Instrumentation amplifier using Transducer Bridge INTRODUCTION: An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that has

been outfitted with input buffer amplifiers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement and test equipment. Additional characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short and long-term are required. Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically identical to a standard operational amplifier (op-amp), the electronic instrumentation amp is almost always internally composed of 3 op-amps. These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to buffer each input (+,), and one to produce the desired output with adequate impedance matching for the function. A resistive transducer whose resistance changes as a function of some physical energy is connected in one arm of the bridge with a small circle around it and is denoted by , where RT is the resistance of the transducer and R is the change in resistance RT. The bridge in circuit is dc excited but could be ac excited as well. For the balanced bridge at some reference condition,

Generally, resistors RA, RB, and Rc. are selected so that they are equal in value to the transducer resistance RT at some reference condition. The reference condition is the specific value of the physical quantity under measurement at which the bridge is balanced. This value is normally established by the designer and depends on the transducers characteristics, the type of physical quantity to be measured, and the desired application.

The bridge is balanced initially at a desired reference condition. However, as the physical quantity to be measured changes, the resistance of the transducer also changes, which causes the bridge to unbalance (VaVb). The output voltage of the bridge can be expressed as a function of the change in resistance of the transducer, as described next.

.Let the change in the resistance of the transducer be R. since RB and Rc are fixed resistors, the voltage Vb is constant. in transducer resistance. Therefore, according to the voltage-divider rule, The negative sign in this equation indicated that Va<Vb because of the increase in the value of R. The output voltage Vab of the bridge is then applied to the differential instrumentation amplifier composed of three op-amps. The voltage followers preceding the basic differential amplifier help to eliminate loading of the bridge circuit. The gain of the basic differential amplifier is (-Rf/R1); therefore, the output Vo of the circuit is,

Generally, the change in resistance of the transducer R is very small. Therefore, we can approximate (2R+R) 2R. Thus, the output voltage is,

The equation indicates that % is directly proportional to the change in resistance AR of the transducer. Since the change in resistance is caused by a change in physical energy, a meter connected at the output can be calibrated in terms of the units of that physical energy. Before proceeding with specific bridge applications, let us briefly consider the important characteristics of some resistive types of transducers. In these resistive types of transducers the resistance of the transducer changes as a function of some physical quantity. Thermistor, photoconductive cells, and strain gages are some of the most commonly used resistive transducers hence they will be further discussed here. Thermistors are essentially semiconductors that behave as resistors, usually with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. That is, as the temperature of a thermistor increase, its resistance decreases. The temperature coefficient of the resistance is expressed in ohms per unit change in degrees Celsius. Thermistors with a high temperature coefficient of resistance are more sensitive to temperature change and are therefore well suited to temperature measurement and control. Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. However, thermistor beads sealed in the tips of glass rods are most commonly used because they are relatively easy to mount. The photoconductive cell belongs to the family of photodetectors (photosensitive devices) whose resistance varies with an incident radiant energy or with light. As the intensity of incident light increases, the resistance of the cell decreases. The resistance of the photoconductive cell in darkness is typically on the order of I00 K. Generally, the resistance of the cell in darkness and at particular light intensities is listed on the data sheet. The intensity of light is expressed in meter candles (lux). Materials such as cadmium sulfide and silicon, whose conductivity is a function of incident radiant energy, are used for photoconductive cells. Some cells are extremely sensitive to light and hence can be used into the ultraviolet and infrared regions. The photoconductive cell is typically composed of a ceramic base, a layer of photoconductive material. A moisture-proof enclosure, and metallic leads. Photoconductive cells are also known as photocells or light dependent resistors (LDRs). Another important resistive transducer is the strain gage, whose resistance changes due to elongation or compression when an external stress is applied. The stress is defined as force per unit area (newtons/meter^2) and can be related to I pressure, torque, and displacement. Therefore, a strain gage may be used to monitor change in applied pressure, torque, and displacement by measuring the corresponding change in the gages resistance. Two basic types of strain gages are wire and semiconductor. Semiconductor strain gages are much more sensitive than the wire type and therefore provide better accuracy and resolution. The sensitivity of a strain gage is defined as unit change in resistance per unit change in length and is a dimensionless quantity. The thermistor, photocell, and strain gage are all passive transducers, meaning that they require external voltage (ac or dc) for their operation.