GRAMTICA

INGLESA

INGLES

PRIMERA

PARTE

Pronunciacin A continuacin damos los smbolos del Alfabeto Fontico Internacional. Para la mejor pronunciacin de la lengua inglesa. Recordamos que la pronunciacin de muchos de estos fonemas slo puede adquirirse por imitacin directa. Cada smbolo va seguido de la ortografa ms usual empleada, en unas palabras modelo. No obstante, hay excepciones, a casi todas las reglas. VOCALES: 1. 2. i: (ms larga que la i espaola y mas cerrada) see, meat, he, receive, believe, people, machine. i (es ms breve y ms relajada que la i espaola; recuerda a la i espaola de cinco) sit, symbol, mountain, before, houses, pretty, wanted, Monday, monev. e (ms breve que la espaola) red, bread, said, many. Thames. (no existe en espaol; se parece a la a de calle) man, have, lad. a: (es ms larga que la a espaola) car, palm. pass, father. after, laugh. (ms breve que la o espaola y se pronuncia con labios menos abocinados) not, what, was. : (ms larga que la espaola, los labios mucho menos ahocinados y ms abierta que la o de ropa) wall. naught, port, war. u (algo ms abierta que la u espaola) bull, foot. wolf. u: rule, prove, through, fruit. (no existe en espaol; es un sonido breve que se pronuncia entre a: y :. Hay que adquirirlo por imitacin directa) but, mother, Monday, wonder. : (no existe en espaol; es intermedio entre e, o, i; es siempre largo, y slo se adquiere por imitacin directa) bird, sir, girl, turn, journey, her, fir, fur. 3

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. l0.

11.

12.

(debe adquirirse por imitacin directa. Es parecido al anterior pero breve; podra compararse a un suspiro sonoro y dbil. Se emplea con frecuencia en lugar del sonido correspondiente en una slaba no acentuada) mother, again banana, effort. ei rain, Spain, grev. main, pale. ou no, Joan, only, know. ai fine, pine, eye, neither. Au how, loud, house, count. i boy, coin, moist. i empieza con i corta que se transforma en ) here, tear, dear, deer idea. (la e abierta de la primera parte del diptongo evoluciona hasta ) fare, fair, pair, wear, there, stare. (empieza por una vocal parecida a la o larga y se desliza hacia ) more, door, four, boar, lower. u (empieza con u corta y evoluciona a ) tour, sure, doer. (como el 18, pero sin acentuar) happier, earlier. (como el 21 pero dbil) us ual. i (dbil: u seguida de i) valuing. pen, map, happy, inkpot. bell, fable, pub, bright. ten, to, pot, pretty, tree. did, bad, badly, added. cat, cake, racket, snack. gay, gold, dig, giggle. fine, after, wolf, office. veal, five, very, clever. thin, thank-you, youth. this, weather, with, bathe. so, speaks, sat, glasses. zebra, matches, uses (verb). ship, rush, pressure, Pleasure, closure, measure. 4

DIPTONGOS 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

CONSONANTES 1. p 2. b 3. t 4. d 5. k 6. g 7. f 8. v 9. 10. d 11. s 12. z 13. 14.

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

t d h m n r l w j

child, each, Churchill. Japan, unjust, Georje. have, hard, behind. map, mummy, palm, dumb. nut, manner, many, Nancy. ring, giving, ink. rose, rear, car. let, fellow, hall, lamp. water, when, away. you, yes, young.

Algunas de estas consonantes hay que aprenderlas por imitacin directa: , z espaola; b, parecido a d muy exagerada; z, igual a s sonora catalana o francesa, se parece a la ltima parte de ch; como el anterior, pero sonoro; , parecido a ch; , como el anterior pero sonoro; h, muda; , como n de pongo; w, como una u suspirada.

EL ARTCULO INDETERMINADO
Es a delante de consonante y an delante de vocal o h muda. Es invariable: A boy = un nio. A girl = una nia. An arm = un brazo . An hour - una hora . La idea de varios se expresa con los indefinidos some y any: I see some boys = veo unos nios Se usa tambin delante de nombres de nacionalidad, religin y profesin: He is an Englishman; he is a doctor; he is a Catholic = es catlico

EL SUSTANTIVO
EL GNERO El gnero, en ingls, corresponde al gnero natural. No se diferencia ni en el artculo ni en el adjetivo, 5

que son invariables. Hay que tenerlo en cuenta, no obstante, para el uso del pronombre. Son masculinos los nombres comunes y propios de varn y de animal macho; femenino, los de mujer y animal hembra. Les corresponden los pronombres: he = l; she = ella; they = ellos, ellas. Los objetos no tienen gnero y les corresponden los pronombres neutros it y they. Hay, adems, un gnero comn que sirve, indistintamente, para el masculino y el femenino: Friend = amigo, amiga. Pupil = alumno, alumna. Teacher = profesor, profesora . Traveller = viajero, viajera . Baby = nio o nia (beb). Child = nio, nia. Cousin = primo, prima. DETERMINACIN DEL GNERO I. Empleando distinta palabra para el masculino y el femenino: father = padre., mother = madre. son = hijo. dauhter = hija. brother = hermano. sister = hermana. man = hombre. woman = mujer. Boy = nio. girl = nia. nephew = sobrino. niece = sobrina. king = rey queen = reina. II. Por medio de un sufijo, -ess, aadido al masculino, con o sin alteracin de ste: Masculino Femenino conde count countess 6

poeta poet judo actor actor actress prncipe pince emperad or duque duke duchess hroe hero heroine tigre tiger tigress III Por medio de una palabra indicadora del sexo: explorador boy-scout girl-scout gorrin cocksparrow hensparrow criado manservant maidservant 7 princess emperor empress poetess jew jewess

EL NMERO
FORMACIN DEL PLURAL Los plurales regulares se forman: I. Aadiendo una s al singular: Singular dog month Boy girl Plural perro dogs mes months nio boys nia girls

II Aadiendo la terminacin -es si la palabra termina en s, ss, sh, ch, x, z: Singular Plural dress vestido box dish church dresses caja boxes plato dishes iglesia churches

III Aadiendo -es al singular si termina en o precedida de consonante: potato patata hero potatoes, hroe heroes

pero si termina en o precedida de vocal se suele aadir slo s: folio folio folios 8

IV Las palabras terminadas en y precedida de consonante cambian y por i antes de aadir -es: lady seora ladies sky firmamento skies pero y precedida de vocal toma s: day key da days llave keys

V Los siguientes sustantivos terminados en -f o en -fe cambian stas por v antes de aadir el sufijo -es: Singular Plural calf ternera leaf loaf elf self sheaf shelf thief wharf calves hoja leaves pan loaves duende elves mismo selves gavilla sheaves estante shelves ladrn thieves muelle 9

wolf knife life wife

wharves lobo wolves cuchillo knives vida lives esposa wives

Los dems nombres terminados en f forman el plural aadiendo slo la terminacin -s chief principal chiefs grief pesar griefs PLURALES IRREGULARES I Las siguientes palabras aaden -en para formar el plural: Singular Plural ox buey oxen child nio children II Algunas palabras cambian la vocal interna y no toman sufijo: man hombre woman mouse foot tooth goose men mujer women ratn mice pie feet diente teeth ganso 10

geese III Algunos nombres de animales se emplean igual para singular y para plural: sheep = cordero deer = ciervo cod = bacalao As podemos hablar de a sheep, a flock of sheep = un cordero, un rebao de corderos. III) Algunas palabras con sentido cambian: colectivo tampoco

people = gente cattle = ganado lanar poultry = aves de corral IV Algunos nombres terminados en s indistintamente en singular y en plural: goods = gneros, mercancas news = noticias, novedades stairs = escalera(s) alms; = limosna(s) thanks = gracias

se

emplean

V Los nombres abstractos no se emplean, como tales, en plural: justice = la justicia happiness - la felicidad VI Algunos nombres que expresan materia de estudio o ciencias suelen emplearse en plural, aunque con el verbo en singular: Mathematics is a difficult subject = las matemticas es una asignatura difcil. I study physics = estudio fsica. IX Los adjetivos de nacionalidad sustantivados tienen el plural regular en s excepto los que terminan en ss, sh, ese, ch. que no cambian: Singular Plural 11

Spaniard French Chinese

espaol Spaniards francs French chino Chinese

pero los que se forman con el sufijo -man lo cambian por -men: Englishman ingls Scotsman Englishmen escocs Scotsmen

X Los apellidos se emplean en plural cuando se refieren a varios miembros de la familia: I have seen the Howards = he visto a los Howard. XI Algunas palabras extranjeras conservan el plural de origen: Singular Plural analysis anlisis cherub analyses querubn cherubim

XII En las palabras compuestas el sufijo de plural se aade a la que hace el oficio de sustantivo: passer-by peatn passers-by son-in-law yerno sons-in-law step-son hijastro step-sons Pero algunas palabras corrientes aaden slo s: spoonful cucharada spoonfuls 12

XIII Los colectivos suelen llevar el verbo en plural; pero lo llevan en singular si se refieren al grupo en conjunto: The people are furious = la gente est furiosa. The crowd was shouting = la multitud gritaba.

