Marine and Petroleum Geology, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp.

129-148, 1996 Copyright 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0264-8172/96 $15.00 + 0.00 ELSEVIER

0264-8172(95)00031-3

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area (North Sea): inferences from a new three-dimensional subsidence analysis
J.-Y. Lepercq
Total, 24 cours Michelet, Cedex 47, 92069 Paris La D&fense, France

J.-M. Gaulier*
Institut Franqais du P~tro/e, A v Bois Pr~au, 92500 Rueil Malmaison, t:rance Received 7 November 1994; revised 10 March 1995; accepted25 March 1995
Backstripping software from the IFP (SUBTEC) was used to realize a three-dimensional subsidence analysis of the Norwegian part of the North Viking Graben. For each considered epoch the software produces restored depth maps of the selected stratigraphic horizons, as well as tectonic subsidence maps. That allows, in addition to classical subsidence curve analysis, an overview of the spatial evolution of the studied basin. The three-dimensional data set consists of maps representing the present day geometry of the graben. For this study, these maps have been established on the basis of a new interpretation of available seismic lines, taking into account new information on the time-depth conversion and on the age of the different seismic markers. Data from wells give detailed information on lateral lithological variations. Sedimentological information and analysis of the geometry of the seismic markers have allowed palaeobathymetry and eroded thickness maps to be established and discussed with a reasonable confidence. Computed tectonic subsidence maps define three major events and allow discussion of their origin: the lower Jurassic thermal subsidence in relation to the previous Triassic rifting event, the Jurassic rifting phase and the subsequent Cretaceous post-rift thermal subsidence, and, finally, a rapid subsidence event at the beginning of the Palaeocene. Thermal modelling provides theoretical subsidence curves. The comparison with the observed curves allows testing of and discrimination between several hypotheses about two parameters: the age of the first rifting event (Permo-Triassic) and its relative amplitude with regard to the Jurassic event. The corresponding stretching factors were compared with the crustal stretching values observed along the NSDP1 seismic profile. It appears that the first extensional phase is clearly Triassic (beginning about 240 Ma) and that it is characterized by higher stretching factors than the following Jurassic phase. The ability of different geological processes to produce both the Palaeocene subsidence observed in the graben and the contemporaneous uplift of the basin margins is discussed. The preferred interpretation involves buckling of the lithosphere in response to the onset of a compressional stress regime at the end of the Cretaceous. A simple method (assuming uniform stretching) is proposed for computing maps of stretching factors for both the Jurassic and Triassic events. Keywords: two-stage rifting; Viking Graben; three-dimensional modelling; subsidence analysis

Introduction The tectonic evolution and subsidence history of the North Sea is marked by four major tectonic phases. The Caledonian orogeny is characterized by a S E - N W compressive stress field expressed as N30-40E thrusts and N130-140E strike-slip faults. The Permo-Triassic and late Jurassic rifting phases are responsible for the major extensional structures of the basin. Finally, the late Cretaceous-early Tertiary north-south compression is well recorded in the Central Graben as inversion structures.
* Correspondence to Dr J.-M. Gaulier

Because of the large amount of geological and geophysical data available, the North Sea is an ideal place for the discussion of continental extension processes. Several workers (Barton and Wood, 1984; Giltner, 1987; Badley et al., 1988; Thorne and Watts, 1989; White, 1990) argue in favour of the uniform stretching model (McKenzie, 1978). Others (Gibbs, 1984; 1987; Beach, 1986; Beach et al., 1987) suggest that the half-graben geometry of the rifts is related to the presence of a low angle fault cutting through the entire lithosphere and offsetting the Moho discontinuity. A third hypothesis involves heterogeneous stretching of the lithosphere, the mantle being more extended than the crust (Royden and Keen,

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
1980). Finally, Faure (1990) and Brun and Tron (1993) suggest that the stretching is uniform at the lithospheric scale, but heterogeneous at the crustal scale due to the reactivation of Caledonian thrusts. Each of these models predicts different patterns of the syn-rift and post-rift subsidence distribution, both in time and space, which have been clearly described by White (1990).
2 62' 3

In this paper, we present a three-dimensional subsidence analysis based on new three-dimensional backstripping software (SUBTEC) developed at Institut Fran~ais du P4trole (IFP). We constructed a 180 x 135 km three-dimensional block of the North Viking Graben based on the interpretation of two recent regional networks of seismic reflection profiles covering an area located between 6000'-6145'N and
I

4 I

I I

TN

.,J

6l'

. . . .

r. . . .

NVG
HORDA PLATFOIRM
I
I I
I

MaRE BASIN

NORWAY

PLATFORM I
60 ~ seismic line

3"Pnt' JOerma a,,u

en,

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.'.

l i m i t s o f t h e study area

Figure 1 Location of the studied area with major structural trends. The seismic lines NVGT 88-04 and 88-08 are shown on Figure 3. The deep seismic profile used in the thermal modelling is NSDP1. Dots indicate the position of tectonic subsidence control points for the adjustments shown on Figure 14

