HYDROGEOLOGY

VIKRANT SHARMA

The thickness of the capillary fringe varies depending on the pore sizes in the medium. In a silt or clay, the capillary fringe can be more than a meter thick, while the capillary fringe in a coarse gravel would be less than a millimeter thick.

Sustainable Groundwater Development

An Aquifer can be defined as a geological formation in which water accumulates and may circulate, via its pores and fissures, thus enabling humans to make use of it in economically viable quantities. (Custodio and
Llamas, 1996)

Basic Aquifer Classifications

Lithology Unconsolidated Sedimentary rocks Consolidated Sedimentary rocks Volcanic Igneous Metamorphic Scale of Study Local Regional
Depth of Aquifer Shallow Deep (>300m) Porosity Single Porosity Double Porosity

Hydrostatic P of GW Unconfined Aquifers Confined Aquifers Semi-Confined Aquifers

An aquifer is defined as a saturated permeable geological unit that is permeable enough to yield economic quantities of water to wells. The most common aquifers are unconsolidated sand and gravels, but permeable sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and limestone, and heavily fractured or weathered volcanic and crystalline rocks can also be classified as aquifers. An aquitard is a geological unit that is permeable enough to transmit water in significant quantities when viewed over large areas and long periods, but its permeability is not sufficient to justify production wells being placed in it. Clays, loams and shale are typical aquitards. An aquiclude is an impermeable geological unit that does not transmit water at all. Dense unfractured igneous or metamorphic rocks are typical aquicludes. In nature, truly impermeable geological units seldom occur; all of them leak to some extent, and must therefore be classified as aquitards. In practice, however, geological units can be classified as aquicludes when their permeability is several orders of magnitude lower than that of an overlying or underlying aquifer. *** These definitions are imprecise with respect to permeability.

Aquifer Types

Aquifer Types

Principle Aquifer Rock Types

Unconsolidated Semi-consolidated

Sandstone

Carbonate Plutonic

Volcanic

Unconsolidated Aquifers
Unconsolidated deposits are geological formations formed by the accumulation of particles that are transported by gravity, water, wind or ice, in riverbeds, lakeside or marine settings. They usually comprise of sands and gravels of varying geological origin. Fluvial deposits are made up of the alluvial materials of rivers and their terraces. Deltaic deposits accumulate at river mouths. In general such deposits are recent in geological time. Its porosity is due to voids or space between the rock particles, or single porosity.

Determination of depth, thickness and extension of permeable deposits and confining layers.
Aquifers that are mapped as unconsolidated sand and gravel can be grouped into four broad categories: basin-fill or valley-fill aquifers blanket sand and gravel aquifers glacial-deposit aquifers stream-valley aquifers All four types have intergranular porosity and all contain water primarily under unconfined or water-table conditions.

Unconsolidated Aquifer Properties

Ground water in unconsolidated aquifers flows along relatively short flow paths typical of local flow systems Basin-fill aquifers typically have intermediate flow systems Thick basin-fill aquifers may support regional flow system. Likewise, the thick blanket sands aquifers and alluvial aquifers can represent regional flow systems.

Unconsolidated Aquifer Flow Systems

The hydraulic conductivity of unconsolidated aquifers is variable, depending on the sorting of aquifer materials and the amount of silt and clay present, but generally it is high. Aquifer thickness ranges from a few meters or tens of meters in the blanket sands to several hundred meters in the basin-fill aquifers. Unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers are susceptible to contamination because of their generally high hydraulic conductivity.

Semi-consolidated Aquifers
Semi-consolidated aquifers consist of sand interbedded with silt, clay, and minor carbonate. The aquifers are typically of fluvial, deltaic, and shallow marine origin. The varied depositional environments of these sediments have caused complex interbedding of fine and coarse-grained materials. Accordingly, some aquifers are thin and local whereas others are thick and may extend over hundreds of square kilometres. The Ravenscrag Formation is a Saskatchewan example of a semiconsolidated aquifer.