ADJETIVOS
EL ADJETIVO CALIFICATIVO I Es invariable, y precede al nombre al que califica: A red car = un coche rojo A tall woman = una mujer alta Nice girls = chicas simpticas Clever boys = chicos listos II El adjetivo atributivo sigue al verbo to be y es igualmente invariable: Peter is tall = Pedro es alto Mary is young = Mara es joven Peter and Mary are tall = Pedro y Mara son altos. III El sustantivo puede usarse adjetivadamente en algunas ocasiones: A tea-cup = una taza para t. A rubber ball = una pelota de goma . IV Los participios de presente y pasado adjetivadamente: A broken chair = una silla rota, A bathing suit = un traje de bao . se usan

Cuando varios adjetivos califican al mismo sustantivo se colocan simplemente uno tras otro y el que indica la cualidad ms personal va el ltimo. Tambin pueden estar separados por una coma entre s, pero no debe haberla entre el ltimo adjetivo y el nombre que le sigue: He is a nice clever young pupil = es un alumno joven, listo y simptico . It was a dark, windy night = era una noche oscura y ventosa. Algunos adjetivos pueden emplearse sustantivamente con valor colectivo y general: The poor are often sad = los pobres estn tristes a 13

menudo. Cuando el adjetivo se refiere a un sustantivo citado anteriormente puede omitirse dicho sustantivo la segunda vez, sustituyndolo por one: I have a red pencil; you have a blue one = yo tengo un lpiz rojo: t tienes uno azul . LOS INDEFINIDOS some y any se emplean con valor de partitivo. Some para oraciones afirmativas: any en interrogativas y negativas: I want some water = quiero agua . Have you any ink? = )tiene usted tinta? I have not any pencils = no tengo (ningunos) lpices. ADJETIVOS DEMOSTRATIVOS Los adjetivos demostrativos concuerdan con la cosa poseda slo en nmero. Son los siguientes: this = este, esta. these = estos, estas. that = ese, esa, aquel aquella. those = esos, esas, aquellos, aquellas. This book is very good = este libro es muy bueno. This play is very interesting = esta comedia es muy interesante. These pencils are long = estos lpices son largos . These songs are nice = estas canciones son bonitas . That man is a Doctor = ese hombre es mdico. That girl has a car = esa chica tiene un coche . Those girls are nice = esas chicas son simpticas. NOTA: Advirtase que that se traduce indistintamente por ese, aquel, etc. Cuando se quiere recalcar aquel, se emplea la expresin that over there: That house over there is mine = aquella casa es ma. ADJETIVOS POSESIVOS my = mi. your = tu (su, de usted, de ustedes) . his = su (de l), her = su (de ella). 14

our =- nuestro, a, os, as. your = vuestro, a, os, as. their = su (de ellos, de ellas). Ejemplos: My book is very interesting = mi libro es muy interesante . Your garden is pleasant = tu jardn es agradable. His house is in London = su casa est en Londres. Her shoes are white = sus zapatos son blancos. Its leaves are green = sus hojas son verdes (de un rbol). Our parents are not here = nuestros padres no estn aqu. Your lessons were difficult = vuestras lecciones eran difciles . Their friends are English = sus amigos son ingleses.

EL COMPARATIVO
COMPARACIN DE ADJETIVOS I Comparativo de igualdad: as... as = tan... como (afirmativo). not so... as = no tan... como (negativo). John is as tall as Mary; you are not so tall as John = Juan es tan alto como Mara; t no eres tan alto como Juan. II Comparativo de superioridad: a. Monoslabos y algunos bislabos: adj. (adv.) + -er + than My dog runs faster than yours = mi perro corre ms aprisa que el tuyo . b Polislabos: more + adj. (adv.) + than His book is more interesting than mine = su libro es ms interesante que el mo. III Superlativo: a. Monoslabos y algunos bislabos: adj. (adv.) + -est (+ of o in) You are the tallest (of all) = t eres el ms alto (de todos ). 15

b Polislabos: the most + adj. (adv.) (+ of o in) This book is the most expensive of the lot = este libro es el ms caro del lote (de todos). Nota: less = menos : the least = el menos. His book is less interestin than mine. Your book is less interesting than mine, Algunos adjetivos bislabos que forman el comparativo y superlativo con el sufijo -er, -est: Shallow, shallower, shallowest Clever, profundo cleverer, cleverest Bitter, inteligente bitterer, bitterest Easy, amargo easier, easiest Quiet, fcil quieter, quietest Angry. tranquilo angrier, angriest furioso 16

COMPARATIVOS Y SUPERLATIVOS IRREGULARES comparativo Much (mucho) Many (muchos) more Good (bueno ) Bad (malo ) Little (poco ) Superlativo. more the most the most better the best worse the worst less the least

ADJETIVOS NUMERALES
Cardinales 0 zero 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Ordinales one 11 first two 21 second three 31 third four 41 fourth five 51 fifth six 61 sixth seven 71 seventh eight 81 eighth nine 91 ninth ten l01 tenth eleven 111 eleventh twelve 121 twelfth thirteen 131' thirteenth fourteen 141 fourteenth fifteen 151 frfteenth sixteen 17

17 18 19

161' sixteenth seventeen 171 seventeenth eigliteen 181 eighteenth nineteen 191 nineteenth

OBSRVENSE las irregularidades de los ordinales first, second, third, fifth, ninth, twelfth. Todos los dems cardinales, excepto los que terminan en esas cifras, forman el ordinal aadiendo -th al cardinal. Las decenas se forman aadiendo -ty a los primeros nmeros, con ciertas irregularidades: 20 twenty 201 twentieth 21 twenty-one 211 twenty-first 22 twenty-two 221 twentvsecond 23 twenty-three 231 twenty-third 24 twenty-four 241 twenty-fourth 25 twenty-five 251 twenty-fifth 30 thirty 301 thirtieth 31 thirty-one 311 thirty-first 40 forty 401 fortieth 50 fifty 501 fiftieth 60 sixty 601 sixtieth 70 seventy 701 seventieth 80 eighty 801 eightieth 18

90

ninety 901 ninetieth

OBSRVENSE las irregularidades iguales a las anteriores y el cambio del sufijo -y por -ie en el ordinal 100 one hundred 1.000 one thousand 1.000.000 one million NOTA IMPORTANTE: Despus de cien, mil, un milln, los nmeros inferiores que les siguen deben ir precedidos de la conjuncin and = y, que preceder a las decenas, si las hubiera, y si no a las unidades. 101 one hundred and one. 121 one hundred and twenty one. 1,001 one thousand and one. 1,221 one thousand to hundred and twenty one. 1,000,001 one millon and one. ADVIRTASE: hundred, thousand, million , son siempre singular: pero, pueden emplearse en plural con el significado de centenar, millar, milln. I have several hundred, = tengo varios centenares. USO: Los ordinales van siempre precedidos del artculo the. Se emplean en: I Cronologa. Louis the fourteenth = Luis XIV. The fifth Century = el siglo V. The first Lord Hamilton = el primer Lord Hamilton. II Orden en cualquier sentido: Chapter the fourth = captulo IV Book the first = libro primero. III Fechas: Los das del mes se expresan por medio de ordinales: To-day is the sixth = hoy es 6. April the fifth = 5 de abril. Las fechas correspondientes a los aos no se enuncian 19

como las cantidades. Los aos se cuentan por cientos,. As, diremos: 1967 (fecha, ao): nineteen hundred and sixty-seven (o bien: nineteen sixty-seven). 1967 (cantidad): one thousand nine hundred and sixty-seven. ADVIRTANSE las expresiones siguientes: Once = una vez Twice = dos veces. Thrice (three times) = tres veces. Four times = cuatro veces, etc. The last = el ltimo . The last but one = el penltimo . Two plus two are four = dos y dos son cuatro; ten minus five is five = diez menos cinco son cinco ; three times four is twelve = tres por cuatro son doce; nine divided by three is three = nueve dividido por tres son tres.