130 Marine and Petroleum Geology 1996 Volume 13 Number 2

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
220'-440'E (Figure 1): the NVGT-88 and NVGTI-92 surveys shot by the Geophysical Company of Norway (GECO). Using classical backstripping techniques, we reconstruct the evolution of the basin geometry through time and compute the tectonic subsidence history. The tectonic subsidence maps are used to determine stretching factor maps for both the Permo-Triassic and the Jurassic extensional phases. The total amount of crustal stretching is constrained by the observed present day crustal thickness (Klemperer, 1988; Hollinger and Klemperer, 1989). The subsidence results are then compared with theoretical subsidence curves computed with a two-dimensional thermal model assuming uniform extension (Alvarez et al., 1984). We discuss the relative amplitude of the two rifting phases and show that we can confidently attribute a lower Triassic age to the pre-Jurassic extensional event. In more recent times, the Palaeocene is marked by a strong and relatively constant subsidence over the studied area. This peculiar subsidence pattern is incompatible with any simple scenario of thermal cooling evolution after a rifting event. We discuss the potential role of other processes such as magmatic crustal underplating by igneous rocks, regional intraplate stress variations and/ or deep crustal metamorphism. reactivated (e.g. Hay, 1978; Johnson, 1987; Faure, 1990). Syn-rift and post-rift Permo-Triassic series, mostly continental, can reach several thousands of metres in thickness. The Mesozoic stratigraphic evolution is well established: after the deposition of detrital coal-bearing series (Statfjord Group), marine sedimentation resumed in the North Viking Graben area with the deposition of shales and argillaceous sandstones (Dunlin Group), followed by the deltaic complex of the Brent Group. During the late Jurassic, an important crustal extension induced reactivation of the Caledonian (N20-N30E) and Triassic (N-S) faults (Ziegler, 1988; Faure, 1990). In the grabens, relatively deep water conditions prevailed, whereas shallow water deposits developed on the unaffected Horda Platform. In the grabens, Cretaceous deposits consist of deep water shales and thin pelagic carbonates. The shale to carbonate ratio decreases from the axis of the graben towards the flanks. On the margins, carbonates are affected by many erosive surfaces. Some major faults were still active up until the Turonian, as attested by several angular unconformities within the graben infills, the latest being of late Turonian age. The significant difference in depth (over 2000 m) of Turonian deposits on either side of some of the faults suggests a later activity. A few of these major faults slightly affect the uppermost Cretaceous sediments. Their moderate throw at this level (less than 100 ms TWT on seismic lines) is probably related to differential compaction of the Mesozoic series on either side of the faults. The late Cretaceous then appears as a period of tectonic quiescence.

Stratigraphy and main geological events

The main structural features of the North Viking Graben area are (Figure 1): the Horda Platform, which has been strongly affected by the Late Palaeozoicearly Mesozoic extensional event, but remained broadly stable during the Mesozoic extension; three en echelon grabens and half-grabens corresponding to the northern part of the Viking Graben and the Sogn Graben; and the Gullfaks-Sn~rre structural high (Tampen Spur). Geological data collected in the North Viking Graben area provide us with a good knowledge of the broad geological evolution of the basin and the associated stratigraphy (Figure 2).

Palaeozoic Rocks of the Palaeozoic age remain the only poorly defined sequences. Recognized on both sides of the Viking Graben (e.g. the Hornelen Basin and Shetland Platform) they consist of Devonian Old Red Sandstones filling very large extensional relay basins, possibly developed as post-orogenic collapse structures, following overthickening of the Caledonian crust (Brewer and Smythe, 1984; Enfield and Coward, 1986; S6guret et al., 1989). The presence of sediments of that age is still unproved below the Horda Platform and the North Viking Graben. Permian sediments contemporaneous with the New Red Sandstones deposited in the southern North Sea basins are not known over the North Viking Graben area. Mezozoic During Permian or Triassic times, the acceleration of basin opening in the Norwegian-Greenland Seas generated the North Viking Graben by the activation of major north-south faults. Caledonian thrusts are also

Cenozoic Whereas Mesozoic sedimentation was mainly restricted to the graben themselves, Tertiary sedimentation largely oversteps the graben boundaries. A large Palaeocene prograding coastal wedge was developed along the present day Norwegian coast. In the western part of the studied area, large submarine fans are related to another major deltaic complex prograding eastward from Shetland and the Scottish Highlands. Reverse and strike-slip motions, well expressed during the uppermost Cretaceous and Palaeocene in the Central North Sea and in the Stord Basin, are unknown in the North Viking Graben. Eocene and Oligocene sedimentation is characterized by small deltaic complexes on the basin margins. Miocene deposition began with shallow marine sands (Utsira Formation), followed by the development of large prograding clinoforms (shaly sands) coming from the progressively uplifted Norwegian margin. Finally, the Quaternary is essentially characterized by the development of large ice sheets (Fjeldskaar and Cathles, 1993). Their maximum extent is marked by a broadly N W - S E oriented topographic depression (Norwegian Trench), which is still the main feature of the present day bathymetry.

Building the three-dimensional model

From the top Statfjord (198 Ma) to Present, the sedimentary deposits were divided into 13 intervals thought to be representative of the different stages of the basin history (Figures 2 and 3). We established for

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131

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
Cycle System Etage Age (Ma) Group North Viking Graben !
I

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N

Early Cretaceous ~128.5-Portlandian Kimmeridgian Oxfordian Callovian Bathonian Bajocian JURASSIC Aalenian Toarcian F~liensbachiar Sinemurian Hettangian Rhetian ..... 1 9 8 ~ ~156~

Cromer Knoll Gp

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Figure 2 Summarized stratigraphy of post-Triassic sediments. c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m a p s u s e d in t h e c o m p u t a t i o n s

Reflectors correlated on seismic lines are indicated by bold lines and

each selected interval a set of 135 x 180 km maps gridded into 200 x 200 nodes These include (Figure 4): a depth map for the base of the interval; a map of the lateral lithological variations, each facies being related to a porosity-depth curve; a map of any eroded thicknesses; and a map of the water depth at the beginning of the time interval. The tectonic subsidence (ST) at any period of time is calculated following the equation of Steckler and Watts (1978) ST=Hh* + P W SL

where H is the restored sedimentary thickness, PW is the estimated palaeobathymetry and SL is the eustatic sea level, h* represents the correction for the sedimentary load, which is estimated in local Airy isostasy as h* -- H
PS -PmPW I: ) w

where 9s is the density of the sediments, 9w the density of water and Pm the density of the mantle at the level of isostatic compensation.

132

Marine and Petroleum Geology 1996 Volume 13 Number 2

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
r~

O-

00 GO GO

"O t-

O0 oO > Z

r..-

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gautier

(o)

Figure 4 Example of a data set for each sedimentary interval of the studied three-dimensional block (here the Base Cretaceous Unconformity). (a) Present day depth map, (b) Lateral lithological variations. () Palaeowater depth at the beginning of the layer deposition, (d) Eroded thickness (in the case of several erosive events affecting the layer, one map {s established for each of them)

Li&ology-porosity curves
Logs of cuttings were used to determine the average lithological composition of the 13 selected sedimentary intervals in 106 wells, considering three basic end-members: claystone, sandstone and limestone. For Eocene and Oligocene deposits, additional information on the extension of the sand-prone deltaic facies were given by the seismic data. All the information was compiled to provide maps of lateral lithological facies variations (Figure 4b). Porosity curves were taken from a compilation of reference values (e.g. Brewster and Crispin, 1985; Burrus et at., 1991).

