Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
FINAL EXAM
By
Melinda S. Wrocklage
University of Louisville
May 5, 2004
The two main European alliances, the Triple Alliance—between Germany,
Austro-Hungary (created by the union between Austria and Hungary in
1867), and Italy—and Triple Entente—between England, France, and
Russia—competed for colonial strength, which resulted in a cold war
between them. Russia, Austro-Hungary, and Italy held an interest in the
Balkan Peninsula; when the revolutionary Balkan nations won their
independence from Turkey with the First Balkan War, their leaders were
called to the Treaty of London by the European powers of both alliances
and their newly-won independence was stolen from them. Serbia’s
seaport was also taken in order to weaken their economic strength; in
retaliation, the Serbs allied with Greece, defeated the Bulgarians with the
Second Balkan War, and regained their seaport with the Treaty of
Bucharest. This would turn out to be a temporary resolution; while
traveling through Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the grandnephew of
Emperor Franz Joseph, was assassinated by the Serbian terrorist Gavrilo
Princip; when Serbia refused to accept the responding humiliating 10
Principles, Austro-Hungary declared war. Russia prepared for an
intervention war; Germany had been preparing for an imperial war;
France had also been preparing for war for a chance to regain Alsace and
Lorraine from Germany; World War I resultantly broke out between the
alliances. This war included the newly-developed trench warfare—in
which front-lines of hand-dug trenches were used to press forward, while
machine guns and the newly-created poisonous gases, like the Mustard
Gas which had damaged the German Corporal Adolf Hitler’s lungs, were
used in an effort to halt their progress.
The Paris Peace Conference was held and treaties were formed between
the Big Four—Woodrow Wilson for the U.S., David Lloyd-George for
Britain, Georges Clemenceau for France, and Vittorio Orlando for Italy—
and the Central Powers—Franz Joseph for Austro-Hungary and William II
for Germany; specifically, the Treaty of Versailles dealt with Germany and
the Treaty of St. Germaine dealt with Austro-Hungary. Providing the
soldiers that overturned the war, Woodrow Wilson found himself in a
leadership position which enabled him to enforce his ideas of the 14
Points and the League of Nations. His 14 Points changed the map of
Europe by redistributing large areas of the losing countries—90 %
Austro-Hungary and 13 % of Germany—into smaller countries for
separate native language groups. His League of Nations, a forefather of
the United Nations, established a world court, with delegates from each
nation-member, to sit above individual national interests and to ensure
international well-being.
The strain of the war on Italy’s precarious economy, along with the
frustration of not being given the promised Balkan lands, caused a
growing discontent throughout the country that the series of
unsuccessful governments could not satisfy. Italy wanted to become a
strong imperial nation, having recently unified in the 1850’s; but
individual Italian city-states, who had previously enjoyed their autonomy
up until this unification, still tended to act independently, outside of
national interest. Throughout their history, private armies were raised
for different reasons; Machiavellian thinking, along with military strength
and violence, was remained a significant way of life. Gabriel d’Annunzio
—an Italian poet, novelist, and dramatist—raised one such private army
and militarily took over Fiume in the Balkans; the other members of the
Big Four negotiated a few smaller islands to regain control of Fiume.
During the Paris Peace Conference, France made sure that Germany
would be given all of the blame for the war and immediately charged 5
billion gold marks in war penalties; Wilson successfully dissuaded
Clemenceau from his attempt to completely eradicate Germany from the
European map. The Treaty of Versailles limited the German army to
100,000 men and the German navy to 12 ships, each smaller than
10,000 tons, ending the naval race between German submarines and
English warships; furthermore, German naval yards were responsible to
build 100,000 tons of warships each year for England and France over
the next 5 years. After the war, Germany established the Weimar
Republic, named for the town where the National Constituent Assembly
met; under this purely Democratic Republic, Germany was free from
monarchial rule. A large minority of Germans, mainly aristocrats and
upper-middle-classmen, wished to return the Hohenzollerns to the
throne with a Constitutional Monarchy; but the leading political parties—
such as the Marxist Party, the Democratic Party, and the Catholic Party
—insisted that the monarchy remain abolished. Hitler, as a leader of the
small Bavarian political party, the German Workers Party—which later
changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers Party, or the
NSDAP, and known as the Nazi Party—was included in this minority; he
would most likely have remained in obscurity if a three-fold economic
breakdown had not changed the German perspective.