PRONOMBRES
PRONOMBRES PERSONALES Sujeto I you te, a ti. he le, lo, a l, se, she her ella, la, le, a ella, se, it (equivale a los dos anteriores para cosas). us 20 him l, Complemento me yo, me, a m. you t,

it

we

You

nosotros, nos, a nosotros. you vosotros, os, a vosotros.

they them ellos, ellas, los las les, se. NOTA: Las dos formas del pronombre de la tercera persona del plural se emplean indistintamente para el masculino, el femenino y el neutro. ESTRUCTURAS: Cuando el verbo tiene dos complementos (directo- indirecto) pueden darse los, siguientes casos: a. Que los dos sean nombres: V + CD + to + CI ; o bien: V + CI + CD: I gave a watch to my brother = di un reloj a mi hermano. I gave my brother a watch = di a mi hermano un reloj. b. CI: I gave it to him = yo se lo di (a l). c. Que el CD sea pronombre y el CI sea nombre: V + CD + to + CI: I gave it to my brother = ( se) lo di a mi hermano. d. Que el CI sea nombre y el CI sea pronombre: V + CD + to + CI: I gave a watch to him = le di un reloj (a l). o bien: V + CI + CD: I gave him a watch = le di un reloj (a l). PRONOMBRES POSESIVOS Mine = (el) mo, -a, os, -as. 21 Que los dos sean pronombres: V + CD + to +

Yours = (el) tuyo, -a, -os, as. His = (masc.) (el) suyo, -a, -os, -as. Hers = (fem.) (el) suyo. -a. -os, -as. Its = (neut.) (el) suyo, -a. -os. -as. Ours = (el) nuestro. -a. -os, -as. Yours = (el) vuestro, -a, -os, -as. Theirs = (el) suyo, -a. -os, -as. OBSERVACIONES: El artculo que precede al posesivo espaol no se traduce al ingls. El posesivo concuerda con el poseedor en nmero , y en las tres personas del singular tambin en gnero. This book is mine = este libro es mo. The book, the pen, the pencils, and the rubbers are his =- el libro, la pluma, los lpices y las gomas son suyas (de l). NOTA: Se usa posesivo en vez de artculo delante de nombres de parte del cuerpo y de objetos particulares: I have hurt my finger = me he hecho dao en el dedo. I have lost my pen = he perdido la pluma. PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS Sujeto complemento posesivo Who = quien whom whose Which = que That = que se utilizan con las preposiciones que hacen al caso What = (lo) que que se utilizan con las preposiciones que hacen al caso Who se refiere siempre a personas o a cosas personificadas; which , a cosas inanimadas o a animales; that hace referencia, indistintamente, a personas, cosas y animales; whom suele traducirse por a quien, al que o que; whose, por de quien o cuyo. That is the girl who bought your book = esa es la chica que compr tu libro. This is the lady lo whont you sent the flowers = esta es la seora a quien mandaste las flores, Thi s is Mr. Smith, whose son you have already met = 22

este es el seor Smith, a cuyo hijo ya conoce usted. The books that you gave me are very nice = los libros que me diste son muy bonitos. The bird that sing so well is a canary = el pjaro que canta tan bien es un canario. The road which lay before us, was long and dark = el camino que se extenda ante nosotros era largo y oscuro. Tell him what you told me = dile lo que me dijiste. El relativo se omite en conversacin ordinaria cuando es complemento: This is the book (which) you gave me = este es el libro que me diste. Si est regido por preposicin , sta puede ponerse al final y omitirse o no el relativo, This is the man about whom I told you = este es el hombre del que te habl. This is the man whom I told you about This is the man I told you abut. Con that. la preposicin se pone necesariamente al final: I bought the book that you told me about = compr el libro del que me hablaste. PRONOMBRES INTERROGATIVOS Who? = )quin? : what? = )qu?; Which? = )cul? (tambin para personas con valor selectivo): whom? = )a quin? Who was that? = )quin era? What is this? = )qu es esto? Which is yours? = )cul es el tuyo? Which is your sister? = )cul es tu hermana? Whom are you talking to? = )con quin ests hablando? PRONOMBRES INDEFINIDOS someone =alguien anyone = alguien some = algunos others =otros many = muchos few = pocos 23

any = algunos all = todos each = cada (uno) one another = uno a otro otro

both = ambos another = otro enough = suficiente each other = el uno al

Como todo pronombre, el indefinido sustituye a un nombre: Has anyone come? = )ha venido alguien? Exceptuando one, none, one-another, eachother. tambin pueden ser adjetivos Come another day = ven otro da.

LA POSESIN
EL GENITIVO SAJN La posesin se expresa usualmente: I Por medio de 's aadida al sustantivo en singular, alterando el orden de la oracin como sigue: poseedor + 's + cosa poseda (sin artculo): My father's car is grey = el coche de mi padre es gris. La cosa poseda puede omitirse cuando hace referencia a algo citado anteriormente: The girl's shoes are white; the boy's are brown = los zapatos de la nia son blancos, los del nio son negros. II Por medio de un apstrofe solo aadido al nombre en plural si termina en -s o de 's aadido al nombre en plural que no termine en s: This is my brothers' room = esta es la habitacin de mis hermanos. These are my children's toys = estos son los juguetes de mis hijos. Este genitivo se usa nicamente con nombres que designen personas, animales o algunas instituciones o nombres personificados: Torn's sister = la hermana de Tom. My uncle's house = la casa de mi to. Spain's Airforce = la aviacin de Espaa. The cat's tail = la cola del gato. 24

Life=s difficulties = las dificultades de la vida. Pero diremos: The roof of the house = el tejado de la casa , porque el tejado forma parte de la casa pero no implica posesin. Las palabras house, church, shop, store , se omiten cuando el genitivo se refiere a ellas: I am going to my uncle's = voy a casa de mi to. I am at the tailor's = estoy en casa del sastre. This is St. (saint) Ann's = esta es la iglesia de santa Ana.

El verbo
Los verbos en ingls se dividen en dos grandes grupos o conjugaciones: I DBILES, o sea que forman el pasa o y el participio aadiendo el sufijo -ed al infinitivo. Si el infinitivo termina en e se aade slo d. Esta terminacin se ha debilitado en algunos verbos reducindose a -d o -t, con o sin cambio de la vocal de la raz: walk, walked, walked andar ; five, fived, lived = vivir. Este sufijo se pronuncia de distinta forma segn la terminacin del infinitivo al que se aade. Se pronuncia id, con una vocal breve y relajada, cuando sigue a t o a d: want, wanted, wanted; load, loaded, loaded: t, cuando el infinitivo termina en consonante sorda: walk, walked, walked; place, placed, placed . En todos los dems casos la terminacin ed se pronuncia como una simple -d. Si el infinitivo terminase en y precedida de consonante, se cambiar la y por i antes de aadir el sufijo -ed, que se pronunciar tambin -d: carry, carried, carried. II FUERTES : son los que forman el pasado nicamente por un cambio de la vocal de la raz y el participio de pasado tiene formas distintas, tomando, con frecuencia. el sufijo - en o -n como terminacin. Estos verbos pueden reunirse en varios grupos con el fin de facilitar su aprendi zaje, segn las formas de su pasado y participio: a To come, carne, come = venir 25

b c d e f g

Know, knew, known Hold. held, held Fall, fell, fallen Break, broke, broken Bite, bit, bitten Sing, sang, sung

= = = = = =

saber sostener caer romper morder cantar

Advirtase que es indispensable aprender las tres formas del verbo a la vez que su significado; de lo contrario, no se podr conjugar. AUXILIARES Los principales son: To have, para la formacin de los tiempos compuestos de pasado: I have seen your sister = he visto a tu hermana. Will, para formar el futuro: You will come, too = tu vendrs tambin. Would, para la formacin del condicional: You would like lo come with me = te gustara venir conmigo . Let. para la primera y tercera persona, singular y plural, del imperativo: Let us go! = (Vayamos! To be, para la forma progresiva y la voz pasiva: I am eating apples = estoy comiendo manzanas. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare = Hamlet fue escrito por Shakespeare. May, might, should y would , son auxiliares con valor de subjuntivo, que en ingls se emplea muy poco hoy en da. Estos verbos tienen su propio sentido como verbos, pero al emplearse como auxiliares modales lo cambian: John insisted that I should take the book = Juan insisti en que me llevase el libro. I wish you would not speak so much = quisiera que no hablases tanto. Give me that paper, that I may see it = dame ese papel, para que lo vea. El subjuntivo presente y pasado se conserva en el verbo ser - to be: 26