Velocity anomalies related to erosion were taken into account (Lepercq and Gaulier, 1994).

Palaeobathymetry
Palaeobathymetry is a k e y parameter for good reconstruction of the basin geometry history, as any error in the palaeobathymetry directly affects the tectonic subsidence and thus the palaeogeometry. Seismic profiling provides good information about the relative bathymetries. Palaeoslope indicators such as prograding clinoforms and onlaps were compiled on a map and calibrated with precise values obtained from shelf breaks, coastal onlaps, lithology, areas of non-deposition or eroded areas, palaeo-environmental determinations based either on lithological facies or faunal associations. The main problem concerns the Cretaceous palaeo-

Time-depth conversion
The depth conversion has been made using a 'layer cake' method taking into account variations of interval velocity with both burial and lithological variations.

134

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier

\1

I1~,

~ - ,-~---y-j_-J_+__L

I Limestone
Shaley limestone Calcareous shale I ~ F'~ Shale Sandy shale

Sand and shale Sandy and calcareous shale Sandy and shaley limestone

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I --X

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10 20km

0 2o0 iiiiiiiiiii~i~i~i~i 4OO 6oo 8OO 1000 > 1000 m

s

Figure 5 Illustration of the minimum and maximum palaeobathymetry hypothesis for the Base Cretaceous. (A) Minimum values inferred from lithological claystone percentages. (B) Maximum values deduced from sediment thicknesses. On the Horda Platform, geometrical arguments from seismic data led us to impose a very low value of bathymetry in both instances

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13 N u m b e r

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
bathymetries. Determining the direction of palaeoslopes is easy, but giving exact values appears to be difficult. We established, using two different approaches, a minimum and a maximum hypothesis which define our uncertain range (Figure 5). The first approach is based on lithological data. The map of average lithological variations (Figure 4b) shows that the percentage of claystone decreases significantly when going from the graben to a structural high. For sedimentation taking place in an open marine environment, we assigned depth values for any given clay percentage. For 30% claystone we assign 25 m of water depth and for 100% claystone 500 m of water depth. These empirical values were chosen to obtain palaeobathymetric maps consistent with the lowest published estimates (Rawson and Riley, 1982). The second hypothesis is based on seismic arguments (Figure 6). The top Jurassic to top Turonian deposits appear on seismic lines as a set of wedge-shaped groups of .parallel reflectors bounded by angular unconformities. Three main unconformities have been recognized (105-110, 95.5 and 88.75Ma). Each of these indicates the activity of a nearby major high-dipping planar fault (Badley et al., 1988) and corresponds to an increase in the local palaeobathymetry. Assuming that at a given time the palaeowater depth is proportional to the thickness of the immediately overlying package of sediments, we were able to determine a relative palaeowater depth for each age. Obtained values (up to 1100 m) seem to represent a commonly admitted maximum range (Barton and Wood, 1984; Bertram and Milton, 1989; Barr 1991). In this hypothesis the North Viking Graben behaves as a slightly starved basin during the Cretaceous. The considered water depth range is representative of most published hypotheses. Palaeobathymetric estimations for the base of the Palaeocene are better constrained than the Cretaceous estimations. They are obtained from geometrical relationships of the first Palaeocene seismic markers, which indicate shallow water depth conditions. the more important events, whose effects are clearly visible on seismic lines: 1. During the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous, the sediments of the Brent and Dunlin Groups on the structural highs were eroded. As the initial thickness of these formations is fairly well known, the construction of eroded thickness maps is relatively easy. We did not consider the erosion of late Jurassic sediments as the eroded thickness was probably fairly low (maximum of 150 m). 2. On seismic lines, the erosion occurring during the early Miocene seems negligible and thus was not taken into account. 3. During the late Miocene and the Pliocene, the progressive uplift of the Norwegian coast induced a strong erosion on the eastern flank of the basin. It affects series going from the Palaeozoic to lower Pliocene. Reconstruction of the eroded thickness has been made considering the geometry and nature of the deposits (Figure 7). 4. During the Quaternary, the setting of large ice-caps induced erosion of the previously deposited sediments. The shape of the Base Quaternary erosive surface is a clear indication of the amount and lateral extent of erosion. The eroded thicknesses were reconstructed considering the arguments already used for the previous Mio-Pliocene event.

Uncertainty range of our results

Several parameters used in our determination of the tectonic subsidence are subject to consequent uncertainties. Error on the eustatic curve ( + / - 5 0 m) and on the palaeobathymetries (+/-100 m) leads to a possible error of + / - 1 5 0 m on the tectonic subsidence at each stage, except for the Cretaceous time, for which the uncertainty is much greater (+/-600 m). Furthermore, an error of 10% on any of the porosity curves induces an error of 2-3% on the tectonic subsidence (i.e. 40-60 m at Present in the most subsided areas). Not taking into account the Palaeozoic and Triassic deposits below our first horizon (the top of the Statfjord Group, 198 Ma) would have induced a timeincreasing error in our subsidence curves due to the compaction of these sediments. Although their thickness cannot be precisely determined, as the top of basement reflector disappears below the graben, a minimum value can, however, be estimated. Where the top of the basement reflector is visible, the thickness of Palaeozoic and Triassic sediments was estimated using an average velocity of 4500 m/s. The maximum

Eustasy
Changes of relative sea level through time were taken into account considering the long-term curve of Haq et al. (1987).

Erosional events
Between the Sinemurian (top Statfjord) and Present, several erosive events occurred. We took into account

TFigure 6 Illustration of the geometrical method used for evaluation of maximum palaeobathymetry values. The palaeobathymetry is linearly related to the decompacted sedimentary thickness

