f+ I: "

PG E 242
I

q6r
G(\

IL/zg
GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING TABLE 10.10-AQUIFER PI's
j for Linear Flow (STB/D-psi) J"" 3(O.001127)kwh p.L 0.001127kwh j"" p.L kwh
1,OOOp.JO.0633kt/q,p.c
t

.'
I

O( -

A,

wi ~ ~
j for Radial Flow (STBID-psi) J"" 0.00708kh(/J/360) p.[ln(r .Ir,) - 0.75]
0.00708kh(/J/360)

, I

:.'

I. Type of Outer Aquifer Boundary

'.:

Finite, no flow

,I "

Finite, constant pressure

J"" j""

.!
;i
Infinite

p. In(r.Ir,)
0.00708kh(/J/360) p. InJo.0142kt/q,p.c tr~

j""

For example, at n=l, '.

i,:i

W"l =W.o+(tDl-tDO)

B.6.PI-WeOPO(tDl) PD(tDl)-tDOPO(tDl)

is defined as the initial amount of encroachable water and repre-~ sents the maximum possible aquifer expansion. After differentiat- J ing Eq. 10.64 with respect to time and rearranging, we have'

iI,

=0+(15.1)

454.3(5)-0

dW" dt

=-

We; dPaq dt Pi

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10.66)

1.83-0

Combining Eqs. 10.62 and 10.66 and integrating yields J faq dPaq Paq.i Paq-P,

=18,743 RB. For n=2,

1'1

=- J t Jpi dt'
0 W,,;

(10.67)

~ ,.i Iii 'IP, . t' "

.. I ii '! .\i

W,,2= W"I +(tm -tDl)

B.6.P2 - W"lPo(tm) PD(tm)...,.tDlPo(tm)

] ]
calculations fur-

or Paq-P,=(Paq.;-p,)exp

(~ ).
W",

-Jp.t

(10.68)

= 18,743(15.1) =84,482 RB.

!~ J ~i !:i

1~i "

j!

454.3(19)-18,743(0.0155) 2.15 -15.1(0.0155)

Table 10.10 summarizes the equations for calculating the aquifer PI for various reservoir/aquifer boundary conditions and aquifer
geometries. Note that we must use the aquifer properties to calcu- "

~~
From Eq. 10.67, we can derive an expression for (Paq -p,), dW !... =J(Paq.; -p,)exp dt

6. Table' 10.9 gives the final results.

and , following substitution into Eq. 10.68 and rearranging, we have

..:::::::t>

FetkovichI6

Method.

To simplify

water influx

ther, Fetkovich proposed a model that uses a pseudosteady-state aquifer PI and an aquifer material balance to represent the system compressibility. Like the Carter-Tracy method, Fetkovich's model eliminates the use of superposition and therefore is much simpler than van the Everdingen-Hurst method. However, because Fetkovich neglects the early transient time period in these calculations, the calculated water influx will always be less than the values pre-

( )
W,,;

-JP.t ~

(10.69)

which is integrated to obtain the cumulative water influx, We:

~ W,,;

W,,=~(Paq.i-P')
Paq,l

[ (-l-exp

JPaq.;,

W"i

)]

(10.70)

dicted by the previous two models. Similar to fluid flow from a reservoir to a well, Fetkovich used an inflow equation to model water influx from the aquifer to the reservoir. Assuming constantpressure at the original reservoir/aquifer boundary, the rate of water influx is dW" qw=-=J(Paq-p,)n, (10.62) dt where n=exponent for inflow equation (for flow obeying Darcy's law, n=l; for fully turbulent flow, n=0.5). Assuming that the aquifer flow behavior obeys Darcy's law and is at pseudosteady-state conditions, n = 1. Based on an aquifer material balance, the cumulative water influx resulting from aquifer expansiolkjs
We=CtWi(Paq,i-Paq)' """""""""""'" .(10.63)

Recall that we derived Eq. 10.70 for constant pressure at the reservoir/aquifer boundary. In reality, this boundary pressure changes as gas is produced from the reservoir. Rather than using superpo- , sition, Fetkovich assumed that, if the reservoir/aquifer boundary pressure history is divided into a finite number of time intervals, the incremental water influx during the nth interval is
'

Wei .6.W"n=~(Paq,n-l-Pm)

P~~

[ (
l-exp

JPaq,i.6.tn

~, .'

)]

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10.71) TABLE 10.11-PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIR! AQUIFER BOUNDARY, EXAMPLE 10.8

Eq. 10.63 can be rearranged to yield an expression for the average aquifer pressure,

Paq=Paq.i 1where We;=CtPaq.iWi

W,,

CtPaq.;W;

) (

We

=Paq.i 1--

W,,;

(10.64)
(10.65)

t (days) 0 91.5 183.0 274.5 366.0 457.5 549.0

p,
(psia) 3,793 3,788 3,774 3,748 3,709 3,680 3,643

""""""""""""""

GAS VOLUMES

AND MATERIAL-BALANCE

CALCULATIONS

243 From Eq. 10.65,

wherepaq.n-l=Paq,i .

We.n-l

1--

Wei

(10.72)

We; =CIPaq.i Wi =(6 x 10 -6)(3,793)(7.744

X 109)

= 176.3x 106 RB.

.(10.73)

- , and P m-

Pm-l +p .m 2

2. CalculateJ. For radial flow in an aquifer with a finite no-flow outer boundary, from Table 10.10,
J= 0.00708kh(8/360)
JL[ln(ra/r r) -0.75] (0.00708)(275)(
" . cL"

, drop to be approximately
--

Althoughit was developed for finite aquifers, Fetkovich's method canbe extended to infinite-actingaquifers. For infinite-actingaquifers,the method requires the ratio of water influx rate to pressure
constant throughout the productive life

19.2)( 180/360)
i j -0. ijj

ofthe reservoir. Under these conditions, we must use the aquifer PI for an infinite-acting 2/'J)if~r.

,,),(,,;'..,00

Th:: fc:"h'.-ing calculation pwc<.'uure illustrates this method. 1. Calculate the maximum water volume, Wei, from the aquifer ~ thatcould enter the gas reservoir if the reservoir pressure were reduced to zero. Wei=CIPaq,iWi, .(10.65) where Wi depends on the reservoir geometry and the PV available to store water. 2. CalculateJ, Note that the equations summarized in Table 10.10 depend on the boundary conditions and aquifer geometry. 3. Calculate the incremental water influx, lIWen, from the aquifer during the nth time interval.

=39.1 STB/D-psi. 3. For each time period, calculate the incremental water influx using Eq. 10.71. Wei
Paq,t

lIWen=--:-(Paq,n-l-Pm) where (from Eq. 10.72)

el

[ I-exp

JPaq.il1ln

f. I-J el

)] '

Paq,n-I =Paq,i I-~ and from Eq. 10.73,

We.n-l

)
'

Wei ~Wen=~(Paq,n-l-Pm) Paq,t

[ I-exp
""""""""""""""""

JPaq,illtn . Wet

)] .
(10.71)

Pm=

Pm-l +Pm

4. Calculate Wen:
n Wen=

For example, at n= I, (WeO

Wei Paqo=Paq,;lI-\

L i=1

lIWei'

=3,793

0 176.254xlO 6

1-

=3,793

. pSI.

The average pressure at the aquiferlreservoir

boundary is

, Example 10.8-Estimating Water Influx With the Fetkovich Method.Calculate the water influx for the reservoir/aquifer systemdescribed below. Assume a finite radial aquifer with an area of250,000acres and having a no-flow outer boundary. The estimated aquifer properties are given below; Table 10.11 summar.izesthe pressure history at the reservoirlaquifer boundary. Note ~that the aquifer is a sector of a cylinder where 8= 180.
~'..

Pri

PrO+Prl

3,793+3,788 =3,790.5 psia. 2

Therefore, the incremental water influx during Timestep I is Wei l1Wel =--:-(PaqO-PrI) [ I-exp Paq.l
176.3x 106

w' ~.

<P

CI = 6xlO-6 psia-I. '5< II = 19.2 ft. ,~,. ..~i Solution. I. Calculate the maximum volume of water from the aquifer, - Wti, that could enter the reservoir if the reservoir pressure were ~r reduced to zero. Note that the aquifer shape is a sector of a cylin~~der, so the initial volume of water in the aquifer is

,} t,

rr = 5,807 ft. JL= 0.25 cpo k = 275 md.

= 0.209.

(
1 5

JPaq,il1l1 Wet

)]

e = 1800.
X

3,793

(3,793-3,790.5) I-exp

- (39.1)(3,793)(91.5) 176.3x106 ]

=8,587 RB. Similarly, at n=2,

Paql =Paq.i 1-- Wei =3,793

if!

b:! lVi=

1I'(rJ-r~)II<p(e/360)
,

f:'::

.:_. \<..

~~

5.615

"(

. ,.:,

Wel

8,587 176.3 x 106 ) =3,792.8 psi. boundary is

The average pressure at the aquifer/reservoir Pr2 Prl +Pr2 2 3,788+3,774 2 =3,781 . pSla.