The first part of this economic breakdown was the devastating effect of
the Versailles Treaty on Germany. The second was the German Inflation
of 1923, brought on by the harsh conditions of the Treaty and
deteriorated under the leadership of Prime Minister Heinrich Cuno; his
vengeful riots and strikes reduced the mark to the point of obscurity,
with 4.2 trillion Reichsmark worth one U.S. dollar. The third was the
Depression of 1929 which hit the western world. Prime Minister Gustav
Streseman had put aside his own private wishes to reinstate the
monarchy and had instead concentrated on trying to pull Germany out of
this economic crisis; basically he mortgaged Germany to the Big Four—
who could now sit on the boards of German businesses in order to
ensure their interests were followed—in exchange for 100 million dollars
worth of loans. With these loans—as well as renegotiating the terms of
the Treaty to lower reparation payments and to include Germany in the
League of Nations—Streseman was able to stabilize the German economy,
bringing the Reichsmark back to prewar value of four Reichsmark worth
one U.S. Dollar. German economic health had almost been completely
restored before the Depression hit; unfortunately Streseman had died the
same year as the Depression; if he had lived, he might have been able to
prevent the renewed economic crisis which virtually invited Hitler to
power.
After his election, the Reichstag building was burned down by the Dutch
Communist Martin van der Lubbe; Hitler used this to convince
Hindenburg to sign the Reichstag Fire Decree; supposedly for the defense
of German people and state, but in reality, for Hitler, as the Reich
Chancellor, to gain almost unrestricted powers to imprison any political
opponent, disband Parliament and take full control of Germany. He also
used the Reichstag Fire Decree to have communists arrested and forced
out of the elections, and to later legitimize the arrests by the Geheime
Staatspolizei—the German Secret State Police, called the Gestapo—and
the use of concentration camps. Anti-Semitism had become more
prominent after the war due to the depression; he passed the Nuremberg
Laws, which took away Jewish citizenship and banned Jews from
intermarrying with other German ethnic groups, especially Aryans.
Following Social Darwinism at its worst, he began euthanizing the
mentally and physically handicapped, damaging his standing with
German Christian churches. While in power, Hitler did succeed in
bringing employment back the German people, mainly in the war
industry.
During World War I, Japan, as a silent partner of the Big Four, went into
Shandong in northern China, attacked a small German army stationed
there, and took control of the city; China, also against Germany in the
war, had expected to regain the city but was disappointed by the Treaty
of Versailles. After the war, Japan decided to further their conquest of
China; the Japanese Invasion brought a temporary truce between the
CCP and the KMT; this cooperation lasted throughout World War II, after
which their civil war was renewed. In 1949, the CCP finally succeeded in
defeating Chaing Kai-Shek and set up the People’s Republic of China;
Chaing and 2 million KMT members fled to Taiwan, and established a
Nationalist Chinese state on the island. The first law passed in the
People’s Republic was the Land Law, giving women equal rights to hold
land, and was closely followed by the Marriage Law, protecting the rights
of young women in marriage and divorce. Stalin may not have supported
Mao’s ideas but he offered Soviet technological and financial aid to the
newly formed People’s Republic.
The peace treaty after World War II had resulted in the division of Korea;
the Korean War had begun when China and the Communist North Korea
attacked the Democratic South Korea and had ended with no
geographical changes. After this war, Mao successfully implemented his
5-year plan to bring a more complete Communism to China by gathering
all private property and land and making it property of the state, and
setting up communes in which peasants gathered in independent
collective farms, sharing both work and profit. He changed the Soviet
interpretation of communism to reflect Chinese traditions by allowing
individuals to have small private plots of land and water sources for
market gardens; this idea would continue beyond his time, appearing in
the Chinese Constitution after his death. He made further changes in
both industry and education with the Great Leap Forward. The
production of high-quality steel was needed in order to compete with
other nations; but Mao wanted to keep agriculture predominant in
China, so he created small smelting plants on certain communes,
bringing in used steel from outside sources; when this idea failed, he
created huge industrial cities throughout Western China. Millions of
young Chinese participated in the Mao-encouraged Cultural Revolution,
expressing their complaints aloud and with Dazibaos, or hand-written
posters; the results of this revolution brought improvements to
industries, universities, and even isolated villages. Mao retired when he
felt satisfied with his accomplishments, eventually dying at 83 years of
age; after his death, the 1978 Constitution allowed a government-
regulated capitalism to enter the economy, but its preamble stated that
the Chinese Communist Party remains the protector of the Chinese
people.