. Small earth dams built by animal traction. Danida, Kenya. Norton, J. 1997. Building with Earth. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, U.K. Orlate, M.J. 1995. Guidelines for community participation in dams and water pans construction and rehabilitation. Kenya-Belgium Water Development Programme, Kenya. Smout I. and Shaw R. 1996. Technical brief 48: Small earth dams, Waterlines, Volume 14, No. 4, p.15-19, Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
110
Annex 1
Annex 1. Sample feasibility report for dam/pan

INTRODUCTION Explain why this feasibility is being undertaken. PROJECT BACKGROUND Project location and history Objectives of the project Provide SMART objectives (see p. 17) as agreed with the community. Proposed project activities Either construction of dam or pan or rehabilitation of pan plus any abstraction works and follow on activities. Current water demand Describe the beneficiary community and the likely water uses. Water demand form Item Population People Camels Cattle Sheep and goats Donkeys Irrigation Total (l/day) Total (m3/day)* * divide total litres by 1,000 Other water sources Describe alternative water sources and their distance from the users. Health and hygiene issues Describe hygiene and sanitation practices and describe contamination potential from catchment. State likely water quality and propose measures to address poor quality.
Consumption rate (l/day) 20 15 15 3.5 15
Total (l/day)
111
Annex 1
PROJECT ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Membership and project committee Describe community organization and management structure. Include details about by-laws and/or any proposed measures to ensure sustainability of the project. Legal status of the land Establish ownership of land and/or take measures to ensure access for all users. Operation and maintenance issues Describe plans to ensure proper operation and maintenance. Conflict Describe any potential conflicts that might arise over pan/dam construction and suggest ways to mitigate them. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL/ECONOMIC IMPACTS Catchment condition and dam siltation Describe catchment and possible erosion and siltation risks. State proposed measures to control siltation. Catchment conservation measures List proposed measures to conserve catchment and reduce erosion. Project impacts: Positive impacts List the ways that the dam/pan will benefit the community. Negative impacts List the possible problems that the project may cause.
112
Annex 1
Project financing Item

Project coordination Community training Management committee training Technical supervision (8%) Civil works TOTAL
Quantity
Units
Rate
Cost
Project financing
Community contribution Donor contribution Total
Quantity
Units
Rate
Amount
Include explanation of community contribution. CONCLUSIONS Environmental impacts Do positive impacts outweigh negative impacts? Organization and management Does the community have the capacity to manage the pan/dam? Technical issues Is the dam/pan technically feasible? Project cost and financing Is the project financially feasible?
113
Annex 2
Annex 2. Climatic, soil and water requirements for selected crops

Crop Days to maturity/ harvest Temperature requirement for growth (C) optimum (range) Common growing altitude (metres above ea level) Day-length requirement for flowering Specific climatic constraints/requirements
Banana Beans Cabbage Citrus
300365 Fresh: 6090 Dry: 90120 100150+ 240365
2530 (1338) 1520 (1027) 1520 (1024) 2330 (1335)
0 1,800
Day neutral Short day/day neutral Long day
Sensitive to frost Sensitive to frost; excessive rain, hot weather Short periods of frost (-6 to 10C) not harmful; Sensitive to frost (dormant trees less so), strong wind, high humidity; cool winter or short dry period preferred Sensitive to frost; germination temp. >10C; cool temperatures cause problems in ripening Tolerant of frost; low temp. (< 1416C) required for flower initiation; no extreme temp. or excessive rain Slight frost tolerance when young Sensitive to frost Sensitive to frost; requires high RH; quality affected by temperature Sensitive to frost; night temp. < 15C required for good tuber initiation Sensitive to frost, high RH, strong wind; optimum night temp. 1020C Sensitive to frost
02,000
Day neutral
Maize
90150
2430 (1535)
Short: 01,000 Day neutral/ short day Medium: 1,000 1,800 Long: 1,8002,400 Long day/day neutral 1,8002,300 > 1,500 01,700 1,8002,900 Day neutral Short day/day neutral Short day Long day/day neutral Day neutral 0 1,000 Short day/day neutral
Onions
100140
1520 (1025)
Peas (garden) Pepper Pineapple Potato
Fresh: 65100 Dry: 85120 120150 More than 365 100150
1518 (1023) 1823 (1527) 2226 (1830) 1520 (1025)
Tomato Water melon
90140 80110
1825 (1528) 2230 (1835)
114
Annex 2
Annex 2
Crop
(continued)
Soil requirement
Sensitivity to salinity
Water requirement (mm/ growing period)
Sensitivity to water supply
Banana
Deep well-drained loam without stagnant water; pH 57 Deep, friable; well drained and aerated; opt. pH 5.56.0 Well-drained; opt. pH 6.06.5 Deep, well-aerated, light to medium-textured soils, free from stagnant water; pH 58 Well-drained and aerated soils with deep water table and without waterlogging; opt. pH 5.07.0 Medium-textured soil; pH 6.07.0 Well-drained and aerated soils; pH 5.56.5 Light- to medium-textured soils; pH 5.57.0 Sandy loam with low lime content; pH 4.56.5 Well-drained, aerated and porous soils; pH 56 Light loam, well drained without waterlogging; pH 57 Sandy loam preferred; pH 5.87.2
Sensitive
1,2002,200
High
Beans
Sensitive
300500
Medium-high
Cabbage Citrus
Moderately sensitive Sensitive
380500 9001,200
Medium-low Lowmediumhigh
Maize
Moderately sensitive
Onion Peas Pepper Pineapple Potato Tomato Water melon
Sensitive Sensitive Moderately sensitive
350550 350500 600900 (1,250) 7001,300
Medium-high Medium-high Medium-high Low Medium-high Medium-high Medium-high
Moderately sensitive Moderately sensitive Moderately sensitive
500700 400600 400600
Source: Modified from Doorenbos and Kassam 1986.
115
Annex 3
Annex 3. Bill of quantities worksheet 1