(43,560)(250,000)

(43,:60A )C:O)=

11'

( )
180

360

The incremental water influx during Timestep 2 is

Wei

i, Therefore, ~~11V.= 5\i.: r

=83,260ft.
11We2

~:

.(83,2602

-5,8072)(19.2)(0.209)(180/360) 5.615
RB.

= --:-(Paql -Pr2)[ I-exp Paq,t

JPaq i1112

.. Wet

)]

OJ 'i 1, A! '.L : !. :11

I: ""'.

=7.744 x 109

- 176.3x106 3,793 (3,792.8-3.781)[1-

:t:J.

I
244
;1

GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING :.

'~

r
TABLE 10.12-SUMMARY OF FINAL RESULTS, EXAMPLE 10.8 Paq.n-1 -Pm (psia) 0 2.5 11.8 30.9 61.2 90.6 116.9 We 0 8,587 40,630 106,399 210,285 31'I ,642 402,060 We (RB) 0 8,587 49,217 155,616 365,901 677,543 1,079,603 Pm (psi a) 3,793 3,788 3,774 3,748 3,709 3,680 3,643 Pm (psia) 3,793.0 3,790.5 3,781.0 3,761.0 3,728.5 3,694.5 3,661.5 P aq,n (psia) 3,793 3,792.8 3,791.9 3,789.7 3,785.1 3,778.4 3,769.8

'Fi'
' ' ..

:d: i" I, .
j i,!; Hi
Iii: I
,

tir
I exp X

I{

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-

(39.1)(3,793)(91.5)

176.3x106

]J

=40,630 RB. 4. Calculatethe cumulativewaterinfluxduringeach timestep. For example,at the end of the first timestep,
..

k c, e h

= = = =

50 md. 6x 10-6 psia-I. 360. 20.0 ft.

Bw = 1.0 RB/STB.
Solution. Using a procedure similar to that illustrated for thevan

l.'i'

n=1

Everdingenand Hurst method, estimatewater influx for each

timestep as described below. 1. Calculate ~Pn' where ~Pn= 'h.(Pn-2 -PII)' For example, at n=1 (i.e., t=182.5 days), ~PI = 'h.(PO-PI)= 'h.(5,392-5,368)= 12.0 psi. At n=5 (i.e., t=912.5 days), ~Ps = 'h.(P3-Ps)= 'h(5,245 -5, 147)=49.0 psi.
2.' Calculate dimensionless times for each of the real times given. ,J

!: It
1

We!

= E
;=1

~We;=~Wel

=8,587

RB.

[I,

t{

I' K
,1,'iI

Similarly, the cumulative water influx at the end of the second timestep is n=2
We2=

it

E ;=1

~We;=~Wel +~We2=8,587+40,630=49,217

RB.

l ';i, ,b
I ~I
I

"I ! .!'l

I'~. '

~jj ltl " .1 'I

Table 10.12 summarizes the final results. Estimating Original Gas in Place With Material Balance for a Dry-Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Once the water influx has been calculated, we can estimate the original gas in place with material-balanceconcepts.Recall from Sec. 10.3.2 the general form of the material-balance equation including water influx:

Use the dimensionless time defined by Eq. 10.37 for a radialgeometry lD= rJ>p.c,r~

0.00633kl =

(0.00633)(50)1 =0.0191. (0.24)(1.0)(6 x 10-6)(3,383)2

GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+We-BwWp' .,
which can be rearranged to yield GpBg+ WpBw We

(10.74)

II f!
il
11

il ii
i'\

. (10.75) (Bg -Bgi) (Bg-Bgi) If we define a water influx constant, C, in terms of the cumulative water influx as We=Cf(p,t),
then Eq. 10.75 becomes GpBg+WpBw (Bg-Bg;) =G+ Cf(p,t) (Bg-Bgi) . (10.77)
,

= G+

For example, at n=l (i.e., 1=182,5 days), lD=(0.019)(l82.5) =3.5. 3. For each dimensionless time computed in Step 2, calculate a dimensionless cumulative water influx. We are assuming an infInite-' acting aquifer, so we can use Eq. 10.49. QpD(ID)= 1.28381/1 + 1.193281D +0.2698721

i,1 ,.j ,:
I.

(10.76)

iF +0.0085529415

liii ;i
ii
I

I +0.6 I 65991b' +0.0413oo81D For example, at 11= I, QpD(ID\ )=[1.2838(3.5) 'h + 1.19328(3.5)+0.269872(3.5)3/2

I!
I

j.

The form of Eq. 10.77 suggests that, if water influx is the predominant reservoir drive mechanism, then a plot of [(GpBg)+(WpBw)]/(Bg-Bgi) vs. f(p,t)/(Bg-Bgi) will be a straight line with a slope equal to C and an intercept equal to G. The functional form of f(p,t) varies according to the water influx model used. Any water influx model, such as steady state, unsteady state, or pseudosteadystate, can be used with Eq. 10.77. Note that,

+0.00855294(3.5)2]/[1 +0.616599(3.5) 'h+0.0413008(3.5)] j QpD =3.68. ;

4. Now, estimate the original gas in place and water influxcon-i
stant using the material-balance plotting method. Calculate the pial-: TABLE 10.13-PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION HISTORIES, EXAMPLE 10.9 t P (days) (psia) 0 5,392 182.5 5,368 365 5,292 547.5 5,245 730 5,182 912.5 5,147 1,095 5,110 1,277.5 5,066 1,460 5,006 1,642.5 4,994 1,825 4,997 2,007.5 -4,990 2,190 4,985 Gp (MMscf) 0 677.7 2,952.4 5,199.6 7,132.8 9,196.9 11,171.5 12,999.5 14,769.5 16,317.0 17,868.0 19,416.0 21,524.8 Wp (STB) 0 3 762 2,054 3,300 4,644 5,945 7,148 8,238 9,289 10,356 11,424 12,911 z 1.0530 1.0516 1.0470 1.0442 1.0404 1.0383 1.0360 1.0328 1.0285 1.0276 1.0278 1.0273 1.0270 Bg (RB/MscQ 0.6775 0.6796 0.6864 0.6907 0.6965 0.6999 0.7033 0.7072 0.7127 0.7138 0.7136 0.7142 0.7147

if the incorrect water influx model is assumed, the data may not exhibit a straight line. Example 10.9 illustrates the application of Eq. 10.77 for an unsteady-state water influx model. Example 10.9-Estimating Original Gas in Place With Material Balance for a Dry-Gas Reservoir With Water Influx. Estimate the originalgas in place and water influxconstantusing the materialbalance equation developed for water influx in a dry-gas reservoir. Assume an unsteady-state, infinite-acting aquifer. According to McEwen,22 the volumetric estimate of original gas in place is 200 X106 Mscf. Table 10.13 gives the pressure and production histories; the estimated aquifer properties are summarized below. rJ> = 0.24.
p.

1.0 cpo

rr = 3,383 ft.

:GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS

TABLE t (days) 0 182.5 365 547.5 730 912.5 1,095 1,277.5 1,460 1,642.5 1,825 2,007.5 2,190 ton Qpon 10.14-MATERIAL-BALANCE APn (psia) PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXAMPLE 10.9

245

LApQ po/(B B gi) (1,000 psi/R 13-Mscl)

(GpBg + WpBw)/(Bg -Bgi) (Bscl)

3.5 6.9 10.4 13.9 17.3 20.8 24.3 27.7 31.2 34.7 38.1 41.6

0
12.0 50 61.5 55.0 49.0 36.0 40.5 52.0 36.0 4.5 2.0 6.0

21.0 28.5 46.3 55.8 71.0 83.1 93.1 99.1 116.7 136.0 151.7 166.7

219.3 227.7 272.6 260.9 287.6 304.5 309.3 298.8 320.8 352.9 378.3 413.6

3.68 5.82 7.76 9.56 11.21 12.84 14.42 15.91 17.40 18.87 20.26 21.68

! ling functionsdefined in the previous section, [(GpBg)+(WpBw)]l

(Bs.-Bgi) vs. f(p,t)/(Bg-Bgi)' where f(p,t)=ELlpQpD' ' ror example, at n= I the plotting function for the vertical axis, y, is ~ GpBg+WpBw 'Y=
(Bg-Bg;)

of G, C, aquifer size or an aquifer/reservoir size ratio, ra/r" and the relationship between real time, t, and dimensionless time, tD' Simultaneous determination of these variables that best fit a pressure/productionhistory is a complexproblem in regression analysis. 10.3.3 Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoirs. We developed the material-balance equation for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir assuming that gas expansion was the dominant drive mechanism and that expansions of rock and water are negligible during the productive life of the reservoir. These assumptions are valid for normallypressured reservoirs (Le., reservoirs with initial pressure gradientsbetween 0.43 and 0.5 psilft) at low to moderate pressures when the magnitude of gas compressibilities greatly exceeds the effects of rock and connate water compressibilities. However, for abnormallyor geopressured reservoirs, pressure gradients often approach values equal to the overburdenpressure gradient (i.e., "" 1.0 psi/ft). In these and other higher-pressure reservoirs, the changes in rock and water compressibilities may be important and should be considered in material-balance calculations. Following Ramagost et al. 's23 derivation, we begin with Eq. 10.26for a normally pressured volumetricgas reservoir and include the effects of changing water volume, LlVw' and formation (rock) volume, LlVf' As Fig. 10.12 shows, the general form of the material-balanceequation for a volumetricgeopressured reservoir is GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+LlVw+LlVf'
where

