Timbre and the Cultural Politics of French Spectralism

Eric Drott, School of Music, University of Texas at Austin, USA

Proceedings of the Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology (CIM05)
Actes du Colloque interdisciplinaire de musicologie (CIM05)
Montral (Qubec) Canada, 10-12/03/2005
Abstract
It is largely recognized that timbre occupies a prominent place in the aesthetic of
French spectral music. This fascination has been ascribed to a variety of causes: as a
response to advances in acoustics and music technology, as part of a broader
embrace of the harmonic spectrum in the late 1960s and 1970s, or as the latest link
within a largely French tradition that values sonority above all else. While not
discounting any of these claims, this paper seeks to supplement them by considering
how spectralism's aesthetic stake in timbre was further conditioned by political
thought in France in the 1970s and 1980s.
In articulating their nascent aesthetic, French spectral composers drew at times on
the language of contemporary social movements to elucidate the role of timbre in
their compositional practice. Allusions to ecology, the politics of difference, and the
lingering specter of colonialism appear in the manifestoes and essays that Murail,
Grisey and Dufourt wrote during the late 1970s and early 1980s. These allusions
serve a dual purpose, at once legitimizing their aesthetic while at the same time
acting as responses to perceived social antagonisms. In the writings of Grard Grisey
in particular, timbre comes to be depicted as a site where such antagonisms may be
symbolically overcome. His discourse thus manifests the workings of what Frederic
Jameson has described as the 'political unconscious,' the drive to imaginatively
resolve real social contradictions in the utopian domain of the aesthetic.

For those familiar with the music of the French spectralist composersGrard Grisey, Tristan
Murail, Michal Levinas and Hugues Dufourtit will come as little surprise when I say that
timbre is central to their compositional concerns. Why this should be so and what it means has
been the subject of some discussion. According to Serge Garant, the foregrounding of timbre
can be understood as a response to advances in music technology in the post-war decades
(Garant 2001); for Julian Anderson it constitutes one moment within a broader upsurge of
interest in the harmonic spectrum in the late 60s and 70s (witnessed in the music of
Stockhausen, Young and Norgard, among others) (Anderson, 2000); for Pierre-Albert
Castanet, this proclivity is just the latest manifestation of a longstanding and quintessentially
French fascination with sonority (Castanet 1989); and for Fabien Lvy it reflects the broader
epistemological upheavals of the 1970s, most notably the move away from structuralism
(Lvy, 2004). While not discounting any of these, I would like to suggest that spectralism's
aesthetic stake in timbre was further conditioned by the social and political atmosphere of
France in the late 1960s and 1970s.
Surveying the various essays and manifestos that Murail, Grisey and Dufourt produced
beginning in the later 1970s reveals a number of curious formulations, all posited to explain
their compositional endeavors in general and their valorization of timbre in particular. Grisey's
imagination of an 'ecology of sound' (Grisey 1978, 75; 1998 297); their shared interest in
'difference' and hybridity as compositional prerogatives (Grisey 1998, 292; Dufourt 1991,
296); the casting of notation as a reifying agent that stifles the living force of musical sound
(Murail 1984, 157-8); and scattered references to decolonization and the need to respect the
different 'races and ethnicities of sound' (Grisey 1978, 75; 1998, 292; Murail 1988, 154)all
of these rhetorical turns have a barely disguised kinship to contemporaneous political
discourse. Specifically, they may be seen as drawing their energy from the various
'micropolitical' movements that emerged in France in the aftermath of the student
demonstrations and general strike of May 68: the nascent ecology movement; the 'politics of
difference' that gained ground in feminist, gay rights and anti-racist social movements; the
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Eric DROTT
left's critique of the alienating effects of consumer society; and the anti-imperialist struggles
that animated much of the student protest movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s. What
I would suggest is that the use of such politically charged language in the context of
manifestos that outlined and justified spectralist efforts to compose timbre to provide
timbre, in other words, with a structural and not just decorative function can only be
understood when set against the backdrop of changing left politics in France during the
1970s.
1
In the decade after the student uprising and general strike of May 1968 support for the French
left's institutional strongholds, the Parti Communiste Franais (PCF) and the main union, the
Confdration Gnrale du Travail (CGT) eroded considerably. This shift away from
institutional party politics to issue-oriented 'micropolitical' groups has been ascribed to a
variety of causes, including demographic changes in the workforce, the growth of new classes
in post-industrial society, and the decreasing importance of the industrial sector in the French
economy during the 1970s.