136

Marine and Petroleum Geology 1996 Volume 13 Number 2

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gautier
462810 592612

-5 0 5 10
O~ Ob 0"1

15 m/Ma

-462810
0 10 20 km

592612

Figure 10 Map of tectonic subsidence rate for the Berriasian to Turonian time interval. The graben areas undergo thermal post-rift subsidence. The Sogn graben is still tectonically active in relation to the Mere Basin opening. The regional tilting of the Horda Platform is clearly expressed

increase in subsidence rates (30-40 m/Ma) affecting the whole area. Those values are as high as the maximum values determined for the Jurassic syn-rift subsidence. The same evolution was observed by Knox et al. (1981), Mudge and Bliss (1983), Johnson (1987), V/ally (1988) and more recently by White and Latin (1993) in the triple junction of the North Sea rift system. In our area of interest, its main effect is the sudden and significant landward migration of coastal onlap on the eastern margin of the graben (Figure 3), whereas Haq et al. (1987) indicate no major increase in sea level. Clastic input coming from the Norwegian shield and the Shetland and Scottish Highlands was fairly low during the entire late Cretaceous. The development of large Palaeocene coarse clastic coastal wedges thus implies a drastic change in the direction of clastic input, as no late Cretaceous age clastic wedge was found fringing Norway, Scotland or Shetland. A drastic climatic change, leading to mech~.nical erosion rather than the chemical processes which were prevalent during the Cretaceous, may be invoked. However, this is highly improbable as the very high Palaeocene sedimentation rates imply a nearby important source of material. Such a source would have provided detrital sediments under almost any kind of

climate. The most reasonable explanation is thus a regional uplift of the Norwegian craton and the Shetland and Scottish Highlands, leading to renewed erosion. We thus favour a strong Pataeocene uplift of the North Sea margins contemporaneous with the high subsidence of the central part (the Shetland Platform, the North Viking Graben area and the Horda Platform). Finally, during the Eocene and Oligocene, this area remains broadly stable with slight uplift or subsidence within our water depth uncertainty range. M i o c e n e to Present Since the Late Oligocene, the whole area has experienced a regional uplift, up to 1200 m along the Norwegian coast. This uplift, homogeneous on the western part of the studied area, increases sharply in the vicinity of the Oygarden faulted zone, which was probably active during this period. The recent unloading of the lithosphere by the melting of the last ice sheet has induced a flexural uplift which is still currently active (Fjeldskaar and Cathles, 1993) and has largely reactivated the Oygarden faulted zone. The latter accommodates a large amount of the vertical motion, as shown by the multiple earthquakes recorded in the area (Gabrielsen et al., 1989).

140

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 1996 Volume 13 Number 2

139

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
TIME (Ma) 180 160 120 80 40 180 160 TIME (Ma) 120 80 40 0 -1000 180 160 TIME (Ma) 120 80 40 -1000

U,I O Z U,I a m 0~

1000

_o Z o I,J LU

2000

2000

2000

F.!
r, Ji g,Ii

I-

(a)

3000

3000 (b) (c)

3000

Figure 8 Tectonic subsidence curves obtained in the three main structural areas. Two curves at different locations are shown for each area. (a) Horda Platform: the subsidence rates are always very low until the Palaeocene event (65 Ma). (b) Central graben areas: the thermal subsidence following the Triassic extension is clearly expressed. The Jurassic extension is concentrated in this area. The Palaeocene subsidence is of the same order as in the other areas. (e) Graben, western margin (Gullfaks): the subsidence rates are low until the Palaeocene

the Horda Platform is broadly stable until the Palaeocene; (Figure 8b) graben are the most subsided areas since early Jurassic times; (Figure 8c) the Gullfaks faulted block subsides slowly during the Cretaceous. To discuss the regional variations and time evolution of the subsidence, we derived maps of subsidence rates for each interval.

Early Jurassic
During the early Jurassic, the entire area of the North Viking Graben was subjected to a slow tectonic subsidence, slightly increasing from the basin margins (0-10 m/Ma) to the graben axis (10-15 m/Ma) (Figure 9a). A more detailed analysis of the curves indicates that subsidence decreases through time; it slowed down during Brent Group sedimentation, except in the Sogn Graben area. Active faults are actually recognized everywhere, but their throw is generally of very low amplitude (Ziegler, 1982; Mercier, 1986; Graue et al., 1987). This subsidence is essentially interpreted as the expression of the thermal cooling following the PermoTriassic rifting (e.g. Badley et al., 1988). The pattern of the thermal subsidence following the Permo-Triassic early rifting constitutes a powerful tool to locate the axis of the rift assuming homogeneous stretching. Giltner (1987) and Lippard and Liu (1992) located it below the Viking Graben, whereas Vially (1988) suggested that it may be offset from the Jurassic rifting axis, below the Horda Platform. On the graben margins, the post-rift upper Triassic sediments are interpreted as continental or nearshore deposits (Mercier, 1986). The thickness distribution suggests a saucer-shaped geometry (Hesper and Ediriweera, 1988; Faure, 1990), although no information is available from within the graben itself. This is in good agreement with the geographical variations of the early Jurassic tectonic subsidence. The zone of maximum late Triassic and Liassic post-rift tectonic subsidence corresponds to the axis of the Permo-Triassic rifting, which is the axis of the forthcoming late Jurassic rift.

Horda Platform (10 m/Ma); limited subsidence on the Gullfaks-Snorre block; and important tectonic subsidence in relation to the development of the main graben (minimum 10-30 m/Ma and maximum 20-40 m/Ma) (Figure 9b). Two structural trends appear on the subsidence map. The main subsidence zone, clearly oriented along a N30E trend, corresponds to three north-south en echelon graben. The geometry of the graben is determined by the activity of numerous closely spaced ( l - 2 km) north-south faults. The subsidence map indicates that the southern graben is more active than the northern graben. Notice that as we did not differentiate any horizon within the late Jurassic sequences, our subsidence curves do not reflect the different tectonic pulses inferred by Badley et al. (1988), Faure (1990) and others.

Cretaceous
From the Berriasian to Cenomanian (Figure i0), the Horda Platform underwent a slight regional tilting towards the south-east (less than 1). This pattern is clearly expressed on the seismic lines (Figure 3). The en echelon graben show a south to north increase in subsidence. The subsidence rate is fairly low in the southernmost half-graben (maximum 5-6 m/Ma) and reaches a maximum value in the northernmost graben (Sogn Graben) (10-15 m/Ma). We relate this subsidence to the strong reactivation of the main fault bounding each half-graben, leading to angular unconformities essentially visible in the northern graben. A northward migration of the maximum subsidence centre is observed by comparison with late Jurassic subsidence (Figure 9b). Formerly located in the southernmost graben, it is situated, during the Cretaceous, in the Sogn Graben. Between the Cenomanian and Turonian, the subsidence rates decreased. During the late Cretaceous the subsidence overstepped the graben and affected the margins of the Horda Platform and the Gullfaks block. The sediments show a typical saucer-shaped geometry. Both observations favour a thermal origin for this subsidence.