I wish you were here = quisiera que estuvieras aqu . Do y did son auxiliares para las, formas interrogativa y negativa, como veremos ms adelante. El condicional would presupone volicin o requerimiento corts: Would you? = )Querras? OBSERVACIONES GENERALES : I El verbo ingls no tiene terminaciones especiales para las distintas personas, exceptuando el sufijo -s [o -es si la raz (que es igual al infinitivo sin to) termina en s, -ss, sh, -ch, -x, -z], que se aade a la tercera persona del singular del presente de indicativo. Si el infinitivo termina en y precedida de consonante se cambia la y por i para aadir la terminacin -es. Los dems tiempos son siempre iguales, siguiendo esta regla y la dada anteriormente para el futuro, condicional e imperativo: He likes sweets = le gustan los dulces. He misses her = l la echa de menos. The porter carries the suitcases = el mozo lleva las maletas, II El verbo debe llevar necesariamente un sujeto explcito. En su defecto ir acompaado del respectivo pronombre: Charles has a dog = Carlos tiene un perro. He has a dog = (l) tiene un perro. Bill is coming now = Bill viene ahora. He is coming now = Viene ahora. A la tercera persona singular corresponden los tres pronombres he, she, it. La tercera persona plural es invariable y se traduce indistintamente por ellos, ellas. III El infinitivo est siempre precedido de to, excepto cuando es complemento de un verbo defectivo, de percepcin o de let, bid, make, y dare y need en negativo: I want to come = quiero venir. I made him come = le hice venir. I saw him come = le vi venir. Este to que acompaa al infinitivo no se traduce al espaol excepto cuando indica propsito o finalidad: 27

Pat came only to see me = Pat vino slo para veme. IV El subjuntivo apenas se emplea en ingls; en su lugar se emplean los auxiliares ya indicados. V El gerundio y el participio de presente se forman aadiendo la terminacin -ing al infinitivo: seeing = viendo ; eating = comiendo.

Interrogacin y negacin
FORMA INTERROGATIVA Con los verbos to be, to have, y los anmalos, se forma invirtiendo el orden de sujeto y verbo: Am I? = )Soy yo? Los tiempos compuestos invierten el orden de sujeto y auxiliar, quedando el pronombre entre auxiliar y verbo: Have you seen this? = )Has visto esto? La forma interrogativa de presente y pasado de los dems verbos se forma con el auxiliar do (does para la 30 pers. sing.) para el presente, y did para el pasado, que, respectivamente, se anteponen al pronombre al que sigue el verbo en infinitivo: Where do you live? = )Dnde vives? Did you see Mary? = )Viste a Mara? Observemos que con el auxiliar does en 30 persona sing. debe omitirse la -s del verbo: John comes here every day.= Juan viene aqu todos los das Does John come here...? = )Viene Juan aqu? FORMA NEGATIVA Los verbos to have, to be y los anmalos forman la negacin posponiendo not al verbo: I am not a Doctor = no soy mdico. En los tiempos compuestos se intercala not entre el auxiliar y el verbo: 28

I will not come to-morrow = no vendr maana. El presente y pasado de los dems verbos se forma intercalando do not (does not en 30 persona sing.) para el presente, y did not para el pasado entre sujeto y verbo: I do not want it = no lo quiero. He did not see me = no me vio. He does not like pears = no le gustan las peras (obsrvese el infinitivo sin to con el auxiliar does). El imperativo negativo se construye tambin con do, incluso el verbo ser to be: Don't shut the door = (no cierres la puerta! Don't be afraid = no tengas miedo. La forma interrogativa-negativa combina las dos anteriores: Am I not your friend? = )no soy tu amigo? TO BE = Ser, Estar

Indicativo
Presente futuro I am you are have been he is we are you are have been they are have been Pasado futuro perfecto I was I will be I will have been you were you will be you will he was he will be he will have been we were we will be we will have been you were you will be you will they were they will be they will

Pasado perfecto Pret. pluscuam condicional cond. perfecto I have been I had been I would be I would have been you have been you had been you would be you would have been he has been he had been he would be he would have been we have been we had been we would be we would have been 29

you have been you had been you would be you would have been they have been they had been they would be they would have been INTERROGATIVA Presente: NEGATIVA Am I? I Pasado: am not was I? I was not have been? I Pret. plusc.: have been had been? I had been Futuro: I be? I will not be would I be? I would not be will I have been? I will not 30 not will not I

Pret. perfecto:

Condicional:

Fut. perfecto:

have been I would not have been Gerundio: being; Part. presente: being; Part. pasado: been Cond. perfecto: would I have been? TO HAVE = Tener, Haber

Indicativo
Presente futuro I have you have he has we have have had you have they have Pasado futuro perfecto I had I will have I will have had you had you will have you will have had he had he will have he will have had we had we will have we will you had they had you will have you will have had they will have they will have had

Pasado perfecto Pret. pluscuam condicional cond. perfecto I have had I had had I would have I would have had you have had you had had you would haveyou would have had he has had he had had he would have he would have had we have had we had had we would have we would have had you have had you had had you would haveyou would have had they have had they had had they would have they would have had

INTERROGATIVA Presente:

NEGATIVA have I?

Pasado:

I have not had I? I had not have had?

Pret. perfecto:

I 31

Pret. plusc.:

I have not had had I had? I had had not will have? I

Futuro: I

Condicional:

will have would have?

not I

I would not have Fut. perfecto: will I have had? I will not have had Cond. perfecto:would I have been? I would not have had Gerundio: having; Part. presente: having; Part. pasado: had

Modelo verbo dbil

TO WORK = Trabajar

INDICATIVO
Presente Pas ado 32

Fut uro I work I wor ked I will wor k you work you wor ked you will wor k he works he wor ked he will wor k we work we wor 33

ked we will wor k you work you wor ked you will wor k they work the y wor ked the y will wor k Pret. perfecto Pret . Plus cua mp. Fut uro 34

I have worked you have worked he has worked

I had worked

perf ect o I will have worked you had worked you will have worked he had wor ked he will hav e wor ked we had wor ked we will hav e wor ked had worked you will worked had worked they will worked

we have worked

you have worked they have worked

you have they have

Concicional Condi. 35

perfecto

I would work

Subjuntivo I would have worked I work you would have worked you work he would have worked he work

you would work

he would work

we would work

we would have worked we work you would have worked we work they would have worked

you would work

they would work

they work Subjuntivo pasado: if I worked, if you worked, etc. (todo igual) 36

Imperativo: Let me work, work, let him work, etc. Part. pasado: worked; Partic. presente: working; Gerundio: working

Modelo verbo fuerte INDICATIVO

Presente Pas ado

Fut uro I give I gav e

I will giv e you give you gav e you will giv e he gives 37

he gav e

he will giv e we give we gav e we will giv e you give you gav e you will giv e they give the y gav e the 38

y will giv e Pret. perfecto Pret . Plus cua mp. Fut uro perf ect o I have given I had giv en I will hav e giv en you have given you had giv en you will 39

hav e giv en he has given he had giv en he will hav e giv en we have given we had giv en we will hav e giv en you have given you had giv en you will hav 40

e giv en they have given the y had giv en the y will hav e giv en Concicional Con di. perf ect o Sub junt ivo I would give I wou ld hav e giv en I 41

giv e you would give you wou ld hav e giv en you giv e he would give he wou ld hav e giv en he giv e we would give we wou ld hav e giv en we giv e you would give 42

you wou ld hav e giv en we giv e give the y wou ld hav e giv en the y giv e Subj. pasado: if I gave, if you gave, etc (todo igual) Imperativo: let me give, let him give, etc. Part pasado: given; Part. presente: giving; Gerundio: giving

they

would

Modelos forma interrogativa

TO WORK = trabajar Presente Pas ado 43

Fut uro do I work? did I wor k? will I wor k? do you work? did you wor k? will you wor k? does he work? did he wor k? will he wor k? do we work? 44

did we wor k? will we wor k? do you work? did you wor k? will you wor k? do they work? did the y wor k? will the y wor k? Pret. perfecto Pret pul scu 45

am p. Fut uro perf ect o I

have I worked?

have you worked? has he worked?

have we worked? have you worked? have they worked?

had worked? will I have worked? had you worked? will you have worked? had he worked? will he have worked? had we worked? will we have worked? had you worked? will you have worked? had they worked? will they have worked?