Semi-consolidated Aquifer Properties

Porosity is intergranular, and the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifers is moderate to high. The aquifers form thick extensive wedges of sediment. Wedges tend to dip away from topographically high erosional source areas. Aquifer thicknesses can reach several hundred metres.

Semi-consolidated Aquifer Flow Systems

Numerous local aquifers can be grouped into a few regional aquifer systems that contain groundwater flow systems of local, intermediate, and regional scale. In topographically high recharge areas aquifers are unconfined but become confined in the downdip direction. Discharge is by upward leakage to shallower aquifers or to saltwater bodies in coastal areas. Because flow is sluggish near the ends of regional flow paths, the aquifers commonly contain unflushed saline water in their deeply buried, downdip extremities.

Consolidated Sedimentary Rocks

Consolidated sedimentary rocks are made of sediments that have become consolidated by compaction or diagenesis processes, which reduce the space occupied by the voids. On the basis of their porosity they can be classified as double porosity aquifers as is the case of sandstones with primary and or interstitial porosity and secodary porosity mainly due to fracturing in karstic aquifers as limestones and dolomites, secondary porosity is due to fracturing and chemical dilution processes. One of the main targets in the study of such aquifers is to localize the fractured and voided areas.
Origin (Detritic)
Organic

Chemical
Carbons Natural Hydrocarbons

Conglomerates Sandstones Clays

Limestone (Carbonates) Dolomites (Carbonates) Chalk (Carbonates) Marls

Sandstone Aquifers

Secondary openings, such as joints and fractures, along with bedding planes, typically transmit most of the groundwater in bedrock sandstone aquifers. Sandstone retains only a small part of the intergranular pore space that was present before the rock was consolidated. Compaction and cementation greatly reduce the primary pore space.

Sandstone Aquifer Properties

The hydraulic conductivity of cemented sandstone aquifers is low to moderate. Transmission is primarily through fractures although primary porosity may continue to contribute to storage. Because bedrock sandstones extend over large areas, these aquifers can often provide large amounts of water.

Sandstone Aquifer Flow Systems

Sandstone aquifers in the Prairies are horizontal to gently dipping. Because they are commonly interbedded with siltstone or shale, most of the water in these aquifers is under confined conditions. Groundwater flow systems in relatively thin sandstone aquifers are local to intermediate. Regional, intermediate, and local flow are present in the sandstone aquifers western Canada. Many extensive sandstone aquifers contain highly mineralized water at depths of only a few hundred meters.

Carbonate Aquifers

The most important are the carbonate rocks among the consolidated sedimentary rocks. Chalk, limestone and dolomites they vary considerably in density, porosity and permiability - some are considered to be confining units, whereas others are among the most productive aquifers known. Most of the carbonate-rock aquifers consist of limestone, but dolomite and marble locally yield water. Carbonate rocks originate as sedimentary deposits in marine environments. Compaction, cementation, and dolomitization processes act on the deposits as they undergo lithification and greatly change their porosity and permeability.

Carbonate Aquifer Properties

The principal post-depositional change in carbonate rocks is the dissolution of part of the rock by circulating, slightly acidic groundwater. Solution openings in carbonate rocks range from small tubes and widened joints to caverns that may be tens of meters wide and hundreds to thousands of meters in length. Where they are saturated, carbonate rocks with well-connected networks of solution openings yield large amounts of water to wells that penetrate the openings The undissolved rock between the large openings may be almost impermeable.

Carbonate Aquifer Flow Systems

Where carbonate rocks are exposed at land surface, solution creates karst topography, characterized by little surface drainage, sinkholes, blind valleys, sinking streams, and karst towers (mogotes). Because water enters the carbonate rocks rapidly through sinkholes and other large openings, any contaminants in the water can spread rapidly through the aquifers. Regional, intermediate, and local groundwater flow systems are present in carbonate aquifers but most near-surface carbonates tend to provide only local and intermediate systems.