Late Jurassic
The maximum and the minimum Base Cretaceous palaeobathymetry hypotheses both show similar patterns: slight and homogeneous subsidence of the

Palaeogene
The Palaeocene (Figure 11) is characterized by a sharp

138

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gautier

(a)

I.a,, ILl 3

7000-

(b)

I-. o. IJJ r~

7000-

Oligocene wer Oligocene Uopper Eocene

2,0 Km

Balder Formation Lower Paleocene Maestrichtian - Upper Campanian Lower Campanian - Coniacian Turonian - Cenomanian Lower Cretaceous Upper Jurassic Brent Formation Dunlin Formation

Figure 7 Pre-Miocene restored sections along seismic profiles NVGT 88-08 (a) and 88-04 (b). The eroded thicknesses are given above the bold, broken line, which corresponds to the present day erosive surface. Those sections are directly extracted from the threedimensional block

thickness thus obtained is 2500 m. This 500 m maximum value was assigned to areas where the base of the sediments could not be determined. We may underestimate the thickness of the pre-Jurassic deposits by up to 3000 m in the deeper parts of the basin and along the western margin of the Horda Platform. The related error corresponds to the compaction of this 3000 m thick sedimentary column buried from its average depth of 4000 m at 198 Ma to an average depth of 9000 m at the Present. Given our compaction parameters, it represents a porosity loss of less than 4%, which means that the error always remains below 120 m. Finally, backstripping computations are performed

on vertical columns. This prevents us from representing lateral motions. We have thus avoided the vicinity of large faults for the interpretation of the subsidence pattern. Regional variations and time evolution of the subsidence

Figure 8 displays the calculated subsidence curves. The

location of these curve points have been chosen to avoid local effects of footwall uplift and hanging wall subsidence purely induced by block rotation (Lippard and Liu, 1992). The three different types of evolution correspond to the main structural features: (Figure 8a)

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462810 592612
03

GO t.O 60 CO

20 25 30 35
(33
O~

O1

03 O3 01

40 m/Ma

462810

592612 0 10 20 km

Figure 11 Map of tectonic subsidence rate during the Palaeocene ( 6 5 - 5 4 Ma). The values are high and relatively constant over the entire area. Neither individualized basins nor fault activity is visible

Problems to solve Our detailed three-dimensional subsidence analysis highlights the effects of the two well recognized PermoTriassic and Jurassic rifting phases followed by the peculiar pattern of the tectonic subsidence during the Cretaceous (low subsidence) and the Palaeocene (high subsidence). In the following, we use our subsidence results to examine the mechanisms responsible for the subsidence history of the North Viking Graben. We focus on two specific problems that are of regional significance (see Figure 12 for illustration):

Time (MA)
300 250

200

150

100

50

E
c-

E3

1. What is the age and the importance of the first rifting event? The relative importance of both rifting phases is a much debated question (e.g. Ziegler, 1978; Gabrielsen et al., 1989; Jacobsen and van Veen, 1984; Morton et al., 1987; Badley et al., 1988). 2. What is the origin of the high subsidence during Palaeocene? If it is related to the thermal cooling following the Jurassic rifting, then why is the previous Cretaceous subsidence so low?

Figure12 Schematic representation of the hypothesis for subsidence history tested by the thermal modelling. The first uncertainty is the age of the first event. The constraints are given by the early to middle Jurassic part of the data curve. The second point is the attribution of the Palaeocene subsidence to the cooling of the Jurassic event, or not. In the first instance, the theoretical post-rift subsidence is adjusted to match the Tertiary values; otherwise, we adjust the late Cretaceous subsidence curve

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier

Thermal modelling contribution to the understanding of the subsidence history

We used a two-dimensional thermal model based on homogeneous stretching and non-instantaneous multiphase rifting (Alvarez et al., 1984) to compute theoretical tectonic subsidence curves. The amount of extension was obtained along a transverse cross-section of the basin (deep seismic profile NSDP1) by adjusting observed and model predicted subsidence values. The following parameters were tested: 1. The age and amount of lithospheric stretching of the 'Permo-Triassic' rifting. Although we have only early Jurassic information for characterizing the pre-Jurassic extensional event, the corresponding portion of the subsidence curve is fairly reliable as the top Staffjord and top Brent palaeobathymetries are well constrained. 2. The amount of Jurassic stretching, including or not including the Palaeocene subsidence in the post-rift cooling. Varying the age of the first rifting event and including or excluding the Palaeocene subsidence as post-rift cooling of the Jurassic stretching lead to a set of stretching factors along the modelled section. We obtained good adjustments with different hypothesis. As an example, Figure 13 shows thermal modelling results compared with computed subsidence curves at several locations along the NSDP1 deep seismic profile. The results of two adjustments are presented assuming an early Triassic age for the initial rifting in both instances, but with and without inclusion of the Palaeocene subsidence as post-rift thermal cooling. Using an initial crustal thickness of 32 km (Barton and Wood, 1984; Norton, 1986; S6ranne et al., 1991), the combined stretching factors for both phases provide a theoretical present day crustal thickness which can be compared with the seismic values obtained by Hollinger and Klemperer (1989) on the deep seismic profile NSDP1 (Figure 14). The results show that a Permian rifting implies theoretical present day crustal thickness values which are too small compared with the seismic data. It thus precludes a significant Permian extensional event. The best results are obtained: either by considering a late Triassic extensional event and by including the Palaeocene subsidence into the Jurassic event; or by considering an early to middle Triassic age for the initial rifting and by excluding the Palaeocene subsidence from the Jurassic extension. In both instances the difference between computed and observed crustal thickness remains within the uncertainty range announced by Hollinger and Klemperer (1989). Other scenarios lead to much higher discrepancies. It also appears that even considering a l a t e Triassic extension, thus minimizing the Triassic stretching factors, these remain high: 1.55 in the graben area and 1.25 on the Horda Platform. Moreover, as the seismic line NSDP1 does not cross the area of maximum Liassic subsidence (Figures I and 9), we can speculate that the Triassic crustal thinning factors are even higher further south, as we will show in a later section. Although the Horda Platform is strongly affected by this extension,

the Viking Graben itself appears to be the area of maximum stretching. It then confirms the hypothesis of Ziegler (1982), who considered the graben not as a Jurassic feature, but as Triassic. The Jurassic extension is characterized by significantly lower crustal thinning factors than the Triassic event. The Horda Platform is very slightly affected. In the study area, most of the Jurassic deformation is localized in the area of maximum extension during the Triassic. We conclude from this combined subsidence analysis and thermal modelling that the first extensional event must be either early to middle Triassic in age (as previously suggested by Jacobsen and van Heen, 1984) or of late Triassic age, depending on the assumption made for the Palaeocene subsidence. Along the NSDP1 transect, the Triassic stretching factors range from 1.25 on the Horda Platform to 1.55-1.70 in the graben. Further south towards more subsided areas, higher values are expected. The Jurassic extension is clearly less important than this first Triassic event.