(677.7x 103)(0.6796)+(3)(1.0) (0.6796 -0.6775) , =219.3x106 Mscf=219.3 Bscf. Theplotting function for the horizontal axis, x, is

, x-

ELlpQpD

.,1 -(Bg-Bgi) (12)(3.68) (0.6796-0.6775) =21.0x 103 psi/RB-Mscf. ". 5. The material-balance plotting functions, summarized in Ta[ble 10.14, are plotted in Fig. 10.11. e 6. From the slope of the line through the data points in Fig. 10.11, Cisestimated to be 1195 RB/psi, and the original gas in place esti.,matedfrom the intercept is G= 197 Bscf= 197x 106 Mscf, which iagrees with the volumetric estimate of G=200x 106 Mscf. " , ~" The general problem that reservoir engineers face when analyz~inggas reservoirs with water influx is simultaneous determination
. . . i , , . . . . .
"

(10.78)

G l!..8!.. = reservoir volume occupied by gas at initial reservoir

pressure, KH; (G-Gp)Bg = reservoir volume occupied by gas after gas productionat a pressurebelow the initialreservoir pressure, RB; LlVw=increase in reservoir PV occupiedby connate water and following water expansion at a pressure below the initial reservoir pressure, RB; and LlVf=increase in reservoir PV occupied by formation (rock) at a pressure below the initial reservoir pressure, RB. The expansion of the connate water following a finite pressure decrease can be modeled with isothermal water compressibility: G

i
"' I

!
.

.
.~

SI~pe. c= 1.1951rnfpsi

~t
'
m

'. ~
t-_.

---f.

I i
!-._---_._._..

'G =197 'MMMscf

!
"

i !
I

L._____--.....
! !
'-"-'" !

(G -Gp)Bg GBgi L1Vj L1Vw

"-"""1""-'-""---'---1""-'---'-"'---1"""---"

. 0

50

100

150

200

Initial Conditions (p = pJ

Later Conditions (p < Pi)

u:"pQpD/(B,- B,i)' MMpsiIRB/ Mscf

Fig.10.11-Graphical solution to the material-balance equationfor a dry-gas reservoir with water influx, Example 10.9.

Fig. 10.12-Material-balance model showing reservoir PV occupied by gas at initial and later conditions for a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir.

246

GAS RESERVOIR TABLE 10.16-PLOTTING Gp (MMscf) 0 392.5 1,642.2 3,225.8 4,260.3 5,503.5 7,538.1 8,749.2 10,509.3 11,758.9 12,789.2 17,262.5 22,890.8 28,144.6 32,566.7 36,819.9 p/z (psia) 6,602 6,553 6,467 6,395 6,331 6,247 6,136 6,081 5,954 5,860 5,799 5,500 4,878 4,628 4,209 3,802 FUNCTIONS p/z[1 -(CwSwi

ENGINEERING 10.10

TABLE10.15-pRESSURE ANDPRODUCTION HISTORIES,

EXAMPLE 10.10

FOR EXAMPLE + Ct )(PI-p)/(1 (psia) 6,602 6,515 6,374 6,239 6,133 5,998 5,825 5,740 5,556 5,424 5,339 4,951 4,261 3,985 3,563 3,167

-8wf))

P (psia)
9,507 9,292 8,970 8,595 8,332 8,009 7,603 7,406 7,002 6,721 6,535 5,764 4,766 4,295 3,750 3,247

Gp (MMscf)
0 392.5 1,642.2 3,225.8 4,260.3 5,503.5 7,538.1 8,749.2 10,509.3 11,758.9 12,789.2 17,262.5 22,890.8 28,144.6 32,566.7 36,819.9

1.440 1.418 1.387 1.344 1.316 1.282 1.239 1.218 1.176 1.147 1.127 1.048 0.977 0.928 0.891 0.854

Cw=-~

Vw op T ilVp=cfVpiilp, (10.84) where Vwi=initial reservoir volume occupiedby the connate water . We can arrange Eq. 10.79 in terms of the change in water where ilp=P-Pi' Again, we can write the original rock PV in volume, terms of the original gas in place as ilVw=-cwVwiilp, .(10.80) GBgi Vpi= . -. . - -. -. - -. . . . . . . . ... .(10.85) where ilp=P-Pi' We can also write the original water volume in (l-Swi) terms of the original gas in place:
SwiGBgi Vwi=

( )

OVw

=-~

ilVw, Vwi ilp

(10.79)

where cf=average formation compressibility over the finite pressure interval, ilp. In terms of the change in PV, Eq. 10.83 becomes

~
hit w.
10.1

(I-Swi)

(10.81)

Substituting Vpi from Eq. 10.85 into Eq. 10.84 and notingthat;
-ilp=Pi-P and ilVp= -ilVf (the change in rock volume) yields -ilVf'

Substituting Eq. 10.81 into Eq. 10.80 and noting that -ilp=Pi-P yields ilVw=Cw(Pi-P) SwiGBgi (I-Swi)
4

-ilVp=cf(Pi-P)

GBgi
(I-Swi)

,.(10.86)~

~~ =~

. .

'" -.. -.. -.

(10.82)

Substituting Eqs. 10.82 and 10.86 into Eq. 10.78, we can now write a general material-balance equation for a volumetric geopressured reservoir:

Similarly, the decrease in PV, ilVp' caused by a finite reduction in pore pressure can be modeled with

Con,

Cw(Pi-P)SwiGBgi C f (p.-p)GB. GBgl .= ( G- Gpg )B + + 1 gl (l-Sw) (l-S WI.)

Cr :p (o~ ) T
and thus, I ilVp cf=--'
Vpi ilp 7000 ...............

(1O.83a)
After simplification, Eq. 10.87 becomes

1
zl

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (1O.83b)

GBgi(Pi-P) GBgi=(G-Gp)Bg+ (l-Sw)

(cwSwi+cf)

willi cept~ to PI: , 10.1\

J

, ..
'} :2
"=::'

~6000
5000

i - ---' i
--~
'ii .!
I -

T
I

I i Ii! ---+

--

Exai
I
~

~___L, !
!

r I
JI
'

-----

~
~ .5

~4000 . ~3000 +.
2000

I
! i ;

, L-. .-----r

-------

i
i

rial 1.' the fi (the! usini

.--

I
I -r--~,

i
~

I
!
!
!

J1
'

1000 0

G=70.7Bcf

I I--iI

r---

I i

.~ 0.

3000

gas ~ norn: mate: ducti[

r---i
20 40
Cumulative

---T
80

t--.-.-.100 120 0 , 0 20 40 60
Gas Production,

60
Gas Production,

G, (Bet)

80
G, (Bet)

100

Cumulative

Fig. 10.13-Graphlcal solution to the material-balance equation for a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir, Example 10.10.

Fig. 10.1~-lncorrect graphical analysis of geopressured gas reservoir, Example 10.10.

GASVOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS TABLE 10.17-PRESSURE AND PRODUCTION HISTORIES, EXAMPLE 10.11 p (psia) 9-,507 9,292 8,970 8,595 8,332 8,009 7,603 7,406 7,002 6,721 6,535 5,764 4,766 4,295 3,750 3,247 z 1.440 1.418 1.387 1.344 1.316 1.282 1.239 1.218 1.176 1.147 1.127 1.048 0.977 0.928 0.891 0.854 Gp (MMscf) 0 392.5 1,642.2 3,225.8 4,260.3 5,503.5 7,538.1 8,749.2 10,509.3 11,758.9 12,789.2 17,262.5 22,890.8 28,144.6 32,566.7 36,819.9
150

247

"'" ~
)(

i
100
-I'''''':''''''''''''!

!
SIOIf I

-6-1

= 13.3!x 10
t-.~!

<1>fMSCO .

.
I

'U!

8::;
.:,<>. ~

:"'-""-"i
,

l-.........

g ~

5O~--~~1----.J. .
i '

0 -I""'''''''';-'''''''''''''-1''''''''''''''''''''r''''''''''''''''''''[''''''''''-''
-6

I
I

i
'

~I
I

-1

1--..-....