2
But just as important is the perceived failure of the 'old left,'
embodied in the institutional figures of the PCF and the CGT, to pick up the revolutionary
gauntlet thrown at its feet at the climax of the May 68 uprising.
3
While students and young
workers agitated for a revolutionary transformation of French society as a whole, the CGT
contented itself in negotiating for a modest wage increase. Meanwhile the PCF remained
suspicious, if not openly hostile, to the protest movement, seeing it as a threat to its prospects
in future parliamentary elections. As one observer pointedly stated, "The party was not the
driving force in this movement. It was the permanent brake" (Singer 1970, 10). It was in no
small part due to this appearance of narrow self-interest that caused the French new left not
just to break away from the 'old left,' but helped foster a general distrust of institutional
structures that lasted well after the end of the uprising. For many, institutionalization itself
became inherently tainted, seen as inevitably conservative and prone to co-optation. For
others, however, the problem lay not in institutionalization per se, but in the fact that the
transformation from an industrial economy to a post-industrial one meant that older
oppositional groups were rendered obsolete, their organization and tactics no longer suited to
the exigencies of the contemporary moment.
4
This synopsis, while undoubtedly superficial, goes some way in situating spectralist rhetoric. At
the same time, it points out one advantage spectral composers gained in associating their
music with the new social movements of the 1970s. In doing so, they certified their status as
an anti-institutional group within the field of contemporary music, opposed to dominant,
established figures in the avant-garde. To be more precise, they gained this advantage by
highlighting the similarity between their position as a group of young, more or less unknown
composers and the new social movements, which occupied a homologous position in the
political sphere. In this regard, their self-positioning brings into play what Pierre Bourdieu has
called the 'effect of homologies,' a tendency of those cultural producers who "occupy the
economically dominated and symbolically dominant positions within the field of cultural
production [] to feel solidarity with the economically and culturally dominated positions" in
other fields of action, especially that of class relations. (Bourdieu 1993, 44)

1
Franois Paris has likewise noted that the "enthousiasmes militants" found in the aesthetic statements of the spectralists
(in particular Grisey) are "vraisemblement issus de la culture des annes soixante-dix." (Paris 2004, 56).
2
Henri Mendras observes that the decline of heavy industry and the massive migration away from the countryside eroded
two of the PCF's traditional constituencies, the industrial worker and the peasant farmer. At the same time, the party failed
to court the 'new classes' of technical and clerical workers, due in part to its adherence to an overly rigid conception of the
proletariat. As a result they saw their share of the electorate drop from a little over 25% in the years immediately following
World War II to just under 10% by the late 1980s (Mendras and Cole 1991, 74-5).
3
The sense that the CGT's and (especially) the PCF's actions or lack thereof had effectively served to maintain the
political status quo was voiced in many quarters. In an interview from August 1969, Sartre describes the PCF as "an
obstacle to any revolutionary struggle in France," adding that "[i]t denies and suppresses anything that does not come
from itself." (Sartre 1971, 293). The Situationists, likewise writing in 1969, would describe the PCF as "Stalinists," who "as
always represented antiworker bureaucracy in its purest form" (Knabb 1981, 237).
4
Touraine, for instance, contends that the conflict between worker and capitalist is no longer the dominant struggle in the
emerging post-industrial society: "In societies which depended on directly productive labor, the skilled worker, who was
relatively privileged, was the prime opponent of the capitalist. In a society defined by change, the group most open to
change and most favored by it is the best equipped to rebel against the technocrats." (Touraine 1971, 10). Furthermore,
Touraine contends that, to the extent that labor conflicts have been institutionalized, unions have become integrated into
advanced (post-)industrial economies, robbed of their capacity to catalyze social revolution (Touraine 1971, 40).