Origin of the Palaeocene subsidence

Comparison between the theoretical and observed crustal thickness did not enable us to discriminate whether the Palaeocene subsidence is or is not related to the Jurassic extension. The late Cretaceous and Palaeocene subsidence history can obviously not be satisfactorily reproduced by the simple thermal curves generated considering a two-phase (Triassic and Jurassic rifting) history based on the homogeneous stretching model. An additional phenomenon has to be involved. First of all, it cannot be a rifting phase. The amplitude and the widespread character of the Palaeocene subsidence, which largely affects the rift axis and its margins and, to a lesser extent, the Shetland and Horda Platforms, with no significant sign of fault activity, lead us to exclude this hypothesis. We briefly discuss several processes able to generate this anomalous subsidence.

Palaeocene subsidence linked with Jurassic extension

If the Palaeocene subsidence is related to the Jurassic extension, then the anomalously low late Cretaceous subsidence must be explained. Thermal cooling during the late Cretaceous may be balanced by continuous lithospheric stretching maintaining a high thermal state. Alternatively, it could be balanced by a tectonic regional stress regime.

Continued extension from late Jurassic to late Cretaceous. The early Cretaceous thermal state may
have been maintained, thus preventing the development of thermal subsidence. This can only be achieved through inhomogeneous lithospheric stretching as thinning in crustal layers would necessarily imply additional tectonic subsidence. The Palaeocene high subsidence rates would then correspond to the cooling of the thermal anomaly developed during this extended rifting phase. This hypothesis raises several problems: 1. Thermal modelling shows that, over the whole area (including the Horda and Shetland platforms), a minimum stretching value of 1.2 for the Cretaceous

142

Marine and Petroleum Geology 1996 Volume 13 Number 2

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
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Marine

and

Petroleum

Geology

1996

Volume

13

Number

143

Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
Distance from the graben axis

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35 -Figure 14 Comparison between the observed crustal thickness along NSDP1 and the predicted crustal thickness deduced from thermal adjustments of the tectonic subsidence. Line (1) is obtained with the hypothesis of a Permian age for the first rifting event; (2) is obtained excluding the Palaeocene subsidence as a post-rift cooling of Jurassic stretching; and (3) is obtained including the Palaeocene subsidence. Curves 2 and 3 give a good fit to the observed data; both consider an early Triassic age for the first rifting event

extension in the mantle is necessary to maintain the early Cretaceous thermal state. Such a value implies a strong horizontal shear within the upper lithospheric mantle without any superficial effects. This is highly improbable. Furthermore, a great amount of uplift would then be expected during the Cretaceous on the margins of the affected area (Le Pichon and Chamot-Rooke, 1990). There is no evidence of such an uplift at that time along the Norwegian coast. 2. The very high (30-40 m/Ma) Palaeocene subsidence rates (similar to those observed during the syn-riff stage) do not match the rates expected from thermal cooling associated with small stretching factors. Furthermore, continuation of the cooling process during the Eocene and Oligocene would be characterized by a relatively important thermal subsidence. In contrast those periods show limited subsidence. 3. Lastly, the end of the stretching mechanism would induce a thermal contraction over a wide area, including a Norwegian craton. In contrast, uplift is inferred there during the Palaeocene. Therefore, a depth-dependent stretching is inadequate, ruling out this hypothesis.

to balance the thermal subsidence (deduced from the observed Palaeocene subsidence) would reach 500-600 m. However, it is now generally agreed that intraplate stress variations cannot generate more than 200-300 m of uplift (Kooi, 1991). This rules out the hypothesis of intraplate tensile stress variations as a potential mechanism to compensate for the Cretaceous thermal subsidence.

Palaeocene subsidence not related to the Jurassic extension

In this instance, the Cretaceous subsidence simply represents the lithospheric thermal cooling. The Palaeocene subsidence has a non-thermal origin.

lcelandplume. White and Latin (1993) outlined the fact that the Iceland hot-spot, which appeared during the Palaeocene (i.e. 60 Ma) is too distant (Morgan, 1983) to generate sufficient heat to explain, by subsequent thermal cooling, the observed subsidence. Regional underplating. Parker (1975), Knox et al. (1981), Mudge and Bliss (1983) and Thorne and Watts (1989) pointed out that the whole North Sea subsides during the Palaeocene. White and Latin (1993), based on similar observations on the North Atlantic continental margin, suggest the emplacement of mafic igneous layers at the base of the crust as a potential mechanism. This magmatism would be related to the intense and widespread subaerial volcanism observed over the whole area as the Atlantic Ocean spread out. This explanation cannot be invoked for the North Sea as it would necessitate the generation of a huge amount of basaltic magma. McKenzie and Bickle

Changes in intraplate stress. Tensional stress applied to stretched lithosphere may induce tectonic uplift (Kooi and Cloething, 1989; Cloething et al., 1990). Such an uplift could compensate for the subsidence associated with the normal development of the lithospheric thermal cooling. In the North Viking Graben, the amount of Cretaceous uplift required

144

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gaulier
(1988) showed that significant mantle melting implies, under normal asthenospheric temperatures, minimum lithospheric stretching factors of two. In the North Viking Graben, the Jurassic stretching factors never reached such high values. It seems impossible to generate a large amount of basic magma below the whole area; the hypothesis of widespread underplating does not explain the Palaeocene subsidence. factors assuming local isostasy. Considering the duration of active extension (about 25 Ma), Jarvis and McKenzie (1980) have shown that for a stretching factor (~) less than 1.5, the instantaneous rifting approximation is valid. In our case, maximum ~ values do not exceed 1.35. Thus the weight of the lithospheric column at the end of the rifting event (Ppost-rift) can be expressed as p epost-rift 1 --~-