Igneous and Metamorphic Aquifers

Igneous rocks are formed by cooling and consolidation of magma. They can be extrusive (volcanic) or intrusive (plutonic), depending upon whether they consolidate on the surface or within the Earths crust, respectively e.g. granites, gneiss, gabbros, basalt etc. Metamorphic rocks are those that have undergone intensive physical and chemical transformations, giving rise to changes in structure of the rock itself, thus adjusting to the new pressure and temperature conditions and possible chemical inputs e.g. slates, schist etc.
*** The possibility of aquifer formation among such rocks are limited to the altered shallow weathered zone or to areas fractured by faults and diaclases, which enable an appreciable degree of water circulation. Volcanic rocks may or may not constitute aquifers, and they have a hydrogeological behaviour between that of porous consolidated and fractured rocks. The levels of scoria, pyroclasts and retraction fissures play a significant role. *** The main factors influencing the flow of groundwater are the composition, the age and mainly the degree of alteration. The determination of the thickness of the weathered zone and fractures in hard rocks is a normal objective in the study of these aquifers.

Parameters: Aquifer Characterization

Three conditions are necessary for the existence and use of an aquifer:
1: The rock must be able to store water (Aquifer Storage Property) 2: The water has to be able to circulate through the rock (Aquifer Flow Property) 3: There must be water replenishment (Aquifer Recharge) *** Water removal

The amount of water held in a rock depends upon its porosity. Porosity is controlled by the grain size and shape, the degree of sorting, the extent of chemical cementation and the amount of fracturing.

Bulk density: b= Msolids/Vtotal

Solid density: s = Msolids/Vsolids

V pores Vtotal

Vtotal Vsolids n Vtotal

Vsolids b n 1 n 1 Vtotal s

Simple Cubic n = 0.48 Cubic

Body-Centered Cubic Face-Centered n = 0. 26 n = 0.26

Aquifer Storage Property: Porosity

Porosity that has developed after the rocks have formed is termed secondary porosity to distinguish it from intergranular or primary porosity. Secondary porosity typically results from two main causes: fractures associated with joints, along bedding-planes, tectonic joints and faulting (although where fault gouge has been produced or secondary mineralization has occurred along the fault plane, groundwater movement will be restricted rather than enhanced), and karst processes that dissolve the limestone aquifers. Dolomitization of limestones (i.e. the replacement of calcium ions with magnesium) also increases porosity because the magnesium ion is smaller than the calcium ion that it replaces by as much as 13 per cent. However, the dolomite crystals are usually very small, producing tiny pore spaces, and are unevenly distributed through the rock, resulting in only small increases in the hydraulic conductivity.

Aquifer Storage Property: Porosity

Aquifer Storage Property: Porosity

Aquifer Storage Property: Porosity

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties Porosity (Grain Size)

In unconsolidated materials, the size of the mineral grains is a key characteristic of the material. The distribution of grain sizes determines how much pore space is available to hold water, and how easily water is transmitted through the material.

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties

Grain Size Distribution

Sieve Analysis

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties

Grain Size Distribution

Hydrometer Analysis

L1

L2

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties Grain Size Distribution

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties Particle Shape

The shape of particles present in a soil mass is equally as important as the particle size distribution because it has significant influence on the physical properties of a given soil. However, not much attention is paid to particle shape because it is more difficult to measure.

Bulky: Bulky particles are mostly formed by mechanical weathering

of rock and minerals. Geologists use such terms as angular, sub-angular, rounded and sub-rounded.

Flaky: Flaky particles have very low sphericity usually 0.01 or less
. These particles are predominantly clay minerals.

Needle Shaped: Needle-shaped particles are much less common

than the other two particle types. Examples of soils containing needleshaped particles are some coral deposits and attapulgite clays.

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties Particle Shape

Parameters: Aquifer Storage

The proportion of voids in relation to the total volume of rock considered is evaluated by the total porosity n. But some voids may not be connected with other voids, and the fluid inside that is trapped; its volume proportion is named trapped porosity nt. Trapped porosity is abundant in karstic and hard-rock aquifers. In unconsolidated sediments and in sandstones , the role of nt is negligible and can be disregarded usually.

Real Question

How much of the stored water of the aquifer is available for pumping?