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Eric DROTT
However, it still remains to be seen how all of this relates to the timbral concerns of French
spectral music. In order to answer this question, it is necessary first of all to step back and
consider how fundamentally strange it is for one particular aspect of the musical phenomenon
to be privileged in this way. Although the valorization of one dimension of music or another
be it timbre, pulse, silence or something elsehas become so commonplace that it may no
longer seem remarkable, it is nevertheless the product of a particular set of historical
conditions. Frederic Jameson has provided a sketchy but suggestive framework for
understanding how these conditions came to pass. Drawing on Lukacs's notion of a
progressive and pervasive reification of social relations under capitalism, whereby "traditional
or 'natural' unities, social forms and human relations, cultural events, even religious systems
are broken up in order to be reconstructed more efficiently," Jameson describes how this
process unfolds in the domain of the visual arts (Jameson 1981, 63). This entails the gradual
secularization of ritualistic art, the establishment of relatively narrow genres (such as still life
and portraiture), leading to the fragmentation of the visual field with impressionism,
pointillism and cubism. Yet the rub is that such fragmentation of the perceptual domain
engenders its own counter-movement, so that the various elements that are progressively
peeled away from a meaningful totality are re-cast positively as having been 'liberated.' In this
way, the fragmentation of aesthetic experience is experienced as a kind of progress, with the
fragments themselves receiving a utopian charge. Describing a culminating point in this
process, the advent of abstract expressionism, Jameson notes that "the mission of this
heightened and autonomous language of color [is] to restore at least a symbolic experience of
libidinal gratification in a word drained of it, a world of extension, gray and merely
quantifiable." (Jameson 1981, 63).
A similar narrative could be sketched for the history of Western music, as it is gradually
dissociated from its religious and court functions to develop into an 'autonomous' art-form,
subsequently denuded of its language character so as to become 'absolute,' leading ultimately
to the various liberations of 20
th
century music: Schoenberg's emancipation of the dissonance,
Cage's recognition of noise as a valid compositional resource, and Stockhausen's freeing of the
isolated moment from the narrative impulse, to name but a few. Of signal importance for
spectralism is the fragmentation of the sonic object under the dual pressures of serialism and
electroacoustic music. It is in this regard that spectralism very much deserves the 'post-serial'
label, since it takes as its conceptual starting point the dissolution of sound into the distinct
parameters of pitch, duration, loudness and timbre, which serialism helped engender.
However, what Grisey, Murail and Dufourt state as the aim of their endeavors is a recovery of
this lost unity, to be achieved under the banner of timbre. As Grisey would later state: "In its
violently qualitative aspect, it [timbre] necessarily bars any serializing approach; just as it
upsets tonal thinking, so too does it upset serial thinking, hollowing it out from the inside. It
explodes every sort of matrix or grid, and forces upon us another way of understanding,
because it possesses a priori a correlated ensemble of energies." (Grisey 1991, 385) In
describing timbre as the site where the interrelatedness and indivisibility of all sonic
'parameters' comes plainly into view, Grisey and his colleagues invest it with the
compensatory, symbolic function that Jameson describes. Against a desiccated and quantified
image of sound stands the spectralist conception of timbre, understood as an integral,
irreducible quality, a foundation upon which the disarticulated aspects of sound will be
rejoined.
5

5
Another of timbre's attributes prized by the spectralism is its dynamism, witnessed in Grisey's reference to an "ensemble
of energies" in the quote above (and also manifest in the title of his essay, "Music: the becoming of sounds"). Thus, in
drawing another telling distinction this time between timbre's function in popular music and its function in spectral
music Murail contrasts the objectification of sound characteristic of the former with the more fluid sensibility of the
latter. On the one hand, Murail expresses a certain qualified admiration for the ability of rock fans to discriminate timbral
difference, which sets them apart from classically trained musicians: "For rock fans [] it takes but a few measures to
lose any doubt about the identity of the group, the title of the song"; this is due to the fact that, "[] they listen to sound,
above all; they perceive differences and subtleties that escape ears that have been compartmentalized and conditioned
by their musical education." (Murail 1980, 78). On the other hand, Murail is more interested in timbre's capacity to mutate
and evolve than to function as a fixed marker of musical identity: "The true revolution in music over the course of the
twentieth century has been located in the elevation of a conception and mode of listening that allows us to enter into the
depths of sound, to truly sculpt sonic matter, which supplants the piling up of objects or successive layers." (Murail 1980,
79).
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Eric DROTT
This in turn indicates how the metaphoric language described above functions within
spectralist discourse. Consider, for instance, Grisey's invocation of ecology. More than just a
call for a return to origins or to the putative nature of sound,
6
ecology implies a reformulation
of the relations between individual and totality, as well as a changed comportment towards
the natural environment.