Condicional Condicional perfecto would I work? would you work? would he work? would we work? would I have worked? would you have worked? would he have worked? would we 46

would you work? would they work?

have worked? would you have worked? would they have worked?

TO GIVE = dar Presente Pas ado

Fut uro do I give? did I giv e? will I giv e? do you give? did you giv e? will you giv e? 47

does he give? did he giv e? will he giv e? do we give? did we giv e? will we giv e? do you give? did you giv e? will you giv e? do they give? did the y giv e? 48

will the y giv e? Pret. perfecto Pret pul scu am p. Fut uro perf ect o have I given? had I giv en? will I hav e giv en? had you giv en? will 49

have you given?

you hav e giv en? has he given? had he giv en? will he hav e giv en? have we given? had we giv en? will we hav e giv en? had you giv en? will you hav e 50

have you given?

have they given?

giv en? had the y giv en? will the y hav e giv en?

Condicional Condicional perfecto would I have given? would you have given? would he have given? would we have given? would you have given? would they have given?

would I give? would you give? would he give? would we give? would you give? would they give?

Modelos forma negativa

TO WORK = trabajar Presente Pas ado 51

Fut uro I do not work I did not wor k I will not wor k you did not wor k you will not wor k he did not wor k he will not wor k we do not work 52

you do not work

he does not work

we did not wor k we will not wor k you did not wor k you will not wor k work the y did not wor k the y will not wor k
Pretrito perfecto Pret rit o

you do not work

they

do

not

53

pus cua mp. Futu ro perf ecto I had not worked I will not have worked you had not worked you will not have worked he had not worked he will not have worked we had not worked we will not have worked you had not worked you will not have worked they had not worked they will not have worked

I have not worked you have not worked he has not worked we have not worked you have not worked they have not worked

Condicional I would not work you would not work he would not work we would not work you would not work they would not work Condicional perfecto I would not have worked you would not have worked he would not have worked we would not have worked you would not have worked they would not have worked

Imperativo: do not work = no trabajes, no trabajis

54

TO GIVE = dar Presente Pas ado

Fut uro I do not give I did not giv e I will not giv e you do not give you did not giv e you will not giv e he did not giv 55

he does not give

e he will not giv e we do not give we did not giv e we will not giv e you did not giv e you will not giv e give the y did not giv e the 56

you do not give

they

do

not

y will not giv e Pretrito perfecto Pret rit o pus cua mp. Fut uro perf ect o I had not given I will not have given you had not given you will not have given he had not given he will not have given we had not given we will not have given you had not given you will not have given they had not given they will not have given Condicional perfecto 57

I have not given

you have not given he has not given we have not given you have not given they have not given

Condicional

I would not give have given you would not give he would not give we would not give you would not give they would not give

I would not you not have given he not have given we not have given you not have given they not have given would would would would would

Imperativo: do not give = no des, no dis

Forma progresiva
Observaciones Se forma con to be + participio de presente . Expresa una accin que empieza antes, contina y termina despus de un lapso de tiempo: What are you doing? = )qu haces? I am eating an apple = estoy comiendo una manzana. La forma progresiva se usa ms que en espaol, y especialmente en presente, ofrece un aspecto totalmente distinto del presente simple: ste expresa una accin habitual, repetida, o una verdad universal; aqul, una accin en proceso de realizacin, algo que est pasando: I go to England every Summer = Voy a Inglaterra todos los veranos. Where are you going? = )A dnde vas? I am going home = Voy a casa. El pasado progresivo equivale con frecuencia al imperfecto espaol: When I was going to the pictures. = Cuando iba al cine She was wearing a blue dress = Llevaba un traje azul. 58

Modelo de forma progresiva TO EAT = Comer INDICATIVO Presente I am eating eating you are eating eating he is eating eating we are eating eating, you are eating eating they are eating eating Futuro : I will be eating. Condicional: I would be eating. Pret. perf.: I have been eating. Pret. plusc. I had bcen eating. Fut. perf.: I will have been eating. Cond. perf.: I would haye been eating. Las formas interrogativas y negativas siguen la regla general: INTERROGATIVA: Am I eating?; was I eating?; will I be eating?, etc. NEGATIVA: I am not eating; I was not eating; I will not be eating: I have not been eating. They were you were we were he was you were Pasado I was

Verbos defectivos
CAN MAY MUST Presente I can = puedo I may = puedo 59

you can, etc. he can we can you can they can Pasado I could you could he could we could you could they could Pasado I might you might he might we might you might they might

I must = debo you may, etc. you must = etc. he may he must we may we must you may you must they may they must

MUST carece de pasado. Los tiempos que le faltan se expresan con to have to = tener que. CAN indica facultad, capacidad para hacer algo; slo tiene presente y pasado. Los tiempos que le faltan se sustituyen por to be able to = ser capaz: Come if you can = ven si puedes. Can you speak English? = )sabes hablar ingls? Will he be able to do it? = )podr hacerlo? MAY indica posibilidad o permiso . Slo tiene presente y pasado: los tiempos de que carece se forman con to be allowed to = permitir: I could not come = no pude venir. May I come in? = )puedo entrar? Will you be allowed to come? = )te permitirn venir? I can y I may se traducen por puedo pero no son intercambiables. ADVIRTASE que: 60

I No toman la -s caracterstica de la tercera persona del singular. II La forma interrogativa y negativa se forman, respectivamente, invirtiendo el orden de sujeto y verbo y posponiendo la negacin al verbo. III Llevan siempre un complemento en infinitivo sin to: Must implica obligacin ineludible: You must go at once = debes ir en seguida.

Formas contractas
AFIRMATIVO: En la lengua hablada, los auxiliares se contraen, generalmente, con el pronombre y con la negacin. A continuacin damos una lista de las contracciones ms usuales: I=m = I am; you're = you are; he's = he is; we're = we are; they're = they are. I=ve = I have; you've = you have; we've =we have; they've = they have. I=ll = I will (contraccin de los auxiliares de futuro). l'd = I would (contraccin de los auxiliares de condicional). NEGATIVO: isn't = is not; aren't = are not (la 10 persona se contrae: I=m not). haven't = have not; has't = has not. wasn't = was not; weren't = were not; hadn't = had not. won't = will not. don't = do not; doesn't = does not; didn't = did not. can't = cannot; could't = could not; mightn't = might not.

El subjuntivo
61

El subjuntivo se emplea muy poco en ingls. Los aspectos del subjuntivo, los llamados tiempos de imaginacin, se forman por medio de auxiliares. El subjuntivo propiamente dicho se conserva en el pasado del verbo ser: If I were rich I would not be here = si fuera rico no estara aqu. El subjuntivo, o sus equivalentes, se emplea para expresar: I Un deseo: I wish you were here = quisiera que estuvieras aqu. II Una condicin: If I saw her, I would tell her = si la viera se lo dira. III Un propsito: I gave you that ball so that you might play = te di esa pelota para que jugaras. I don't tell you my secret lest you tell him = no te digo mi secreto para que no se lo digas. No obstante, se emplea el indicativo cada vez ms.

La voz pasiva
La pasiva se emplea ms que en espaol. Se forma como en espaol con el auxiliar to be y el participio pasado del verbo que se conjuga. El complemento de la oracin activa pasa a sujeto de la pasiva, y el sujeto de la activa se puede conservar como sujeto agente: 1. Active to passive: struture E.g. My brother bought a computer. (active) subject object

A computer was bought by my brother. (passive) subject agent

62

2. passive

Phrasal

verbs,

verbs

preposition

and

E.g. He cut all the vegetables up. (active) The vegetables are all cut up.(passive) 3. Modal verbs and passive E.g. My sister must read a lot of books. (active) A lot of books must be read by my sister. (passive) modal + passive infinitive 4. Special constructions 4.1. subject + verb + direct object + indirect object / indirect object + direct object E.g. My parents gave me a present / a present to me (active) I.O. D.O. D.O. I.O. A present was given to me by my parents. (passive 1) I was given a present by my parents. (passive 2) 4.2. People / They + SAY, BELIEVE, THINK... + that... E.g.: a) (Active) It is believed (that) he is ill. (Passive 1) He is believed to be ill. (passive 2) subject infinitive from verb that-clouse that-clouse b) People said that he was rich. It was said that he was rich He was said / to have been rich to be rich. People believe (that) he is ill.