Parameters: Aquifer Storage

A small part of the water can be attached by molecular forces to the walls of the grains (within 0.0002 mm from surface), and its proportion to the total volume of rock is called bound water b; the rest of the water is called free water f.
The amount of interconnected pore space that is available for fluid flow and advective transport is termed the effective porosity ne. The main application field of ne is contaminant-transport modeling according to advective-dispersive equation. ne is high in well-sorted sands and/or gravels; and in clayey rock types. ne is low in poorly sorted deposits such as glacial tills.

For saturated conditions soil moisture content (theta) is equal to porosity, theta(m) is mobile water theta(MRS) is soil moisture deciphered by MRS.

Aquifer Flow Property

Methods for Obtaining Effective Porosity Tables
Usually, hydraulic conductivity, and to a much lesser extent dispersivity, are the focus of field and laboratory data-collection efforts for models that are based on the advectiondispersion equation (ADE). A third hydraulic parameter required for transport modeling is effective porosity. For aquifer simulations, it has become common practice to estimate effective porosity from ones experience or the literature. Effective porosity is not often evaluated because it has a small range of variability compared with hydraulic conductivity and dispersivity.

Values from the tables can vary substantially from the actual values. Hence we can use the tables for an initial guess, however these values could be inefficient and/or inaccurate.

Methods for Obtaining Effective Porosity Tables

Aquifer Flow Property

Effective porosity is sometimes obtained from other measured parameters, such as specific yield, or total porosity minus specific retention or residual water content. This is not correct. Specific yield and effective porosity are two different parameters. These two parameters have in fact comparable values for coarse rock materials (because specific retention is small) where Sy ne. However in fine grained rocks and particularly in clayey materials, Sy is low while ne is high so the Sy differs substantially from ne. Effective porosity defined in context of transport is different from effective porosity that pertains to drainage and capillary processes.

Texture class

Sampl e size [cm3]

Total porosity n [cm3/cm3]

Residual (bound) water content b [cm3/cm3]

0.020 (0.01-0.039) 0.035 (0.003-0.067)

Effective porosity ne [cm3/cm3]

Pore-size Distribution arithmetic mean

Specific retention (Sr) water retained at 33 kPa [cm3/cm3]

0.091 (0.018-0.164) 0.125 (0.060-0.190)

Wilting point water retained at 1500 kPa [cm3/cm3]

0.033 (0.007-0.059) 0.055 (0.019-0.091)

Specific yield estimated from Sy = n Sr [cm3/cm3]

0.346 0.312

Saturated hydraulic conductivity K [cm/h]

Sand Loamy sand

762 338

0.437 (0/374-0/500) 0.437 (0.368-0.506)

0.417 (0.354-0.480) 0.401 (0.329-0.473)

0.694 (0.298-1.090) 0.553 (0.234-0.872)

23.56 5.98

Sandy loam
Loam Silt loam Sandy clay loam Clay loam Silty clay loam Sandy clay Silty clay Clay

666

0.453 (0.351-0.555)
0.463 (0.375-0.551) 0.501 (0.420-0.582) 0.398 (0.332-0.464)

0.041 (-0.024-0.106)
0.027 (-0.020-0.074) 0.015 (-0.028-0.058) 0.068 (-0.001-0.137)

0.412 (0.283-0.541)
0.434 (0.334-0.534) 0.486 (0.394-0.578) 0.330 (0.235-0.425)

0.378 (0.140-0.616)
0.252 (0.086-0.418) 0.234 (0.105-0.363) 0.319 (0.079-0.559)

0.207 (0.126-0.288)
0.207 (0.195-0.345) 0.330 (0.258-0.402) 0.255 (0.186-0.324)

0.095 (0.031-0.159)
0.117 (0.069-0.165) 0.133 (0.078-0.188) 0.148 (0.085-0.211)

0.246

2.18

383 1206 498

0.193 0.171 0.143

1.32 0.68 0.30

366

0.464 (0.409-0.519) 0.471 (0.418-0.524)

0.075 (-0.024-0.174) 0.040 (-0.038-0.118)

0.390 (0.279-0.501) 0.432 (0.347-0.517)