Deep crustal metamorph&m. Middleton (1980) pointed out that deep crustal metamorphism may play an important part in the tectonic history of an intracratonic basin. However, several facts preclude this phenomenon as the mechanism guiding the Palaeocene subsidence. In the study area, the basement consists of Palaeozoic high grade metamorphic rocks. Its post-Palaeozoic potential loss of volume (i.e. increase in density) by metamorphism is fairly low and cannot account for the observed amount of subsidence. Changes in intraplate stress. The onset of a compressive stress regime can provide, in areas of thinned lithosphere, an amount of subsidence equivalent to the observed Palaeocene subsidence values (Beekman, 1994). Simultaneously, the model predicts a symmetrical uplift of several hundred metres on the graben margins; this is what we inferred at this time for the Norwegian coast and the Shetland Platform (see earlier). This drastic change in intraplate stress state can be related to both the opening of the Atlantic Ocean and the onset of the Tertiary compression (PyreneoAlpine orogeny). The influence of this compressional phase, largely documented further south where inversion phenomena are described (e.g. Ziegler, 1978; 1980; Bodenhausen and Ott, 1981), has already been emphasized by Kooi and Cloetingh (1989). However, the effect of the mechanical transmission of stress conditions from plate boundaries through intraplate areas is still to be quantitatively validated. It is thus not possible to discriminate between the respective effects of the ongoing geodynamic events around the Western European plate. Nevertheless, we favour this hypothesis as it is compatible with the highly homogeneous Palaeocene subsidence rates within the study area.

ere-rift -~- a

(1--

~--) PMa

where Ppre-rift is the weight of the unstretched column, a is the depth of the base of the lithosphere and PM~ the density of the astenosphere. If we consider the epre-rift value with respect to a regional reference column, then we have

Ppre-rift ~-- Pref

STp.... ift (f)Ma -- Pw)

where STpre_rift is the tectonic subsidence measured for epochs before the considered rifting event and 9w the density of water. We then establish

,,po,t,i,t=(, a Ow Ma, 'p,rift)

where STpost_rift is the syn-rift tectonic subsidence. To apply this equation on our subsidence values, we must estimate the Pref of the region. In the later equation the ratio:

(Pref - a f)Ma)/(pw -- PMa)

is equal to the water depth at the oceanic axis (i.e. the depth of the equilibrium of a denudated asthenospheric column). This depth is then directly related to the chosen regional reference weight. This value was used as a free parameter to adjust the computed [3 value with those independently determined along the NSDP1 section. We then obtain a map of ~ factors for the Jurassic event

(Figure 15a).

For a standard linear gradient, Pref can be expressed as follows

P r e f = / - / c P c ( 1 - 0 ~ T a H c )2a

Spatial variations of crustal stretching

Thermal modelling has enabled us to establish an early Triassic age for the first rifting event and the relative importance of the two Mesozoic events. The Palaeocene subsidence, independent of the thermal evolution, is best explained by the mechanical behaviour of the lithosphere subjected to a regional compressive stress field. Our analysis also shows that at the lithospheric scale, the uniform stretching model correctly describes the observed basin evolution. In the following, we use this model to produce maps of the thinning factors for both rifting events.

+ (a-He)Pm( 1-ecT~a+Hc)a 2
with Hc = initial crustal thickness; Pc = density of the crusts at 0 oC taken as 2700 kg rn- 3 ; Ta = temperature of the asthenosphere taken at 1333C; f)m = density of the mantle at 0oC taken as 3300 kg m - 3 ; and o~ = coefficient of thermal expansion taken as 3.28 x

i0-5 oC-i"

Jurassic extension
Knowing the amount of syn-rift subsidence related to the Jurassic event, we are able to determine stretching

The regional reference column is then constituted by 32 km of crust overlying the mantle material, which is in good agreement with seismic data under the Norwegian craton. Along the active faults, block tilting locally induces anomalously high sedimentary thicknesses. The values obtained in these locations by this method are over-

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Two-stage rifting in the North Viking Graben area: J.-Y. Lepercq and J.-M. Gautier

6849380

6651710

" 6849380

6651710 ,-: ~ 02"~ Lq ~q b: ce.

6849380

6651710

6651710

Figure 15 Maps of the stretching factor for (a) the Triassic rifting event and for (b) the Jurassic rifting event

estimated and were thus replaced by the regional maximum value observed in the graben (1.35). The resultant map of Jurassic stretching factors (Figure 15a) shows the N30E trend of the rift axis and the stability of the Horda Platform during this event.

Triassic extension
To obtain a similar map for the Triassic extension, we use the isostatic Moho map obtained on the present day three-dimensional block. The isostatic equilibrium assumption at the Present is correct, as no major gravity anomaly is observed over the North Viking Graben (e.g. Barton and Wood, 1984). We then

determined the crustal thickness and the corresponding total [3 value, assuming a constant initial thickness of 32 km as discussed previously. We were then able to compute the map of the Triassic ~ factors. The obtained values are slightly underestimated in the graben axis area compared with those obtained by thermal modelling. This underestimation may be related to the thickness uncertainties of the Triassic sediments. The map shown in Figure 15b has been corrected in these regions. The maximum correction for [3 is about 0.2, which corresponds to 1.7 km of Triassic thickness underestimation. This map clearly illustrates the wide north-south axis of the Triassic rift. The maximum [3 values are around 1.8.