I~tercept ~ ..18.5 xi 10 psi i

-50 , 0

I
2

I
4

I!
6 8

I
14

10

12

[(G,I(P; p)](P,zl ZiP),MMscflpsi

~:

'

(Fig. 10.13)-G=70.7 Bcf; normally pressured reservoir analysis (Fig. 10.14)-G=89.3 Bcf. The results showthat, if we analyze this geopressured reservoir ~ have using techniques for normally pressured reservoirs, we will overestimate the original gas in place by more than 25%. In addition, ~ ~ I (cwSwi+cf)(Pi-P) -. Pi - pj Gp (10.90) note that the data in Fig. 10.14 are beginning to trend downward, ] [ z (l-Swj) Zj Zj G which indicates that a normally p'ressuredanalysis of the available data is not valid. Notethat, when the effects of rock and water compressibility are We developed the material-balanceequation for a high"pressure ,negligible, Eq. 10.90 reduces to the material-balance equation in r. which gas expansion is the primary source of reservoir energy (Eq. gas reservoir usinga singlevalue for formationcompressibilityover 10.29).Failure to include the effects of rock and water compress i- the life of the reservoir. In reality, formation compressibility may vary during pressure depletion, especially at the highestpressures. bilities in the analysis of high-pressure reservoirs can result in errors Further, the previous derivation assumed that values for formation ,in both original gas in place and subsequent gas reserve estimates. compressibility are readily available. However, these values are ;Wepresent two analysis techniques based on Eq. 10.90 for voluvery difficult to measure accurately in the laboratory, especially imetric geopressured reservoirs. as a function of changes in pore pressure. Therefore, in the next (i Estimating Original Gas in Place When Average Fonnation ~ CcmpressibiliJy Is Known. If cf is assumed to be constant with section, we present a graphical technique for simultaneously estimating original gas in place and an average value of formation [time, the form of Eq. 10.90 suggests that a plot of compressibility. P f (CwSWj+Cf)(Pj-P) Simultaneous Determination of Average Formation Compress~ - [I vs. Gp ibility and Original Gas in Place. Roach25 developed a material] r. z (l-Swi) balance technique for simultaneously estimating formation com.. pressibility and original gas in place in geopressured reservoirs. .willbe a straight line with slope equal to -p/ZjG and an interBeginning with Eq. 10.90, Roach presented the material-balance ,ceptequal to p/Zj. At p/z=O, Gp =G, so extrapolation of the line ',~plz=O providesan estimateof originalgas in place. Example equation in the following form: ;10.10illustrates this analysis technique. 1 1 pjZ Gp PiZ Swicw+cf

~or 1. ~

(CWSwi+Cf)(Pj-P)

Fig. 10.15-Graphlcal solution to the material-balance equation for simultaneous estimation of original gas In place and formation compressibilityin volumetric geopressured gas reservoirs, Example 10.11. (10.89)

(l-Swi)

Bgj =G-G ] Bg

p.

~ SubstitutingBg/Bg=pz/pjZ

into Eq. 10.89 and rearranging, we

.eo" "

(Pj-p)

( )=
PZi -I PiZ

[ (Pj-p)

PZj

]-

l-Swj

[Example10.10-Estimating Original Gas in Place With Mate:rIaI Balance for a Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoir. For '!befollowing data taken from an abnormally pressured reservoir i(theAnderson "L" sand24), estimate the original gas in place hlsing the material-balance equation developed for a high-pressure
fgas reservoir. In addition,use the material-balance equationfor a

.. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . ... ... . (10.91) Again, if cf is constant, the form of Eq. 10.91 suggests that a plot of

inonnallypressured gas reservoir, and compare the initial imates from both equations. Table 10.15 gives the pressure fduction histories. ~i Pi = 9,507 psia. Cw = 3.2xlO-6 psi-I. Swi = 0.24. r: Original pressure gradient=0.843 psi/ft. ~ Cj=19.5 x 10 -6 psi -1 (assumed constant). II ~Solution. fff1. Calculate the geopressured and normally pressured "lotting functions for each data point (Table 10.16). 2. From the two plots, estimate original gas in place rcept with the horizontal axis: high-pressure reservoir

gas estiand pro-

(Pi-P)

(--I )vs [ -PZi

Gp

PiZ PZj ]

(Pi-P)

will be a straight line with a slope that equals lIG and an intercept that equals -(S"icw +cI'I-Swi)' We can then calculate the original gas in place, G, and the average formation compressibility, cf' using the slope and intercept, respectively. Poston and Chen26 applied this method to the geopressured gas reservoir data presented in Example 10.10. Their analysis is reproduced in Example 10.11.

pressure from the analysis

Example 10.H-Simultaneous Determination of Average Formation Compressibility and Original Gas in Place With Material Balance in a Volumetric Geopressured Gas Reservoir. For the following datatakenfromtheAnderson"L" sand,24 estimate

248 TABLE 10.18-PLOTTING p/Z (psia) 6,602.1 6,552.9 6,467.2 6,395.1 6,331.3 6,247.3 6,136.4 6,080.5 5,954.1 5,859.6 5,798.6 5,500.0 4,878.2 4,628.2 4,208.8 3,802.1 Gp (MMscf) 0 392.5 1,642.2 3,225.8 4,260.3 5,503.5 7,538.1 8,749.2 10,509.3 11,758.9 12,789.2 17,262.5 22,890.8 28,144.6 32,566.7 36,819.9 FUNCTIONS, EXAMPLE 10.11

GAS RESERVOIR

ENGINEERING

1/(p,-p)[( Piz/PZ,) -1] 10-6psi-1

Gp/(Pi -P)(Piz/PZi) (Mscf/psi)

34.9 38.9 35.5 36.4 37.9 39.9 40.8 43.4 45.4 46.6 53.5 74.5 81.8 98.8 117.6

1,840 3,120 3,650 3,780 3,880 4,260 4,520 4,650 4,760 4,900 5,540 6,530 7,700 8,870 10,210

original gas in place using Eq. 10.91 and an average value for formation compressibility. Table 10.17 gives the pressure and production histories. Pi = 9,507 psia. Cw = 3.2xI0-6 psi-I. Original pressure gradient = 0.843 psi/ft. Swi = 0.24. Solution. I. First, we must generate the plotting functions developed by Roach.25 ~ample calculations for Gp =392.5 MMscf=3.925 x 105 Mscf follow. For the variable on the vertical axis, we plot 1
(Pi-P)

B. The average formation compressibility is determined fromthe intercept of the line, b:

b=-

( l-Swi

SWiCW+Cf)

= -18.5 x 10-6 psi -1 = - [ (0.24)(3.2 x 10-6) +Cf] . (1-0.24) Cf=13.3xlO-6 psi-!..

( )
PZi-l

PiZ

I - (9,507-9,292) =34.9xlO-6

(9,507)( 1.418)

[ (9,292)(1.440)-1 ]

The data plotted in Fig. 10.15 do not lie completely on a straight line. Poston and Chen26 concluded that, initially, most ofthefor-' malion resistance to the overburden pressure is provided by!)1e'fluids in the pore spaces. However, as fluids are withdrawn-from these. pore spaces, the formation compacts, resulting in more resistance: to the overburden being transferred to the rock matrix. Under these'

psi-I.

For the variable on the horizontal axis, we plot Gp PiZ

PZi ]

conditions, the formation compressibility is not a constantbut changes with time, as indicated by the initial nonlinear portionof the data in Fig. 10.15.
10.3.4 Volumetric Gas-Condensate Reservoirs. In this section,we develop material-balance equations for a volumetric gas reservoir with gas condensation during pressure depletion. We also include the effects of connatewater vaporization. Both phenomenaare most prevalent in deep, high-temperature, high-pressure gas reservoirs] and must be included for accurate material-balance calculations. Depending on whether the pressure is above or below the dewpoint, two or three fluid phases may be present in a gas-condensate

[ (Pi-P)

(3.92x 105) (9,507)(1.418) = [ (9,507-9,292) (9,292)(1.440) ]

= 1.84X 103

Mscf/psi.

2. Prepare a plot (Fig. 10.15) of the plotting functions summarized in Table 10.18. 3. Estimate the original gas in place and average formation compressibility from Fig. 10.15. A. The original gas in place, G, is estimated from the slope of the line, m: I
-

Gn.N

= slope = 13.3 x 10-6 (MMscf) -I,

Vhevi

Vhcv Vhel

or G=

13.3 x 10-6 MMscf-!

=75,190 MMscf.
Initial Conditions YJ > pdJ

Note that, in Example 10.10, we estimated the original gas in place assumingan averagevalue of formation compressibility,while in this example we calculated the original gas in plaC'eand formac tion compressibility simultaneously. As a result, the two estimates of gas in place are slightly different.

Fig. 10.16-Material-balance model showing reservoir PV 'occupied by gas and liquid hydrocarbon phases at Initial and later conditions for a gas-condensate reservoir.