0.242 (0.070-0.414) 0.177 (0.039-0.315)

0.318 (0.250-0.386) 0.366 (0.304-0.428)

0.197 (0.115-0.279) 0.208 (0.138-0.278)

0.146

0.20

689

0.105

0.20

45

0.430 (0.370-0.490) 0.479 (0.425-0.533) 0.475 (0.427-0.523)

0.109 (0.013-0.205) 0.056 (-0.024-0.136) 0.090 (-0.015-0.195)

0.321 (0.207-0.435) 0.423 (0.334-0.512) 0.385 (0.269-0.501)

0.223 (0.048-0.398) 0.150 (0.040-0.260) 0.165 (0.037-0.293)

0.339 (0.245-0.433) 0.387 (0.332-0.442) 0.396 (0.326-0.466)

0.239 (0.162-0.316) 0.250 (0.193-0.307) 0.272 (0.208-0.336)

0.091

0.12

127

0.092

0.10

291

0.079

0.06

Lubczynski, M.W. and Roy, J., 2007. Use of MRS for hydrogeological system parametrization and modeling. Table 1 Boletin Geologico y Minero pp 514

Methods for Obtaining Effective Porosity Lab Measurements I Tracer Column Testing
For traditional solute-transport modeling, effective porosity (ne) can be defined as the ratio between Darcy flux and seepage velocity, where q is experimental Darcy flux (specific discharge) and v is seepage velocity (or velocity of a conservative tracer). Advective and dispersive processes are active within the pore spaces designated as effective porosity.

Aquifer Flow Property

Methods for Obtaining Effective Porosity Lab Measurements I Tracer Column Testing

Aquifer Flow Property

Assuming it is a chemical and physical equilibrium transport, we use this ADE (Advection Dispersion Equation).
Assuming no retardation , the traditional column testing approach can utilize the analytical solution of a onedimensional version of the above ADE. The relative concentration point (c/co=0.5) describes solute moving at the average velocity and for a nonreactive tracer c/co=0.5 should occur when one pore volume of solution has flowed from the column. Using the measured elapse time, t0.5 at c/co=0.5, the known column length, L, and experimental Darcy flux, q, the effective porosity can be calculated.

Lab Measurements II CMR Approach to Column Testing

Methods for Obtaining Effective Porosity

Aquifer Flow Property

 Tables Lab Experiments Tracer Tests (CXTFIT) MRS (50 m 60000; 100 m 90000; 150 m 130000)

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties

Hydraulic Properties
Storage
Storativity

The hydraulic properties can be measured in the field or laboratory but can also be assessed in general terms by consideration of the overall aquifer geology.

The amount of water held in a rock depends upon its porosity. Porosity is controlled by the grain size and shape, the degree of sorting, the extent of chemical cementation and the amount of fracturing. The amount of interconnected pore space that is available for fluid flow is termed the effective porosity. Porosity does not provide a direct measure of the amount of water that will drain out of the aquifer because some of the water will remain in the rock, retained around individual grains by surface-tension forces. That part of the groundwater that will drain from the aquifer is termed the specific yield, and the part that is held in the aquifer is called the specific retention.

Evaluation of Aquifer Properties

Hydraulic Properties
Groundwater Flow
Hydraulic Conductivity

The hydraulic properties can be measured in the field or laboratory but can also be assessed in general terms by consideration of the overall aquifer geology.

Hydraulic conductivity depends on both the properties of the aquifer and the density and viscosity of the water. - concentrations of dissolved minerals and temperature - increase in water temperature from 5C to about 30C, will double the hydraulic conductivity and will double the rate of groundwater flow. Not a problem in deep aquifers. In some shallow aquifers in areas of climate extremes or in particular situations involving waste hot water and industrial effluent the flow rates may be affected by the temperature. Hence always take the temperature of pumped water in the field tests. The property of a rock that controls the hydraulic conductivity is its intrinsic permeability (k), and is constant for an aquifer regardless of the fluids flowing through it, applying equally well to oil, gas and water. Intrinsic permeability can be calculated when fluid density and viscosity are known.