Modelo de voz pasiva

TO BE SEEN = Ser visto 63

Presente I am seen you are seen he is seen we are seen you are seen thev are seen

Pretrito perfecto I have been seen you have been seen he has been seen we have been seen you have been seen they have been seen Futuro I will be seen you will be seen he will be seen we will be seen you will be seen they will be seen

Pasado I was seen you were seen he was seen we were seen you were seen they were seen Pret. plusc.: they had been seen. Condicional: they would be seen. Futuro perf.: I will have been seen. Cond. perf.: I would have been seen.

PRONOMBRES REFLEXIVOS Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves yourselves, themselves = me, te, se, nos, os, se. I wash myself = yo me lavo, etc.

Verbos impersonales
Los verbos impersonales se conjugan slo en 30 persona, con el pronombre neutro it y en algunos casos un complemento personal en acusativo, Se traducen por un reflexivo: lt worries me = me preocupa. It annoys him very much = le molesta mucho. 64

It hurts! - ((me) duele! It does not worry me any more = ya no me preocupa. Does it hurt? - )duele? Hay tambin una forma impersonal con it + to be, y otra con valor impersonal introducida por el pronombre one = uno: It as he who rang = fue l quien llam . One never can tell = no se sabe nunca El verbo to be impersonal se conjuga con el adverbio there en lugar de it: There are many trees in the garden = hay muchos rboles en el jardn. THERE IS = Hay INDICATIVO Presente: there Pasado: there Prel. perf.: there Pret. plusc.: Futuro: Condicional: Fut. perf.: Cond. perf.:

there is (sing.) are (plur.) there was (sing.) were (plur.) there has been have been there had been there will be there would be there will have been there would have been

SUBJUNTIVO Presente: if there be Pasado: if there were Imperativo: let there be Forma interr. : is there; was there?, etc. Forma neg.: there is not; there was not, etc El verbo impersonal there is se conjuga en 30 persona sing. y plur. (en espaol slo en singular). OBSRVESE que en la mayora de los tiempos tiene slo una forma: There will be many people at home = habr mucha 65

gente en casa.

Verbos impersonales atmosfricos

TO RAIN = Llover Presente Pasado Futuro it rains it rained it will rain Prer. plusc. Fut. perfecto it had rained it will have rained

Pret. perfecto it has rained

Condicional Con dic. perf ecto Part. pres. : raini ng it woul d have raine d Part. pas.: raine 66

it would rain

d OBSERVACIONES: Estos verbos se conjugan slo en tercera persona singular; su forma interrogativa y negativa es regular: Does it rain much in London? = )Llueve mucho en Londres? Is it raining, now? = )llueve ahora? Se conjugan de igual manera: to lighten = relampaguear to thunder = tronar to hail = granizar to drizzle = lloviznar to pour = diluviar to freeze = helar to snow = nevar ADVIRTANSE las estructuras siguientes: There is a drought = hay sequa it is fine = hace buen tiempo It is hot = hace calor it is warm = hace calor (buen tiempo) it is cold = hace fro It is windy = hace viento lt is cloudy = est nublado it is misty = hay neblina it is foggy = hay niebla is it very cold in London? = )hace fro en Londres? I am very cold = tengo mucho fro. it was very hot yesterdav = hizo mucho calor ayer. I am shivering = estoy temblando de fro.

El infinitivo
El infinitivo puede emplearse como sujeto y como complemento: To swim is a good exercise = nadar es un buen ejercicio. I love to sing = me gusta mucho cantar, El infinitivo puede a su vez llevar un complemento que indique propsito. En este caso la preposicin to que 67

precede al infinitivo y que no suele traducirse, se traduce por a o para: They went to the cinema to see *Gone with the wind+ = fueron al cine a ver *Lo que el viento se llev+. Send me that painting to see if I like it = mndame ese cuadro para ver si me gusta. Con verbos de voluntad o deseo, el subjuntivo suele traducirse al ingls por infinitivo: Do you want me to bring the car? = )Quieres que traiga el coche?

El participio
EL PARTICIPIO DE PASADO Adems de emplearse para la formacin de los tiempos compuestos, se usa como calificativo: My father is a retired Doctor = mi padre es mdico retirado . Bill is a spoilt child = Bill es un nio mimado . EL PARTICIPIO DE PRESENTE , adems de su funcin verbal, puede usarse como calificativo: lt's washing day = es da de colada. EL GERUNDIO , adems de su funcin verbal - = I saw George runing downstairs = vi a Jorge corriendo escaleras abajo - puede ser sujeto y complemento de un verbo: Crying will not help you = el llorar no te servir de nada . I hate going out when it rains = detesto salir cuando llueve.

El adverbio
In = dentro despus always= siempre already = ya dentro late = tarde outside = fuera rather = bastante out = fuera never = nunca afterwards= for = para inside =

how = cmo ever = alguna vez early = temprano very = 68

muy seldom = raras veces here = aqu hace (tiempo ) often = a menudo so = as soon = pronto only = solamente quiz near = cerca then = entonces demasiado yes = s above = sobre = ahora almost = casi below = debajo tambin little = poco quite = bastante where = donde = bien still, yet = todava when = cuando

ago

there = all perharps = too = now also no = = no weIl

OBSERVACIONES: El adverbio puede modificar: a al verbo; b al adjetivo; c a otro adverbio: a He came quickly = vino deprisa . b Bill is very tall = Bill es muy alto. c She sings very well = canta muy bien . Puede modificar tambin toda una oracin: Fortunately, he never comes = afortunadamente, nunca viene. COLOCACIN: I Sigue al verbo con su complemento. Si ste fuera corto puede anteponersele. Si no hay complemento, sigue inmediatamente al verbo. II Precede al adverbio y al adjetivo: Jim walks quicky = Jim anda deprisa . Bill took his hat off and put his coat en = Bill se quit el sombrero y se puso el abrigo. He arrived too soon = lleg demasiado pronto . You are very kind = es usted muy amable . 69

NOTA: Los adverbios always = siempre, never = nunca , ever = alguna vez. sometimes = a veces, usually =usualmente , seldom = pocas veces, often = a menudo , scarcely = apenas , se colocan antes del verbo: He never writes = nunca escribe . Si el verbo es compuesto, e pone entre el auxiliar v el verbo: I have never been to England = nunca he estado en Inglaterra .

La preposicin
About = sobre against = contra among = entre near = cerca de beside = junto a until = hasta till = hasta at = a, en to = a, hacia on = encima de over = sobre above = sobre under = debajo after = despus up = arriba across = a travs before = antes behind = detrs between = entre with = con without = sin by = por for =para from = de, desde of = de but = pero in = en into = dentro de

USOS de algunas preposiciones: To: indica direccin, movimiento hacia un lugar: He went to the Post Office = fue a Correos. At: localizacin o posicin: I found him at home = le encontr en casa. At two o'clock = a las 2. In: situacin en un lugar: We are in the house = estamos en la casa . He is in the arrny = est en el ejrcito . Into: movimiento hacia y reposo en un lugar: Mary walked into the room = Mara entr en la 70

habitacin. From: origen, punto de partida A letter from my brother = una carta de mi hermano. He comes from London = viene de Londres. Of: se traduce por de sin idea de movimiento: The box is made of wood = la caja est hecha de madera. The door of the room = la puerta de la habitacin. On: posicin encima de (con contacto): The glasses are on the table = los vasos estn encima de la mesa. Over: encima (sin contacto): The lamp hungs over the table = la lmpara est colgada sobre la mesa. Above: superioridad fsica, moral: Write your name above mine = escribe tu nombre encima del mo. For: finalidad, lapso de tiempo: This is for you = esto es para usted. I=ve been here for an hour = hace una hora que estoy aqu.