.~ .0__1I.ES L.',c t\~.c~,-,---=:~.<,.,,::=: :"-:.-'-:"-':>'-=

m'oir. Aoo\.e the dewpoim. the \.apor phase Ll'nsisrs l'f nl'[ ,'nly Jrocarbon and inert gases but also water vapor. As the reservoir ssure declines, the water in the liquid phase continues to vapo~

24' -~
:\"c'W. Ll'mbmm:: Eqs. Il).9': anJ material-balance equation: GTBgi=(GT-GpT)Bg+ ll). IN yidJs [he folllming

to remain in equilibrium with the existing water vapor, thus

S,,(GT-GpT)Bg I-So .(10.100)

reasing the saturation of the liquid water in the reservoir and 'easing the PV occupied by the vapor phases. As the reservoir ;sure declines further, the amount of water vapor present in the phase may increase significantly. However, as the reservoir .sure decreases below the dewpoint. the fraction of PV avail. for the vapor phases decreases as liquids condense from the :ocarbon vapor phase. J develop a material-balance equation that considers the effects 1Scondensation and water vaporization requires that we include ;hanges in reservoir PV resulting from these phenomena. We n witn a material-balance equation for gas-condensate resers. We then extend this equation to include the effects of conwater vaporization. In addition, because changes in fonnation pressibilities often are significant in these deep, high-pressure reservoirs, we include geopressured effects. u-Condensate Reservoirs. We derived the material-balance .tions in previous sectioBS for dry gases with the inherent as)tion that no changes in hydrocarbon phases occurred during ;ure depletion. Unlike dry-gas reservoirs, gas-condensate reser; are characteristically rich with intennediate and heavier ocarbon molecules. At pressures above the dewpoint, gas conates exist as a single-phase gas; however, as the reservoir presdecreases below the dewpoint, the gas condenses and forms lid hydrocarbon phase. Often, a significant volume of this COllate is immobile and remains in the reservoir. Therefore, corapplication of material-balance concepts requires that we ider the liquid volume remaining in the reservoir and any liqproduced at the surface. ,suming that the initial reservoir pressure is above the dew, the reservoir PV is Ocupied initially by hydrocarbons in the JUSphase (Fig. 10.16), or i=Vhi' (10.92)

or, if we substitute Bg/Bg =(pz;)/( PiZ) into Eq. 10.100 and rearrange,

.. , ~ i ~ , ;

(I-So)-=Z

Pi Zi

1--

GpT

GT

(10.101)

f I

which suggests that a plot of (I-So)(Plz) vs. GpT will be a straight line from which GT can be estimated. Correct application of Eq. 10.101, however, requires estimates of the liquid hydrocarbon volumes formed as a function of pressure below the dewpoint. The most accurate source of these estimates is a laboratory analysis of the reservoir fluid samples. Unfortunately, laboratory analyses of fluid samples often are not available. An alternative material-balance technique is GTBzgi=(GT-GpT)BZg' """"""""""'" (10.102)

i i , i

! 1
!

where GTBzgi=reservoir PV occupied by the total gas, which includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of the produced condensates, at the initial reservoir pressure above the dewpoint, RB; (GT-GpT)BZg=reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbon vapor phase and the vapor equivalent of liquid phase after some production at a pressure below the initial reservoir pressure and dewpoint pressure, RB; and Bz i and Bzg =gas FVF's based on two-phase Z factors at initial anJ later conditions, respectively, RB/Mscf. If we substitute Bzg/BZg =(pzzi)/(PiZZ) into Eq. 10.102 and rearrange, we have

:A

~=~(iZz ZZi

GpT). GT

(10.103)

where ZZiand Zz=two-phase gas deviation factors evaluated at in-

e reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbons in the gaseous phase can be written as vi=GTBgi, (10.93)

e GT includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of produced conttes and Bgi is defined by Eq. 10.7. later conditions following a pressure reduction below the dew!Carbon phases, or

.the reservoir PV is now occupied by both gas and liquid

=Vhv+VhL .(10.94)

~ Vp=reservoir PV at later conditions, RB; Vhv=reservoir 'lC occupiedby gaseous hydrocarbons at later conditions,RB; 'hL = reservoir PV occupied by liquid hydrocarbons at later tions,RB. 10.94assumes that rock expansion and water vaporization ~gligibl-e. In terms of the condensate saturation, So' we can =(I-SoWp (10.95)

'hL =SoVp' """""""""""""""'" (10.96) .ddition, the hydrocarbon vapor phase at later conditions is =(GT-GpT)Bg, ","""""""""""'" (10.97)

Bg is evaluated at later conditions. ating Eqs. 10.95 and 10.97, the reservoir PV is (GT-GpT)Bg

itial reservoir pressure and at a later pressure, respectively. The form of Eq. 10.103suggests that a plot of p/zz vs. GpT will be a straight line for a volumetric gas-condensate reservoir when two-phase gas deviation factors are used. Two-phase gas deviation factors account for both gas and liquid phases in the reservoir. Fig. 10.17 is an example of the relationship between the equilibrium gas (Le., single-phase gas) and twophase deviation factors for a gas-condensatereservoir. At pressures above the dewpoint, the single- and two-phase Zfactors are equal; at pressures below the dewpoint, however, the two-phase Zfactors are lower than those for the single-phase gas. Ideally, two-phase gas deviation factors are determined from a laboratory analysis of reservoir fluid samples. Specifically, these two-phase Z factors are measured from a constant-volume depletion study.27-Z9 However, in the absence of a laboratory study, correiationsZ9are availablefor estimatingtwo-phase Zfactors from properties of the well-stream fluids. Gas-Condensate Reservoirs With Water VaporiZiltion. In this section, we developa material-balanceequation for gas-condensate reservoirs in which both phase changes and water vaporization occur. Similar to Humphreys'30 work, we include the effects of rock and watercompressibilities,which are often significantin deep, high-pressure reservoirs. The reservoir PV is occupied initially by hydrocarbon and water vapor phases as well as the connate liquid phase, or Vpi= V\'i+ V...i (10.104)

j! ii ;:. ji "

]\.

where V'.i= initial reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbon and , . (10.98) water vapors, RB, and V...i=initial reservoir PV occupied by the (1-So) liquid water, RB. If the reservoir pressure is above the dewpoint. connate water itituting Eq. 10.98 into Eq. 10.95 and combining with Eq. is the only liquid phase present. From the definition of water satuyields an expression for the reservoir PV at later conditions: ration, we can write the initial reservoir PV occupied by the liquid -G )B + So(GT-GpT)Bg . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10.99) phase as pT g I-SQ (10.105) Vw;=Sw;Vp;'

250 1.0 Gn.N

0.9

Gas-Plus<:

c: '0 .;;1 cd

0 It

Vhcvi
~ ~

Vhcv Vwv

Q.J

Vwvi
0.7

Vw

.>

8
0

Vwi
Two-Ph1se

a
0.6

Initial Conditions

~ > pJ

Fig. -10.18-Materiai-balance model showing reservoir PV0ccupied by hydrocarbons and water at Initial and later condItions for a gas-condensate reservoir with water vaporization.
0
1000 2000 3000

Q.$ ~ooo

Pressure, psia Fig. 10.17-Example of equilibrium and two-phase gas devIation factors for a gas-condensate reservoir. 29
Similarly, we can express the initial reservoir volume of the vapor phases as
Vvi=(1-SwiWpi"""""""""""""'" (10.106)

If we substitute Eq. 10.I 13 into Eq. 10.115, we can writean expression for the hydrocarbon vapor phase in terms of thecurrent reservoir PV:
Vhv=Vp(1-Sw)(l-yw)' , (10.116);

The current hydrocarbon vapor phase is Vhv=(G-Gp)Bg' (l0.1I7)~ Combining Eqs. 10. I 16 and 10.117 gives the current reservoir,1 PV: Vp= (G-Gp)Bg (1-Sw)(1 -Yw)

Now, we define the fraction of the initial vapor phase volume that is water vapor as Ywi=Vwv/Vvi (10.107) and the fraction occupied by the hydrocarbon gases as (1-Yw;)=Vhv/Vvi (10.108) where Vwvi=initialreservoir PV occupiedby water vapor, RB, and Vhvi=initial reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbon vapor, RB. Substituting Eq. 10.106 into Eq. 10.108 gives an expression for the hydrocarbon vapor-phase volume in terms of the initial reservoir PV: Vhvi=Vpi(1-Swi)(I-Ywi)' .(10.109) Finally, becausethe initialhydrocarbonvaporphase is the original gas in place, Vhvi= GBgi, then Vpi=
"""""""""""""""'" .(10.110)

Like geopressuredgas reservoirs, deep, high-pressured gas-~ condensate reservoirs often experience significant changes inPV~
during pressure depletion. Therefore, using a method similar to thai ~ presented in the section on geopressured gas reservoirs, we can express the change in reservoir formation (rock) volume in tenns of the formation compressibility as

C j(p dVf

--p) GB

. '"'''''''''''''''''''' -

(1-Swi)(I-ywi)

j 1 (10.119); ~ ~

In terms of Eq. 10.119, the material-balance equation for pres-~

sures above the dewpoint becomes GBgi (G-Gp)Bg

(I-Swi)(I-Ywi)

(I-Sw)(l-yw)

+ ci<Pi-p)GBgi . (1-Swi)(1 -Yw;)

GBgi

(1-Swi)(1-ywi)

..(10.111)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10.120) Rearranging terms gives

(l-Sw) G (1-Swi) (1-Ywi) (l-yw) Bgi -[I-Cj(Pi-P)]=G-Gp' Bg into Eq. 10.121 and rearrangill&
.