(based on labour)
Item Labour
Skilled labour A B C A B C D Site Foreman Mason Plumber Unskilled labour Excavation & moving soil Spreading & compacting Grassing Miscellaneous Equipment A B C D E F Wheelbarrows (specify type) Pick axes Shovels Pangas/machetes 20-litre water jerry cans Compaction hammers for compacting soil (size to be specified) Crossbars Rock hammers Rock chisels Timber for wheelbarrow ramps String Notebooks Water pump for dewatering Rakes Gunny sacks for carrying rocks Metal basins (karais) for mixing concrete Equipment for pressure testing draw-off pipes Trowels for concrete work Plumbline No. No. No. No. No. No. days or m3 days or m3 m2 days Days Days Days
Quantity Units
Rate (Kshs)
Cost (Kshs)
G H I J K L M N O P Q R S
No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No.
116
Annex 3
Annex 3. Bill of quantities (continued)

Item Labour Quantity Units Rate (Kshs) Cost (Kshs)
Materials (delivered on site)

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q No. 2 GI Class B as draw-off pipe Anti-seepage collars 300 mm Dia. X 6mm thick paddle flange to offtake pipe surround 2 GI pipe for pipe upstand 2 GI lead in and lead out for drawoff pipe 2 perforated GI pipe inlet 2 GI 90 deg elbow 2 water meter with all fittings 2 gate valve 2 union 2 socket Sand Ballast Water BRC reinforcement for spillway sill Grass seed Staff rods Paint Materials carried to collection LM NO LM LM LM No. No. No. No. No. m3 m3 m3 m2 Kg Item Litres
Transport
A B C Water Misc. materials Labour Transport carried to collection
Collection
Labour Equipment Materials Transport Subtotal Allow 5% for contingencies
Grand total 117
Annex 3
Annex 3. Bill of Quantities worksheet 2

(based on rates)
Item Item description Quan. Units Rate (Kshs) Cost (Kshs)
Preliminaries
A B Mobilization and de-mobilization to/from site including tidying up site Allow for river diversion as needed Preliminaries carried to collection Item Item
Excavations and earthworks