La conjuncin
CONJUNCIONES COORDINATIVAS Son las que unen oraciones de la misma categora. Las principales son: and = y now = ahora bien but = pero still, yet = no obstante, sin embargo only = slo que while = mientras then = entonces so, so then = as que, por tanto for = pues either... or = o... o neither... nor = ni... ni however = no obstante therefore = por lo tanto nevertheless = sin embargo 71

Ejemplos: Either you cat that cake or I=ll eat it myself = o te comes ese pastel o me lo como yo . I am going home and you are coming, too = me voy a casa y t tambin vienes . CONJUNCIONES SUBORDINATIVAS Son las que unen una oracin principal y una subordinada. Las ms usuales son: that = que because (of) = porque since = ya que, puesto que as = pues, como so that = a fin de que lest = para (que) no if = si unless = a menos que as if = como si (al)though = aunque while = en tanto que until = hasta que as if = como si when = cuando why = porque (la razn de) in order that = a fin de que whether... or = si... o You can come after you've finished your homework = puedes venir despus que hayas terminado la leccin. You musn't speak unless you are asked = no debes hablar a menos que te pregunten. Reported Speech Previous notions The reported speech basically consists on reporting what somebody has said without repeating the same words. When the Areporting verb@ is in a present or future tense there is no changes of tenses in the reported verb. 1) STATEMENTS: (Facts, opinions explanations, complains, etc) - Reporting verbs: Tell, say, add, argue, explain, complain, ... 72

- Basic structure: S + reporting verb + (THAT) + S + reported verb - Tense changes (when the reporting verb is in a past tense): Present Simple --------------------------------Past Simple Present Continuous ----------------------------Past Continuous Present Perfect Simple ------------------------Past Perfect Simple Present Perfect Continuous ----------------- Past Perfect Continuous Past Simple ------------------------------------Past Perfect Simple Past Continuous --------------------------------Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Simple ---------------------------- Past Perfect Simple WILL -------------------------------------------WOULD CAN --------------------------------------------COULD MAY -------------------------------------------MIGHT MUST / HAVE TO ---------------------------HAD TO SHOULD / COULD ---------------------------no change WOULD / MIGHT ---------------------------no change Ex.: Peter: AI was at home yesterday@ Peter said (THAT) he had been at home the day before Mary: AI cannot do it, John@ Mary told John (THAT) she couldn =t do it. 2) COMMANDS: (Order, advice, request, invitation, etc.) - Reporting verbs: Tell, ask, invite, advise, instruct, ... - Basic structure: S + reporting verb + TO + INF. Ex.: Mary: APass me the salt, Peter@ (Direct Speech) Mary asked/told Peter TO pass her the salt (Reported Speech) ADon=t do it again@ John said to his son (Direct Speech) John told his son not TO do it again (Reported Speech) 3) QUESTIONS: 73

A) AYes/No@ questions : (The only possible answer is eitherYES or NO) Reporting verb: ask, enquire, want to know, wonder... Basic structure: S + reporting verb + IF + S + reported verb (with the usual change of tenses if necessary) Ex: Susan: ADid you go to school yesterday?@ Susan asked me IF I had been to school the day before. B) AWH-A questions: (The questios are made with a Aquestion word: who,what,how...?) Reporting verb: ask,enquire,wonder,want to know... Basic structure: S + reporting verb + QUESTION WORD + S + reported verb (with the usual change of tenses if necessary). Ex.: Sheila: AWhere will you live? Sheila wanted to know WHERE I would live. 4) OTHER CHANGES: - Time and place references must change if it is necessary: Now --------------------------------->then Today ------------------------------->that day Yesterday -------------------------->the day before, the previous day Tomorrow ------------------------->the next\following day Next week\month -------------->the following\next week\month Last week\month ---------------->the previous\last week\month A week\month ago ------------->the week\month before This\these ------------------------->that\those Here --------------------------------> there Also the logical changes when there is a change of person I -------------------------------------------> he\she You --------------------------------------> I\we My ---------------------------------------> his\her THE MONTHS OF THE YEAR = Los meses del ao January = enero July = julio February = febrero August - agosto 74

March = marzo April =abril May = mayo June = junio

September = septiembre October = octubre November = noviembre December = diciembre

OBSERVACIONES: Los meses del ao se escriben siempre con mayscula. Con frecuencia estn precedidos inmediatamente de los adjetivos next prximo , y last, pasado: Richard came to Spain last May = Ricardo vino a Espaa el (mes de) mayo pasado. I am going to England next: January = voy a Inglaterra el prximo enero. THE DAYS OF THE WEEK = Los das de la semana Sunday = domingo Wednesday = mircole s Monday = lunes Thursday = jueves Tuesday = martes Friday = viernes Saturday = sbado OBSERVACIONES: En Inglaterra, el primer da de la semana es el domingo. Los das se escriben siempre con mayscula y no se les antepone el artculo: Sunday is a holiday = el domingo es fiesta. Cuando se quiere especificar ms el da se le antepone on: I am going on Monday and coming back on Saturday = me voy el lunes y vuelvo el sbado. Tambin puede anteponrseles next y last: Next Friday is my birthday = el viernes prximo es mi cumpleaos . Last Tuesday I went to the pictures = el martes pasado fui al cine. Obsrvense las expresiones siguientes: Yesterday = ayer To-morrow = maana Every other day = das alternos Every two days = cada dos das Weekly = semanalmente 75

Montlfly = mensualmente Quarterly = trimestralmente Sunday school = escuela dominical THE SEASONS = Las estaciones Spring = primavera Summer = verano Autumn = otoo Winter = invierno OBSERVACIONES: I Se escriben siempre con mayscula. II Contrariamente al espaol, no van precedidas de artculo. III Con frecuencia van precedidas de last = pasado = next = prximo , in = en: Last Summer I went to Paris = el verano pasado fui a Pars. I will spend next Autumn in England = pasar el prximo otoo en Inglaterra . It is cold in winter = hace fro en invierno . THE POINTS OF THE COMPASS (brjula) (Los puntos cardinales) North = norte East = este South = sur West = oeste Observaciones: I No llevan artculo antepuesto. II Se les puede aadir las terminaciones -ern y -wards, la primera para formar un adjetivo y la segunda para indicar direccin: The westem countries of Europe = los pases occidentales de Europa I am going northwards = voy hacia el norte. HOLIDAYS Christmas Eve = Noche Buena Christmas Day = da de Navidad New Year's Eve = da de fin de ao New Year's Day = da de Ao Nuevo Easter = Pascua de Resurreccin Pentecost = Pentecosts Holy Thursday = Jueves Santo 76

Good Friday = Viernes Santo ADVIRTANSE las expresiones: I am going to the sea-side for a holiday = Voy a la playa a pasar unas vacaciones. Tomorrow is a holiday = Maana es fiesta. THE TIME = La hora Hay dos palabras para decir reloj; el reloj de mueca o bolsillo = watch, y el de pared o mesa, que se llama clock. Un despertador es un alarm clock. La hora se expresa con relacin al meridiano. As, todas las horas a partir de la hora 0, es decir, desde la una de la madrugada hasta. las once de la maana irn seguidas de las iniciales a,m (ante meridiem); y a partir de las doce del medioda hasta las once de la noche, de p.m. (post meridiem). Despus de la hora exacta, suele aadirse la palabra o'clock, abreviacin de of the clock. *)Qu hora es? = What time is it? Advirtase que en la respuesta se emplea siempre el verbo en singular: it,s (it is) two o'clock = son las dos. lt's four o'clock = son las cuatro. Las doce del medioda suele decirse midday o noon; las de la noche, midnight; raramente se dice twelve. Los minutos que pasan de la hora, es decir, a la derecha del reloj, se expresan aadiendo past = y; y los que faltan para la siguiente to = menos , seguidas de la palabra minutes, que puede omitirse: It=s ten (minutes) past two = son las dos y diez. lt's five (minutes) to four = son las cuatro menos cinco. Obsrvese que los minutos que pasan de la hora se ponen en primer lugar y la hora, en segundo. La media hora se dice half y el cuarto, a quarter: lt's half past five = son las cinco y media. lt's a quarter past four = son las cuatro y cuarto. it's a quarter to six = son las seis menos cuarto. Como en espaol, en horarios oficiales y guas, se emplea la 77

hora separada de los minutos por un punto. Pero no se dice *las catorce + o *las quince + porque se emplea a.m. y p.m., como ya indicamos: at 2.30 p.m. = a las 14.30 h at 9.45 a.m. = a las 9.45 h. AGE = La edad La edad no se expresa como en espaol por medio del verbo tener, sino con el verbo to be (ser) + nmero de aos + old (viejo): Peter is sixteen years old = Pedro tiene diecisis aos. I will be eighteen next May = cumplir dieciocho aos el prximo mayo . La terminacin -teen de los nmeros comprendidos entre el trece - thirteen y el diecinueve = nineteen, se emplean en ingls para referirse a la adolescencia hasta cumplir los veinte aos. As se dice: Bill and Pat are in their teens. refirindose a que pasan de los doce aos y an no han cumplido los veinte. La palabra teenager tiene el mismo significado: She is a teenager = es una jovencita. Advirtanse las expresiones: I was born on May the l8th, so, my birthday is next week = nac el 18 de mayo, por tanto mi cumpleaos es la semana prxima. GREETINGS = Saludos Cuando se presenta a dos personas, en lugar de la frmula espaola *mucho gusto+ o *encantado+, para saludar a una persona se le dice: How are you? = )Cmo est usted? Advirtanse las expresiones siguientes: Hello! = (hola! Good-bye = adis. I=ll call you = te telefonear . See you soon = hasta pronto . FELICITACIONES Por Navidad y Ao Nuevo suele decirse: 78