7
In particular, in its early development ecological thought in France
as elsewhere consistently stressed a holistic view of the ecosystem, a view that highlights the
impact industrial development has upon nature. The human and natural environments cannot
be dissociated; as Andre Gorz (an early and influential convert to the French ecological
movement) would say, the global ecosystem is comprised of "a fragile system of multiple
equilibriums," such that if you upset one equilibrium, you upset them all (Gorz 1980, 13). It is
this notion of interconnectedness that Grisey picks up on in his conception of an 'ecology of
sound.' He dreams of this as "a new kind of science that all musicians would be required to
study." Among other things, it would provide a better understanding of timbre, one that "could
give us an idea of the energies that run through it and render the web of interactions that
determine every parameter comprehensible" (Grisey 1978, 75; see also Murail 1989, 151).
8
Conceptualizing timbre as a "correlated ensemble of energies," so that changes in one
parameter impact all others, not only allows a beneficial link to be drawn between spectral
composition and progressive politics, but at the same time succeeds in associating serial music
the perceived agent of sound's dissociation into discrete parameters with the kinds of
destructive forces that modernization unleashes and that ecology hopes to counteract. Whence
the claim Dufourt makes in his essay, "Musique spectrale" (dating from 1979), that serialism
"[] envisages a sonic space in which the configuration is unstable, multidirectional, organized
according to types of arborescent distribution. This succeeds only at the price of structural
conflict and antagonistic correlation. Serial composition thus rests upon a fundamental
violence, since it must reduce and overlap concurrent, constraining systems." (Dufourt 1991,
292). By describing as a kind of violence serialism's layering of structures, each seen to
control a single, isolated parameter, Dufourt links the serial aesthetic to an outmoded ethos,
one which equates progress with the ceaseless expansion of productive forces and its
corollary, the endless exploitation of natural resources. Another essay by Dufourt captures this
association in its title, which reads "Pierre Boulez, musician of the industrial age."
It is at this point that the political in the broad sense of the term converges with the
more limited domain of cultural politics. A pair of opposing metonymic chains are established:
on the one side stands spectralism, which is linked with specific micropolitical movements,
which in turn represent the vanguard of anti-institutional left politics in the post-May, post-
industrial epoch. On the other side stands serialism, the old guard, associated with a
modernist mentality that was once revolutionary, but has since become trapped in the
straitjacket of institutional forms. The work accomplished by spectralist discourse on timbre
becomes apparent: it stakes out for itself and more importantly legitimizes a niche within
the French musical landscape by means of this metonymic chain; at the same time it acts to
delegitimize its older and more established adversary, what Peter Niklas Wilson has called its
serial 'father figure,' by linking it with a historical moment receding into the past (Wilson
1989, 69).
However, it would be neither accurate nor fair to say that such allusions to progressive social
movements in spectralist discourse are simply self-serving. They may represent, at the same

6
For critical accounts of spectralism's privileging of the 'nature' of soundunderstood in quasi-Adornian fashion as a kind
of material fetishism see Stoianova 1985, 121-122; and Wilson 1989, 68-69.
7
As concerns the changed relation between the human and the environmental, Grisey's comments on the
phenomenology of time are telling. Decrying the 'static' conception of time that the non-retrogradable rhythms of Messiaen
and the serialization of duration both entail, Grisey exclaims: "What a utopia this spatial and static version of time was
What a spatial view of musical time but also what anthropomorphism there is in this image of man at the center of time,
a listener fixed at the very center of the work to which he is listening! One might say that a truly Copernican revolution
remains to be fought in music []." (Grisey 1987, 242-3).
8
In his essay, "Musique le devenir du son," Grisey reiterates the same basic idea, but now attributes the dissociation of
sound into discrete parameters to a general failing of human perceptual capacities: "The appreciation of timbre is a
function of duration, intensity, etc. One could thus stretch out indefinitely the list of such interferences. It is simply that our
perceptual limitations invite us to project parametric scales onto this continuity of phenomena." (Grisey 1998, 294). In this
respect, 'parametrization' can be seen as part of the anthropomorphic bias that Grisey's ecology of sound wishes to
overcome (see note 7 above), in that it takes the limitations of human cognition for reality.