The form of the material-balanceequationat some pressure lower than the initial reservoir pressure depends on the value of the dewpoint. Therefore, we will develop material-balance equations for depletion at pressures above and below the dewpoint. Depletion at Pressures Above the Dewpoint. Because the reservoir pressure is still above the dewpoint, no hydrocarbon gas has condensed. However, as the pressure declines, mOreof the liquid water vaporizes, thus reducing the liquid water saturation. Therefore, the volume of liquid phase becomes (Fig. 10.18)
Vw=SwVp' """"""""""""""""" (10.112)

Substituting Bg/Bg=pz/p;'<.

yields
(1-Sw) (I -Swi) (l-yw) (l-yw;) P [1-Cj(pi-p)]-= Z Pi Zi Pi Gp Zi G ,

The form of Eq. 10.122 suggests that a plot of

(I-Sw) (1-Swi) (1-yw) (1-Ywi) [I-ci<pi-p)]P Z: vs. Gp 1 j and an in!er~

where Sw=current value of connate water saturation. Similarly, the volume of the vapor phase is Vv=(I-SwWp' (10.113) In addition, we define the fractionof the vapor phase that is water vapor as
Yw=Vw)Vv
"""""""""""""""'" .(10.114)

will be a straight line with a slope equal to -P/ZiG

cept equal to P/Zi' At p/z=O, Gp=G, so extrapolation oCme:

straight line to plz =0 provides an estimate of original gas in place.1 N~te that, if t~e ":,,ater saturation remains constant during the~~ of the reservOIr (I.e., Sw=Swi and Yw=Ywi) and when formatic8j compressibility is negligible, Eg. 10.122 reduces to Eg. 10.29 a volumetric dry-gas reservoir.

and the fraction of vapor phase that is hydrocarbon_~s (1-Yw)=Vhv/Vv' (10.115)

i
VOLUMESAND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS
6000 5000

251

Gp,Np

Vhcv

4000 .~ ~ 3000

V hcvi
Vwvi

Vwv Vw

~ ""

Vhcl Vwi L1V Later Conditions ~< Pd) FIg.10.19-Material-balance model showing reservoir PVoccupied by hydr9carbons and water at initial and later condifora gas-condensatereservoirwithwatervaporization. lions ,Depletion at Pressures Below the Dewpoint. When reservoirpresdecrease below the dewpoint, the gas phase condenses. In gas-condensate reservoirs, the liquid hydrocarbons formed ithereservoir remain immobile. Therefore, we must modify Eq. U20to include this additional liquid phase (Fig. 10.19). Addingthe liquid phase gives
GBgi

2000

1000

10

20 Gp. MMscf

30

40

50

Fig. 10.20-plz

plot for Exercise

10.3.

10.4 Summary Reading this chapter should prepare you to do the following. Calculate original gas in place in a volumetric dry-gas reservoir using volumetric methods.
Calculate gas reserves and recovery factor for a gas reservoir

(G-Gp)Bg (l-Sw-So)(l-yw)

Cf(Pi-P)GBgi (l-Swi)(l-Ywi)

with water influx using volumetric methods. Calculate original gas in place and condensate in place for a volumetric wet-gas reservoir using volumetric methods.
State the principle of conservation of mass and derive a generCalculate original gas in place using material balance for a voluCarter-

(I-Swi)(I-yw)

al material-balance equation from that principle. metric dry-gas reservoir.

Estimate water influx using the van Everdingen-Hurst,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10.123)
lereSo=liquid hydrocarbon phase (i.e., condensate) saturation. lerrearranging Eq. 10.123, we write a material-balance equa'usimilar in form to Eq. 10.122: (I-Sw-So) (l-Sw) (l-yw) (l-yw) P [1-CjCPi -p)]Z

Tracy, and Petkovich methods and state the assumptions and limitations of each method.
Estimate original gas in place using material balance for a dry-

=-

Pi Zi

Pi Gp
- -.

gas reservoir with water influx.

Estimate original gas in place using material balance for a volu-

Zi G

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (10.124) Again, the form of Eq. 10.124 suggests that a plot of

metric geopressured gas reservoir.

Determine average formation compressibility and original gas in place simultaneously using material balance in a volumetric geopressured gas reservoir. Derive material-balance relationships for volumetric gascondensate reservoirs, gas-condensate reservoirs with water vaporization, gas-condensatereservoirs with depletion at pressures above the dewpoint, and gas-condensate reservoirs with depletion at pressures below the dewpoint.

I ;iill be a straight line with a slope equal to -P/ZiG and an inter'rept

(I-S -S) wow (I-Sw)

P [1-cf(Pi-P)]-vs.Gp (I-Ywi) Z

(l-y

. . . . . . . . . .

equalto P/Zi' Aat plz=O, Gp=G, so extrapolation of the

I. Your company is planning to drill a wildcat well in an area believed to have great potentialfor natural gas. In planning for the well(andassuminggas is discovered),what data shouldbe gathered? idude notonly productionfromall separatorsand the stocktank Why? I!1t also the gaseous equivalent of the produced condensates. 2. The well does discover gas. Using information from the disThe water vapor content of a gas has been shown31 to be decovery well alone, you are asked to estimate reserves and forecast i~dent on pressure, temperature, and gas composition. Gas comfutureproduction. Whatmethodswillyou use? What additionaldata iPJSition also has more effect on water vapor content at higher will you need? 'f'tSsures.Unfortunately, laboratory analyses of gas usually do not 3. Several additional wells are planned. What sort of informa'~tify the amount of water vapor; however, as discussed in Chap. tion should be obtained from these wells? Why? t,empirical methods32.33 are available for estimating the water 4. Two years after the discovery well was drilled, the field is IIpOr content of a gas. highly developed. You are again asked to estimate reserves and Correct application of Eq. 10.124 also requires estimates of the forecast future production. What methods will you use? What data ~Uidhydrocarbon volumes formed at pressures below the dewwill you need? fOint. The most accurate source of these estimates is a laboratory 5. How would your strategy be affected if the reservoir is gelmalysis of the reservoir fluid samples. These liquid saturations are opressured? Is a retrograde gas reservoir? Has a waterdrive? Is the Jtainedfrom a constant-volume depletion study.27.28 Note that gas cap of a oil reservoir, a fact discovered only much later? How libis typeof laboratory fluid study assumesthat the liquid hydrocar- can you determine whether any of these possibilities is a fact? 'Ions formedin the reservoir are immobile.This assumptionis valid 6. How would you determine optimal well spacing? Optimal lor most gas-condensate reservoirs; however, some very rich gasdepletionplan? In answer to both these questions, what data would rondensatefluids may be characterized by mobile liquid saturations. you need, and what study methods would you use? For these conditions, compositional simulators are required to model 7. What are the potential errors in the volumetric method? The !be multiphase flow and predict future performanceaccurately. material-balance method?
I

might line to plz=O provides an estimate of original gas in place. .gain, the gas deviation factors in Eqs. 10.122 and 10.124 should :two-phase Z factors representing both gas and liquid hydrocar)0phases in the reservoir. In addition, gas production should in-

Questions

for Discussion

252 TABLE 10.19-PRODUCTION AND PRESSURE HISTORIES, EXERCISE 10.4 Cumulative Gas Production (MMscf) 0 10 20 30 40 50 Pressure (psia) 2,751 2,381 2,223 2,085 1,940 1,801 z factor 0.742 0.739 0.737 0.742 0.747 0.755

GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

.-8=60
Sealing Fault

TABLE

10.20-PRESSURE

HISTORY,

EXERCISE 10.5

Time (days) 0 91.5 183.0 274.5 366.0 457.5 549.0

Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure (psi a) 3,793 3,788 3,774 3,748 3,709 3,680 3,643

Sealing Fault
Fig. 10.21-Reservoir configuration for Exercise 10.10.