Merry Christmas = felices Navidades. TO BE, TO HAVE, TO LOOK Usos especiales HEALTH = la salud Para preguntar por la salud de una persona enferma se suele decir: How are you feeling today? = )Cmo se encuentra usted hoy? La respuesta suele ser: I am very well; o bien: I are not very well; o bien: I am not feeling very well; I am better; I am worse. Expresiones idiomticas sobre la salud con los verbos to be, to have, to look: To have a cold = tener un resfriado . To hava a chill = tener un enfriamiento. To have a toothache = tener dolor de muelas. To have a sore throat = tener dolor de garganta. To have measles = tener el sarampin. To have tonsilitis = tener anginas . To have a headache = tener dolor de cabeza. To be ill = estar enfermo. To be sick = estar enfermo, estar mareado . To be in good health = gozar de buena salud. To be run down = estar agotado (fisiolgicamente). To be tired = estar cansado . You look well = tienes buen aspecto. You look ill = pareces enfermo . You look pale = ests plido. You look tired = pareces cansado. NAME AND ADDRESS = Nombre y direccin Para preguntar y decir el nombre se emplea la estructura: What is your name? = )Cmo te llamas? ()Cul es tu nombre?). My name is Peter = me llamo Pedro (mi nombre es Pedro). Delante de un apellido o de nombre y apellido se emplea: Mr. = seor; Mrs. = seora; Miss -seorita; pero nunca se les antepone el artculo: I have met Mrs. Williams = he encontrado a la seora Williams. 79

La direccin se expresa as: Where do you live? = )Dnde vive usted? I live at number 5, Oxford Strect = vivo en la calle de Oxford, nmero 5. COUNTRIES AND NATIONALITY = Pases y nacionalidad Los adjetivos de nacionalidad sustantivados tienen plural, pero los adjetivos no (vase plurales). Algunos nombres terminados en -man forman el plural aadiendo -s porque la terminacin -man no corresponde a la traduccin hombre: Three Germans and two Normans = tres alemanes y dos normandos. Pero: Three Englishmen and two Frenchmen = tres ingleses y dos franceses. He is English but she is French = l es ingls pero ella es francesa. Los adjetivos de nacionalidad tienen, en general, la misma forma que el nombre: The English are polite = los ingleses son corteses (nombre). I=ve bought an English novel = he comprado una novela inglesa (adj.). I am reading a Geman newspaper = Estoy leyendo un peridico alemn. Siguiendo estas reglas, diremos en femenino: an Englishwoman, a Spanish girl, a French lady. Son excepcin los nombres que tienen una forma especial: Swede (sust.) = sueco, Swedish (adj,). Pole (sust.) = polaco, Polish (adj.). Spaniard (sust.) = espaol, Spanish (adj.). Dane (sust.) = dans, Danish (adj.). El idioma se expresa con los mismos adjetivos: I can speak English and Spanish = hablo ingls y 80

espaol. Obsrvese que los adjetivos de nacionalidad se escriben con mayscula. LOS CONTINENTES Y ALGUNOS PASES Europe = Europa Asia = Asia Italia America = Amrica Australia = Australia Africa = frica England = Inglaterra Denmark = Dinamarca France = Francia Germany = Alemania CAPITALES IMPORTANTES: London = Londres Madrid = Madrid Rome = Roma New York = Nueva York Paris = Pars Moscow = Mosc Spain = Espaa Italy =

Sweden = Suecia Portugal = Portugal Austria = Austria Belgium = Blgica Holland = Holanda Greece = Grecia Norway = Noruega Antwerp = Amberes Geneva = Ginebra

LISTA DE VERBOS FUERTES Y DBILES IRREGULARES

infinitive or present abide be / am is are arise awake past abode was were arose awoke perfect participle abode been arisen awoke Spanish permanecer ser estar surgir despertar 81

bear (bring forth) bear (carry) beat become begin bend bet bid bind bite bleed bless break breed bring build burn burst buy cast catch choose cling clothe come cost creep cut deal dig do draw

bore bore beat became began bent bet bid bound bit bled blest broke bred brought built burned or burnt burst bought cast caught chose clung clad came cost crept cut dealt dug did drew

born borne beaten or beat become begun bent bet bid or bidden bound bitten or bit bled blest broken or broke bred brought built burned or burnt burst bought cast caught chosen clung clad come cost crept cut dealt dug done drawn

dar a luz llevar, cargar golpear convertirse empezar encorvar, doblar apostar mandar atar morder, picar sangrar bendecir romper criar llevar construir quemar reventar, estallar comprar echar coger, atrapar elegir adherirse, pegarse vestir venir costar moverse con sigilo cortar llegar a un acuerdo cavar hacer arrastrar 82

dream drive dwell eat fall feed feel fight find flee fling fly forget forsake freeze get give go grind grow hang hang (execute) have has hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know lay lead

dreamt drove dwell ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forgot forsook froze got gave went ground grew hung hanged had heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt knit knew laid led

dreamt driven dwelt eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forgotten or forgot forsaken frozen got or gotten given gone ground grown hung hanged had heard hidden or hid hit held hurt kept knelt knit known laid led

dibujar.. soar conducir morar comer caer alimentar sentir luchar encontrar huir arrojar, lanzar volar olvidar dejar, abandonar congelar tener, tomar dar ir moler, pulverizar crecer, incrementar colgar ahorcar, ejecutar tener or ocultar, esconder golpear retener herir, doler mantener arrodillarse tejer saber dejar, poner guiar, conducir 83

lean leap learn leave lend let lie (recline) light load lose make mean meet mow pass pay plead put quit read rend rid ride ring rise run saw say see seek set sew shake

leant leapt learnt left lent let lay lit loaded lost made meant met mowed past paid plead or pled put quit read rent rid rode rang or rung rose ran sawed said saw sought set sewed shook

leant leapt learnt left lent let lain lit laden lost made meant met mown past paid plead or pled put quit read rent rid ridden or rode rung risen run sawn said seen sought set sewed or sewn shaken

apoyarse, reclinar saltar aprender marcharse prestar dejar, permitir acostarse reclinarse iluminar cargar en perder hacer significar encontrarse cortar (el pasto) pasar pagar suplicar poner dejar de rajarse leer cortar librarse de montar, viajar.. sonar, timbrar levantarse correr serrar decir ver buscar colocar, fijar coser agitar, temblar 84

shed shine shoot show shred shrink shut sing sink sit slay sleep sling slink slit sow (scatter) speak speed spend spin spit split spoil spread spring stand steal stick sting stride strike string

shed shone shot showed shred shrunk or shrank shut sang or sung sank or sunk sat slew slept slung slunk slit sowed spoke sped spent spun spit split spoilt spread sprang or sprung stood stole stuck stung strode struck strung

shed shone shot shown shred shrunk or shrunken shut sung sunk sat slain slept slung slunk slit sown spoken sped spent spun spit split spoilt spread sprung stood stolen stuck stung stridden struck or stricken strung

derramar brillar disparar mostrar, exhibir hacer trizas encoger cerrar cantar hundir sentarse asesinar dormir tirar, lanzar escabullirse hender, cortar sembrar (esparcir) hablar correr, apresurarse gastar girar escupir rajar, dividir estropear, mimar esparcir brincar, brotar estar de pie robar pegar picar, escocer caminar a zancadas golpear, huelga ensartar 85

strive sweep swell swim swing take teach tear tell think throw thrust wake wear weave weep win wind work wring write

strove swept swelled swam or swum swung took taught tore told thought threw thrust woke wore wove wept won wound wrought wrung wrote

striven swept swollen swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrown thrust woke worn woven wept won wound wrought wrung written

esforzarse, luchar barrer hincharse nadar balancear coger, tomar ensear tirar, cortar. decir pensar arrojar, lanzar empujar, hundir despertarse llevar, desgastar tejer, zigzaguear llorar ganar dar cuerda, serpent.. trabajar apachurrar escribir

86

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