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T w o - s t a g e r i f t i n g in the N o r t h V i k i n g G r a b e n a r e a : J.-Y. L e p e r c q a n d J.-M. G a u l i e r

Conclusions The methodology described in this study consists of a three-dimensional approach to the determination of vertical evolution in a sedimentary basin. The elaboration of a thorough model itself was conducted by integrating the seismic and well data available in the area. Special attention was given to: the time-depth conversion; the construction of palaeobathymetric maps, including information obtained from the geometries of sedimentary units, lithological variations and palaeo-environmental data; and the reconstruction of eroded thicknesses. Our subsidence results are thus well constrained and highlight the following points: the Jurassic rift axis is superimposed on the previous Triassic axis; during the late Jurassic the maximum subsidence centre is located in the southernmost half-graben, whereas the Sogn Graben, in the north, is less active - - this tendency reverses during the Cretaceous; and high Palaeocene subsidence rates are observed over the entire study area. Largely documented by local studies, this subsidence seems to affect homogeneously the entire North Sea. Thermal modelling was conducted to test several scenarios of geodynamic evolution of the North Viking Graben proposed previously. Comparison of stretching factors deduced from the present day crustal thickness and our thermal modelling indicates that the first major rifting stage is of Triassic age (245-220 Ma). This first event is characterized by higher stretching factors (]3ma,, = 1.8) than the following late Jurassic extension (~max = 1.35). This relative importance of the two rifting events is clearly established. We explain the large amount of Palaeocene subsidence by the effects of a regional onset of a comprehensive in-plane stress. The phenomenon represents the most appropriate mechanism to explain both the contemporaneous subsidence of the graben areas and the uplift of the margins. This paper shows that three-dimensional subsidence analysis applied to localities with high data coverage can be a powerful tool in obtaining a comprehensive view of regional phenomena involved in basin evolution. Numerous problems necessitate a thorough analysis of datfi. The three-dimensional analysis helps to reduce the uncertainties on parameters such as bathymetry and lithology. This leads to a well constrained set of history maps, including tectonic subsidence and stretching factors. Comparisons with thermal modelling provide sufficient arguments to choose between several long-lived geodynamic hypotheses. Acknowledgements We thank TOTAL N O R G E for providing the data and financial support. Special thanks to Jean-Luc Auxi6tre, Philippe Werner, Philippe Julien, Peter MacAllisterHall and Jean-Loup Rubino for useful discussions. We are grateful to NOPEC and TOTAL for permission to publish the seismic lines and to the Laboratoire de G~ologie de l'Ecole Normale Supdrieure for providing the code for thermal modelling. Special thanks to JeanLuc Faure and Jean Letouzey, who have undergone the extreme torture consisting in deciphering this manu-

script, Nicolas Chamot-Rooke provided delicious French dishes and 'amicale' help to the second author in the ultimate phase of formal setting of the manuscript. References
Alvarez, F., Virieux, J. and Le Pichon, X. (1984) Thermal consequences of lithospheric extension over continental margins: the initial stretching phase Geophys. J.R. Astron. Soc. 78, 389-411 Badley, M. E., Price, J. D., Rambech, Dahl, C. and Agdestein, T. (1988) The structural evolution of Northern Viking Graben and its bearing upon extensional modes of basin formations J. GeoL Soc. London 145, 455-472 Barr, D. (1987) Structural/stratigraphic models for extensional basins of half-graben type J. Struct. GeoL 9, 491-500 Barr, D. (1991) Subsidence and sedimentation in semi-starved half grabens. In: The Geometry of Normal Faults (Eds A. M. Roberts, G. Yielding and B. Freeman), Spec. PubL GeoL Soc. London No. 56, 17-28 Barton, P. and Wood, R. (1984) Tectonic evolution of the North Sea Basin: crustal stretching and subsidence Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. 79, 987-1922 Beach, A. (1986) A deep seismic reflection profile across the northern North Sea Nature 323, 53-55 Beach, A., Bird, T. and Gibbs, A. (1987) Extensional tectonics and crustal structure: deep seismic reflection data from the northern North Sea Viking graben. In: Continental Extensional Tectonics (Eds M. P. Coward, J. F. Dewey and P. L. Hancock), Spec. PubL GeoL Soc. No. 28, 467-476 Beekman, F. (1994) Tectonic modelling of thick-skinned compressional intraplate deformation PhD Thesis, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam Bertram, G. T. and Milton, N. J. (1989) Reconstructing basin evolution from sedimentary thickness; the importance of palaeobathymatric control, with reference to the North-Sea Basin Res. 1,247-257 Bodenhausen, J. W. A. and Ott, W. F. (1981) Habitat of Rijswijk Oil Province, onshore, The Netherlands. In: Petroleum Geology of the Continental Shelf of North-West Europe (Eds L. V. Illing and G. D. Hobson), Institute of Petroleum, London, 301-319 Brewer, J. A. and Smythe, D. K. (1984) MOIST and the continuity of crustal reflector geometry along the Caledonian-Appalachian orogeny J. GeoL Soc. London 141, 105-120 Brewster, B. and Crispin, O. B. (1985) Compaction curves, Am. Assoc. Petrol GeoL Bull. 69, 622-626 Brun, J. P. and Tron, V. (1993) Development of the North Viking Graben: inferences from laboratory modelling Sedim. GeoL 86, 31-51 Burrus, J., Kuhfuss, A., Doligez, B. and Ungerer, P. (1991) Are numerical models useful in reconstructing the migrations of hydrocarbons? A discussion based on the Northern Viking Graben. In: Petroleum Migration (Eds W. A. England and A. J. Fleet), Spec. PubL GeoL Soc. London No. 59, 89-109 Cloetingh, S., Gradstein, F. M., Kooi, H., Grant, A. C. and Kaminski, M~ (1990) Plate reorganization: a cause of rapid late Neogene subsidence and sedimentation around the North Atlantic? J. GeoL Soc. London 147, 495-506 Enfield, M. and Coward, M. P. (1987) The structure of the West Orkney Basin, northern Scotland J. GeoL Soc. London 144, 871-884 Faure, J. L. (1990) Failles normales, coupes ~quilibr~es et subsidence dans les bassins en extension. Le bassin Viking et le domaine brian~onnais Thesis, Univ. Montpellier (USTL) Fjeldskaar, W. and Cathles, L. ('1993) The post-glacial uplift in Fennoscandia implies a low-viscosity asthenosphere and a low rigidity lithosphere Terra Nova Abst Sup. 5, 44 Gabrielsen, R., Faerseth, R. B., Idil, S. and Steel, R. J. (1989) Architectural styles of basin fill in the North Viking Graben Terra Abstr. 1, 34 Gibbs, A. D. (1984) Structural evolution of extensional basin margins J. GeoL Soc. London 141,601-620 Gibbs, A. D. (1987) Deep seismic profiles in the northern North Sea. In: Petroleum Geology of Northwest Europe (Eds J. Brooks and K. W. Glennie), Proceedings, 3rd Conference on Petroleum Exploration, Graham and Trotman, London, 1025-1028

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