TABLE 10.21-PRESSURE Time (days) 0 91.5 183.0 274.5 366.0 457.5 549.0

HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.6

Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure (psi a) 3,793 3,788 3,774 3,748 3,709 3,680 3,643

mulative gas production and the recovery factor at Po=500 psia, where Bgo=6A5 RB/Mscf. Pi = 3,150 psia. A = 640 acres. h = 10 ft. G = 8.882 X106 Mscf. <p = 0.22. S"'i = 0.23. Bgi = 0.947 RB/Mscf. 10.2 For the reservoir data given below, estimatethe gas reserves,; and the recovery factor using the volumetric method. Pi = 3,150psia. A = 640 acres. h = 10 ft. Bgi = 0.947 RB/Mscf. <p = 0.22. S"'i = 0.23. Sgr = 0040. Bgo = 1.48 RB/Mscf. 10.3 Using the data givenbelow and the plot of p/z vs. Gp inFig. 10.20, estimate the cumulative gas production at an aban- ~. i donmentpressureof 500 psia. In addition,estimatethe recov- :~i ery factor at the abandonment pressure. ~: ! Pi = 4,000psia. Po = 500 psia Zi = 0.80 psia. Zo = 0.94 psia. lOA Using the reservoir pressure and cumulative gas production given below, estimate the original gas in place, gas reserves at Po = 500 psia, and the gas recovery factor. Pi = 2.751 psia. za = 0.92. Po = 663 psia. Table 10.19 gives the reservoir production and pressure histories. 10.5 Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (i.e., (=274.5 days) for the reservoir/aquifer system described below. Use the van Everdingen-Hurst method and assume an infiniteacting aquifer.
<p

TABLE 10.22-PRESSURE HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.7

Time (days) 0 91.5 183.0 274.5 366.0 457.5 549.0 Reservoir/Aquifer (psia) 3,793 3,788 3,774 3,748 3,709 3,680 3,643 Pressure

'",
&~ ~~.. i

8. What are typical recovery factors for volumetric gas reservoirs? How may we estimate abandonment pressure to calculate recovery factor? At what point does abandonment pressure enter the recovery factor calculation? 9. Compare typical recoveries in waterdrive gas reservoirs with those from volumetric gas reservoirs and explain the reasons for the difference. 10. Explain two methods for improving the recovery from waterdrive gas reservoirs. II. Describe the different types of aquifer that may be in association with a reservoir. 12. How does the aquifer offset pressure decline in the reservoir? 13. If the time elapsed sinee production began doubled, do you think the amount of water influx into a gas reservoir would double? Or would it be more or less than double? Why? If additional informationis requiredto answerthisquestion,what is thatadditional information? Exercises 10.1 For the reservoir data given below, calculate the total cu-

,.,.

= 0.209.

JL

= 0.25 cpo h = 19.2 ft.

e = 180.

GA~VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS TABLE 10.23-PLOTTING Reservoir Pressure (psia) 11,444 10,674 10,131 9,253 8,574 7,906 7,380 6,847 6,388 5,827 5,409 5,000 4,500 4,170 Cumulative Gas Production (MMscf) 0 9,920 28,620 53,600 77,670 101 ,420 120,360 145,010 160,630 182,340 197,730 215,660 235,740 245,900 FUNCTIONS, EXERCISE 10.8

253

p/z (psia) 7,650 7,423 7,252 6,957 6,698 6,428 6,191 5,933 5,693 5,375 5,132 4,840 4,478 4,221

p/z[1-(CWSwi +C,)(Pi -p)/(1-Swi)] (psia) 7,650 7,276 7,008 6,561 6,202 5,839 5,539 5,229 4,950 4,594 4,330 4,035 3,674 3,425

TABLE 10.24-PLOTTING Reservoir Pressure (psia) 11 ,444 10,674 10,131 9,253 8,574 7,906 7,380 6,847 6,388 5,827 5,409 5,000 4,500 4,170 k CI Cumulative Gas Production (MMscf) 0 9,920 28,620 53,600 77,670 101,420 120,360 145,010 160,630 182,340 197,730 215,660 235,740 245,900

FUNCTIONS, EXERCISE 10.9

I J
1/(Pi -p)[(PiP/zz,) 10 -6psi -1 -1]

Gp/(Pi -P)(PiP/ZZi) (Mscf/psi)

\ !

39.7 41.8 45.4 49.5 53.7 58.0 63.0 68.0 75.4 81.3 90.1 102.0 111.7

13,300 12,900 26,900 30,900 34,100 36,600 40,700 42,700 46,200 48,800 52,900 58,000 61,300

= 275 md.

= 6xlO-6

psia-l.

TABLE 10.25-PRESSURE Time (days) 0 10 200 400 500

HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.10

rr = 5,807 ft. Table 10.20 gives the pressure history at the initial reservoir-aquifer interface. r 10.6 Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (i.e., t=274.5 days) for the reservoir/aquifer system given below. Use the Carter-Tracy method and assume an infinite-actingaquifer.
<P

Jl. = 0.25 cpo h = 19.2 ft. 0 = 180. k = 275 md. CI = 6xlO-6 psia-l. rr = 5,807 ft. Table 10.21 gives the pressure history at the initial reservoir-aquifer interface. .JO.7 Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (i.e., t=274.5 ,days)for the reservoir/aquifer system given below. Use the Fetkovich method and assume a finite aquifer.
<P

= 0.209.

Reservoir/Aquifer Pressure (psia) 4,000 3,990 3,900 3,820 3,760

days was 40,630+8,587=49,217

RB.

10.8 For the following gas reservoir offshore Louisiana,23 estimate the original gas in place using the material-balance method for geopressured reservoirs. Also use the materialbalance method for a normally pressured gas reservoir, and compare the initial gas estimates from both equations. The
plotting functions for both material-balance methods are tabulate in Table 10.23.

= 0.209. =
19.2 ft.

Jl. = 0.25 cpo

Pr = cf = Swi = Cw =

11,444psia.
19.5xlO-6 psia-l. 0.22. 3.2xlO-6 psia-I.

0= k= CI = rr = A =

180.
275 md. 6xlO-6 psia-l. 5,807 ft. 250,000acres.

Table 10.22 gives the pressure history at the initial reservoir/aquifer interface. The cumulative water influx after 183

10.9 For the following gas reservoir offshore Louisiana,23 estimate the original gas in place and formation compressibility using the material-balance method for geopressured reservoirs. In addition, use the material-balance method presented for a normally pressured gas reservoir, and compare the initial gas estimates from both equations. The plotting functions are tabulated in Table 10.24.

254 Pr

GAS RESERVOIR

ENGINEERING

= 11,444psia.
psia-I.

Cw = 3.2xlO-6 Swi = 0.22.

10.10 The reservoir shown in Fig. 10.21 is undergoing edgewater , influx. The pressure has been measuredat the reservoir/aquifer boundary after several time periods, and this pressure history is given in Table 10.25. The reservoirradius is 1,000
ft and the aquifer radius is 10,000 ft. The aquifer has a porosity of 10%, a permeability of 10 md, and a thickness of 600 ft. The water has a compressibility of 1 x 10 -5 psia -I and a viscosity of 0.6323 cpo A. Calculate B. B . Calculate the relationship between dimensionless time and time in days. C. Calculate f:J.Pl for 10 days. D. Calculate f:J.P4for 500 days. E. Calculate water influx in reservoir barrels after 500 days.
'

Np P Po Paq Paq,i Pd

(condensate) production, L3, STB reservoir pressure, m/Lt2, psia abandonment pressure, m/Lt2, psia aquifer pressure, m/Lt2, psia initial aquifer pressure, m/Lt2, psia dewpoint pressure of gas-condensate reservoir, m/Ltz, psia PD = dimensionless pressure = = = = =

= cumulative oil

PD = dimensionless rressure derivative

Nomenclature well drainage area, LZ, acres intercept van Everdingen-Hurst constant, RB/psi gas FVF, RB/Mscf gas FVF at reservoir abandonment pressure and temperature conditions, RB/Mscf Bgi = gas FVF at initial reservoir pressure and temperature, RB/Mscf Bw = water FVF, RB/STB BZg = gas FVF based on two-phase gas deviation factor, RB/Mscf BZgi = gas FVF based on two-phase gas deviation factor at initial reservoir pressure and temperature, RB/Mscf C = water influx constant from material-balance calculations, RB/psi cf = in-situ formation compressibility, Ltz/m, psia-l C( = total aquifer compressibility, cf+cw, Ltz/m, psia-l Cw = water compressibility, LtZ/m, psia-l E V = volumetric sweep efficiency, fraction fg = fraction of reservoir gas produced as liquid at surface, fraction F = gas recovery factor G = original gas in place, L3, Mscf Go = gas in place at reservoir abandonment, L3, Mscf Gp = cumulative gas production, L3, Mscf Gpo = additional gas production from secondary separator and stock tank, L3/L3, scf/STB GpT = cumulative gas production from primary and secondary separators, stock tank, and the gaseous equivalent of produced condensates, L3, Mscf Gpl = cumulative gas production from primary separator, L3, Mscf Gpz = cumulative gas production from secondary separator, L3, Mscf Gp3 = cumulative gas production from stock tank, L3, Mscf G( = reservoir volume occupied by gas trapped by encroaching water, L3, Mscf GT = total initial gas in place, including gas and gaseous equivalent of produced condensates, L3, Mscf h = net formation thickness, L, ft J = aquifer PI, L3t/m, STB/D-psi k = reservoir permeability, L2, md L = length of linear-shaped reservoir, L, ft m = slope Mo = molecular weight of stock tank liquids, m, lbm/lbm-mol n = number of moles of gas N = original oil (condensate) in place, L3, STB A b B Bg Bgo = = = = =