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Eric DROTT
time, attempts to imaginatively resolve real social antagonisms at the level of the musical
work. The writings and, by extension, the music of the spectralists at times manifest the
workings of what Jameson has described as the 'political unconscious,' the drive to overcome
social contradictions in the utopian domain of the aesthetic. This process is most evident in the
recourse the spectral composers (in particular Dufourt and Grisey) made to a rhetorical gambit
that gained widespread currency in the years following May 68, what Peter Starr has described
as the 'neither/nor/but' structure. According to Starr, this structure occupies a privileged place
in postwar French political thought, as a means of conceiving a way past some perceived
social antinomy. It proceeds by first "uncovering [] a pseudo-opposition between the
principles or structures of the established order and an oppositional force The back-to-back
dismissal (renvoi dos dos) of the parties to this pseudo-opposition then serves as a pretext
for articulating a 'third way' or 'third term'" (Starr 1995, 114). It is here, in this third term,
that various utopian aspirations are lodged. From Sartre's attempt in the 1950s to find a third
way between the Gaullist right and the Stalinist left to the tiers-mondiste embrace of the third
world in the 1960s as an alternative to the restricted political horizons of the capitalist first
world and the communist second, this maneuver provided a means whereby intellectuals could
register their dissatisfaction with find away around existing political options.
According to Starr, the 'neither/nor/but' structure became popular in the aftermath of May 68,
to the extent that the failure of the revolt to bring about the kind of massive social
transformation that its participants called for suggested that existing vehicles for political
change were no longer effective the institutional opposition no less than the Gaullist
establishment.
9
The same impulse may lie behind the spectralist adoption of this discursive
maneuver. For instance, in an essay from 1982, "Dialectique du son usin," Dufourt describes
how the advent of electronic music has transformed musical material by introducing 'impure'
timbres, which fall in the no-man's-land between traditional instrumental timbres (which
privilege the pure sound of the harmonic spectrum) and noise. Yet, as Dufourt argues, neither
of the dominant post-war trends in avant-garde music dealt effectively with what he describes,
in unabashedly Marxist terms, as this "permanent revolution in productive forces" (Dufourt
1991, 299). Instead of reflecting on the changing nature of the material, serialism sought to
escape into the pristine, timeless realm of abstraction, while chance music adopted an
uncritical, laissez-faire attitude. The form Dufourt's account takes is just as interesting as its
content, since it sets up these two antithetical poles in order to tacitly situate the new music of
the spectralists as pointing a way out of this impasse: "Rationalist utopia versus naturalist
mythology? Constructivism or protestation? It's precisely this dualistic vision of the world, this
Manichean division that assumes an ideological and conservative function." (Dufourt 1991,
299)
10
The political stakes of the 'neither/nor/but' structure are most clearly registered in Grisey's
writings. In his essay "Zur Entstehung des Klangs," from 1978 he touches upon the idea,
mentioned above, that what makes timbre so attractive as a site for compositional activity is
its "violently qualitative aspect." He notes that it is above all necessary to "single out within
each sound the qualities that distinguish it from all others and that, far from isolating it, bring
out its irreplaceable individuality" (Grisey 1978, 74). In other words, Grisey highlights the
irreducible specificity of timbre, its resistance to simple quantitative measurement, as its main
source of appeal. However, it is the consequence he draws from the idea of timbre's
constitutive difference that is of particular interest. He contends that by taking account of this
attibute, a pair of pitfalls, "hierarchy and leveling," are avoided. An apparently innocent
opposition, the significance attached to this pair of terms emerges when he explains that

9
This sentiment was reinforced by the idea that the struggles undertaken by the new social movements were more
appropriate to the social problems of post-industrial society than were conflicts centering on the exploitation of industrial
labor. According to Touraine, the politics of post-industrial society are to be defined by the struggle between technocrats
(those who direct social development) and their subordinates (a heterogeneous grouping of professionals, technicians,
middle managers and blue-collar workers). Working from this assumption, he concludes that the anti-nuclear and ecology
movements represent paradigmatic post-industrial struggles, pitting centralized managerial power against those who
oppose "the apparatus of productionespecially of energy production." Touraine, cited in Chafer 1982, 210.
10
Similar oppositions color the writings of younger composers influenced by the 'first-generation' spectralists, albeit shorn
of some of their political undertones. Philippe Hurel, for instance, enumerates the shortcomings of serialism and musique
concrte as a way of clearing conceptual space for spectralism (Hurel 1991, 262). Similarly, Claudy Malherbe echoes
Grisey's positioning of spectralism as the third way between tonality and serialism (Malherbe 1989, 48).