A B C
(PROVISIONAL) Clear site and borrow area of tree/ bushes/stumps and cart away (area under NWL and borrow area) Excavate to remove top soil average 250mm deep and stack for reuse or cart to spoil as instructed Excavate in soil to depth not exceeding 4.00 m for cut-off trench, stack for reuse or cart to spoil as appropriate Excavate in soft rock for cut-off trench Excavate in hard rock for cut-off trench Excavate borrow material for cut-off trench Place and compact material in cut-off trench Allow for de-watering cut-off trench Excavate approved borrow material for embankment Place and compact approved material in embankment Place 150 mm top soil on the dam crest Place approved handpacked riprap 300mm thick as upstream face protection Place 150 mm top soil on downstream face Provide approved grassing to specified embankment slopes and dam crest Excavate for seepage drain as specified Place rock pile/riprap for rock toe drain as per the drawings Excavate for spillway in soil as specified
m2 m3 m3
D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
m3 m3 m3 m3
m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 m2 m3 m3 m3
118
Annex 3
Item
Item description
Excavations and earthworks carried to collection Draw-off works (PROVISIONAL) Provide and install 1 No. 2 GI Class B as draw-off pipe Provide and place in anti-seepage collars 300mm Dia. X 6mm thick paddle flange to offtake pipe surround Provide 2 GI pipe for pipe upstand Provide and install GI lead-in and leadout for draw-off pipe in 2 GI Provide and install 2 perforated GI pipe inlet Install rock filter to pipe inlet 63mm uPVC Class B drain pipe from valve chamber sump 2 GI 90-deg elbow 2 water meter with all fittings 2 gate valve 2 union 2 socket Allow for pressure testing both pipes
Quan. Units
Rate Cost (Kshs) (Kshs)
A B
LM No.
C D E F G H I J K L M
LM LM LM Item LM No.. No.. No.. No.. No.. Item
Concrete works & reinforcement

A B C D E F G H
(PROVISIONAL) Provide and place 300 mm wide concrete Grade 25 as spillway sill Provide BRC reinforcement to spillway sill concrete 4 m grouted rubble stone to spillway apron Provide and place rubble stone erosion barriers as directed Concrete works carried to collection Excavations and earthworks Draw-off pipes carried to collection Concrete works & reinforcement Subtotal Allow 5% for contingencies
m3 m2 m2 each
Grand total
119

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TECHNICAL HANDBOOK No.

Water from ponds, pans and dams

Technical handbook (TH) series

Technical handbook series, continued...

Pamela Baxter. 1996. TH No. 13. ISBN 9966-896-25-2

Henry Chilufya and Bo Tengns. 1996. TH No. 11. ISBN 9966-896-23-6

Chris Palzer. 2002. TH No. 26. ISBN 9966-896-60-0

Berhanu Debele. 1994. TH No. 9. ISBN 9966-896-21-X

Isaya V. Sali. 2001. TH No. 24. ISBN 9966-896-77-5

Per Assmo and Arne Eriksson. 1994. TH No. 7. ISBN 9966-896-19-8

Erik Nissen-Petersen. 2000. TH No. 23. ISBN 9966-896-53-8

Bo Tengns. 1993. TH No. 3. ISBN 9966-896-11-2

Samuel Simute. 1992. TH No. 2. ISBN 9966-896-07-4

Stachys N. Muturi (ed.). 1992. TH No. 1. ISBN 9966-896-03-1

Mwangi T. Hai. 1998. TH No. 16. ISBN 9966-896-33-3

Thomas Raussen (ed.). 1997. TH No. 15. ISBN 9966-896-32-5

1.1 Purpose and scope of this manual

1.2 Types of ponds and pans

Figure 1. Natural pan in a pastoral area with livestock and wildlife.

Figure 2. Illustration of a charco pond, note silt traps and spillway.

1.3 Types of dams

Figure 3. Illustration of a valley dam. Note sill in spillway, rock toe.

Figure 4. Illustration of a hillside dam.

Sand dam with masonry apron in Nyando District, western Kenya.

Chapter 2 Community participation

2.2 Project identification

Chapter 2 Community participation

2.3 Community social organizations and management structures

Chapter 2 Community participation

Formation of management structures for water projects in Mandera District, Kenya

Chapter 2 Community participation

Gathingi dam, Sweetwaters, Laikipia District, Kenya

Chapter 2 Community participation

Self-help groups registered with Ministry of Social Services

Chapter 2 Community participation

Associations registered with the Registrar of Societies

Chapter 2 Community participation

2.4 Feasibility, design and planning

Chapter 2 Community participation

Chapter 2 Community participation

Pan desilting in Wajir District

Chapter 2 Community participation

2.6 Capacity building

Chapter 2 Community participation

Chapter 2 Community participation

Chapter 2 Community participation

2.7 Monitoring and evaluation

2.8 Important considerations in working with communities

Chapter 2 Community participation

Questions for gender analysis

Chapter 2 Community participation

Chapter 2 Community participation

Conflict mitigation in northern Kenya

Chapter 2 Community participation

Community management structure, Training needs assessment

Is project still feasible? YES NO

Ownership, legal aspects, land tenure

Get technical assistance!

Community cost sharing

Community socio-economic survey

Legal issues, permits

continues to next page

Chapter 2 Community participation