initial reservoir pressure, m/Lt2, psia pressure at time interval n, m/Lt2, psia pressure at aquifer/reservoir interface, m/LtZ, psia pressure at standard conditions, m/LtZ, psia difference between initial aquifer pressure and pressure at original reservoir/aquifer boundary, m/Ltz, psia qD = dimensionless water influx rate qw = water influxrate, L3/t, STB/D QpD = dimensionless cumulative water influx ro = radius of aquifer, L, ft re = outer radius of reservoir, L, ft rr = radius to aquifer/reservoir interface, L, ft R = universal gas constant, 10.73 psia-ft3/Ibm-mol-oR R( = total gas/stock-tank liquid ratio, scf/STB R 1 = ratio of high-pressure separator gas volume to stocktank liquid volume, L3/L3, scf/STB Rz = ratio of low-pressure separator gas volume to stocktank liquid volume, L3/L3, scf/STB R3 = ratio of stock-tank gas volume to stock-tank liquid volume, L3/L3, scf/STB Sgi = initial gas saturation, fraction Sgr = residual gas saturation, fraction So = condensate saturation, fraction Sw = connate water saturation, fraction Swo = water saturation at abandonment conditions, fraction Swi = initial connate water saturation, fraction t = time, t, days tD = dimensionless time T = reservoir temperature, T, oR Tsc = temperature at standard conditions, T, oR Veq = vapor equivalent of primary separator liquid, L3/LJ, scf/STB Vf = Vgi = VhL = Vhv = Vhvi = Vp = Vpi = Vsc = Vv = Vvi = Vw = Vwi = reservoir formation (rock) volume, L3, res bbl gas volume at initial conditions, L3, res bbl volume of hydrocarbon liquids, L3, res bbl volume of hydrocarbon vapors, L3, res bbl initial volume of hydrocarbon vapors, L3, res bbl reservoir PV, L3, res bbl initial reservoir PV, L3, res bbl gas volume at standard conditions, L3, res bbl volume of vapor phase, L3, res bbl initial volume of vapor phase, L3, res bbl volume of water, L3, res bbi initial volume of water, L3, res bbl

Pi = Pn = Pr = Psc = f:J.p=

Vwv = volumeof water vapor phase,L3, res bbl

Vwvi = initial volume of water vapor phase, L3, res bbl f:J. Vf = change in reservoir formation (rock) volume, L3, res bbl f:J. Vw = change in water volume, L3, res bbl w = width of linear reservoir, L, ft We = cumulative water influx volume, L3, res bbl Wei = initial "encroachable" volume of water in aquifer, L3, res bbl Wi = initial volume of water in aquifer, L3, res bbl Wp = cumulative water production, L3, STB yw = fraction of total vapor-phase volume that is water Ywi = initialfractionof total vaporphasevolumethai is
water

:> VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS

Z = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless Za = gas compressibility factor at abandonment, dimensionless Zi = gas compressibility factor evaluated at initial conditions, dimensionless zsc = gas compressibility factor at standard conditions, dimensionless Zz = two-phase gas compressibility factor, dimensionless ZZi= two-phase gas compressibility factor evaluated at initial conditions, dimensionless '10 = specific gravity of condensate (water= 1.0 g/cm3) 'Iw = specific gravity of reservoir gas at reservoir conditions (air= 1.0) 'II = specific gravity of high-pressure separator gas (air= 1.0) 'Y2= specific gravity of low-pressure separator gas ($= 1.0) '13 = specific gravity of stock-tank gas (air = 1.0) e = angle encompassed by aquifer, degrees A = dummy integration variable for Eq. 10.57

255
II. Havlena, D. and Odeh, A.S.: "The Material-Balance Equation as an Equation of a Straight Line," IPT (Aug. 1963) 896-900; Trans., AIME, 228. 12. Chierici, G.L. and Pizzi, G.: "Water-Drive Gas Reservoirs: Uncertainty in Reserves Evaluation From Past History," IPT(Feb. 1967) 237-44; Trans., AIME, 240. 13. Bruns, J.R, Fetkovich, M.J., and Meitzen, V.c.: "The Effect of Water on ph-Cumulative Gas Production Curves," IPT(March 1965) 287-91. 14. van Everdingen, A.F. and Hurst. W.: "Application of the Laplace Transformation to Flow Problems in Reservoirs," Trans., AIME (1994) 186, 305-24. 15. Carter, R.D. and Tracy, G.W.: "An Improved Method for Calculating Water Influx," IPT(Dec. 1960) 415-17; Trans., AIME, 219. 16. Fetkovich, M.J.: "A Simplified Approach to Water Influx Calculations-Finite Aquifer Systems," IPT (July 1971) 814-28. 17. Allard, D.R. and Chen, S.M.: "Calculation of Water Influx for Bottom water Drive Reservoirs," SPERE (May 1988) 369-79. 18. Olarewaju, J.S.: "A Mathematical Model of Edgewater and Bottomwater Drives for Water Influx Calculations," paper SPE 18764 presented at the 1989 SPE California Regional Meeting, Bakersfield, April 5-7. 19. Lee, W.J.: Well Testing, SPE Textbook Series, Richardson, TX (1982)

1.

Il

= viscosity,miLt, cp

<p= porosity, fraction .script aq = aquifer

20. Edwardson, MJ. et al.: "Calculation of Formation Temperature Disturbances Caused by Mud Circulation," IPT (April 1962) 416-26; Trans.. AIME, 225. 21. Klins, M.A., Bouchard, A.J., and Cable, C.L.: "A Polynomial Approach to the van Everdingen-Hurst Dimensionless Variables for Water Encorachment," SPERE (Feb. 1988) 320-26. 22. McEwen, C.R.: "Material Balance Calculations With Water Influx in the Presence of Uncertainty in Pressures," IPT (June 1962) 120-28; Trans.. AIME, 225. 23. Ramagost, B.P. and Farshad, F.F.: "p/z Abnormally Pressured Gas Reservoirs," paper SPE 10125 presented at the 1981 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Oct. 5-7. 24. Duggan, J.O.: "The Anderson "L"-An Abnormally Pressured Gas Reservoir in South Texas," IPT (Feb. 1972) 132-38. 25. Roach, R.H.: "Analyzing Geopressured Reservoirs-A MaterialBalance Technique," paper SPE 9968 available at SPE, Richardson, TX. 26. Poston, S.W. and Chen, H.Y: "Simultaneous Determination of Formation Compressibility and Gas-in-Place in Abnormally Pressured Reservoirs," paper SPE 16227 presented at the 1987 SPE Production Operations Symposium, Oklahoma City, March 8-10. Moses, P.L.: "Engineering Applications of Phase Behavior of Crude Oil and Condensate Systems," IPT (July 1986) 715-23. Moses, P.L. and Donohoe, C.W.: Petroleum Engineering Handbook. H.B. Bradley et 01. (eds.), SPE, Richardson, TX (1987) 39-1-39-28. Rayes, D.G. et 01.: "Two-Phase Compressibility Factors for Retrograde Gases," SPEFE (March 1992) 87-92; Trans., AIME, 293. Humphreys, N.V.: "Material-Balance Equation for a Gas-Condensate Reservoir With Significant Water Vaporization," paper SPE 21514 presented at the 1991 SPE Gas Technology Symposium, Houston, Jan. 22-24. Suppliers

-erscript - = average ferences

Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M., and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Physical Properties, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1961). Craft, B.C. et al.: Applied Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, second edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1991). McCain, W.D. Jr.: The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, second edition, PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa, OK (1989). Geffen, T.M. et al.: "Efficiency of Gas Displacement From Porous Media by Liquid Flooding," Trans., AIME (1952) 195, 29. Keelan, D.K. and Pugh, V.J.: "Trapped-Gas Saturations in Carbonate Formations," SPEl (April 1975) 149-60; Trans., AIME, 259. Agarwal, R.G.: "Unsteady-State Performance of Water-Drive Gas Reservoirs," PhD. dissertation, Texas A&M U., College Station (1967). Gold, D.K., McCain, W.D. Jr., and Jennings, J.W.: "An Improved Method for the Determination of the Reservoir-Gas Gravity for Retrograde Gases," IPT (July 1989) 747-52; Trans., AIME, 287. Schilthuis, R.J.: "Active Oil and Reservoir Energy," Trans., AIME (1936) 118, 33-52. Katz, D.L. et al.: Handbook of Natural Gas Engineering, McGrawHill Book Co. Inc., New York City (1959). van Everdingen, A.F., Timmerman, E.H., and McMahon, J.J.: "Application of the Material-Balance Equation to a Partial Water-Drive Reservoir," Trans., AIME (1953) 198,51.

; '~

27. 28. 29. 30.

31. GPSA Engineering Data Book, 10th edition, Gas Processors Assn., Tulsa, OK (1987).

32. McKetta, JJ. and Wehe, A.H.: "Use This Chart for Water Vapor Content of Natural Gases," Petroleum Refiner (Aug. 1958) 153-54. 33. Bukacek, R.F.: "Equilibrium Moisture Content of Natural Gases," Inst. of Gas Technology Bulletin (1955) 8.

"';.< ,~ '-' ..',