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Eric DROTT
"[b]etween tonal or neo-tonal hierarchy and serial or neo-serial egalitarianism [Egalitarismus]
there exists a third way: to recognize and accept difference. Ultimately we seek to avoid both
leveling and 'colonization'" (Grisey 1978, 75). Whatever relationship may exist between
Grisey's use of the term 'difference' and the political connotations the term acquired within the
women's and anti-racist movements of the 1970s, the thinly-veiled coding of the two terms
that form the original antinomy is hard to miss. Describing composers' new-found allegiance to
tonality during the 1970s in terms of 'colonization' hardly counts as an innocent rhetorical
flourish, especially in the wake of France's collapse as a colonial power in the 1950s and 1960s
or, for that matter, in the wake of the subsequent American intervention in Southeast Asia.
Another metonymic chain is thereby established: neo-tonality is associated with 'colonization,'
and thus with the sort of hierarchical social organization that is characteristic of class society;
serialism is associated with 'leveling,' and thus with mass society, be it of the monopoly
capitalist or state socialist variety. Spectralism, by contrast, presents us with a third way,
which, by attending to difference, will find a way past the shortcomings of both. But while
Grisey's positioning of spectralism beyond both serialism and neo-tonality doubtlessly serves
his cultural-political aims, casting his music in a favorable light vis--vis other compositional
tendencies, I would like to suggest that it can be read in addition as an expression of Grisey's
political unconscious that is, as his way of posing an imaginative solution to the failings of
existing political structures. One way of visualizing this is to picture the metonymic chains
described earlier as running both ways: the invocation of politics would not only serve the
exigencies of cultural politics, by providing the spectralists a niche within the field of
contemporary music, but at the same time this self-positioning in the cultural sphere would
constitute a heavily mediated expression of a particular political disposition. Thus, in
attempting to formulate a capacious idea of the musical work, one that could accommodate
and to some extent reconcile the entire gamut of sonorities (without, however, allowing any
single one to dominate), Grisey imagines the musical structure as a kind of non-coercive, non-
hierarchical association a rainbow coalition of sounds, as it were.
Once again timbre occupies a privileged position in Grisey's imagination. Although a full
exploration of the ramifications the idea of 'difference' has for his work (and for that of his
colleagues) is beyond the scope of this paper, I would like to conclude by indicating one of the
ways in which this idea takes musical shape. Specifically, Grisey's well-known concept of
'instrumental synthesis' stands out in its attempt to balance the demands of both difference
and totality. Grisey understands the fusion of partials into a single sonic image as the nec plus
ultra of synthesis, whereby the particular is subsumed by the whole. In his essay, "Musique: le
devenir du son" (first published in 1982), Grisey notes that in listening to an instrumental
spectrum, "[] the ear, generally speaking, doesn't discern partials, but is satisfied with a
global perception what one calls 'timbre'" (Grisey 1998, 296). What instrumental synthesis
achieves when it projects spectra onto the 'macroscopic' scale of real instruments where
each instrument take the place of a single partial is a compromise between the forces of
fusion on the one hand and those of differentiation on the other. He writes that such synthetic
spectra are "[] situated in a liminal zone. Here, the components are identified clearly, but we
strive to integrate them in a global perception, without succeeding, however, to define it"
(Grisey 1998, 296). The result is what Grisey describes as a "hybrid being for our perception,
a sound which, without being a timbre, is already no longer quite a chord" (Grisey 1998, 296).
In short, by failing either to synthesize completely or to dissolve into a collection of discrete
instrumental timbres, such 'hybrid beings' manage to negotiate the razor-sharp line separating
differentiation from integration. To the extent that talk of timbre's difference within spectralist
discourse is, as I have indicated, pregnant with socio-political connotations, then the
negotiation of difference in instrumental synthesis provides yet another site where the
aesthetic converges with the political. Yet this time the aesthetic field can be seen not so much
as a reflection of the political, but as a space where new forms of utopian (social) organization
may be imagined and given form through the medium of music.


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Eric DROTT
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CIM05, Montral, 10-12/03/2005 7 www.oicm.umontreal.ca/cim05