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Resource-Based Learning
Michael J. Hannan and Janette R. Hill
University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia

CONTENTS
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................526 The Emergence of Resource-Based Learning ................................................................................................................526 Metamorphosis of Media.......................................................................................................................................527 Socially Constructed Resources ............................................................................................................................527 Sophistication of Information Systems .................................................................................................................527 Affordability, Power, and Availability...................................................................................................................528 Changing Nature of Resources..............................................................................................................................528 Economic and Practical Inuences .......................................................................................................................528 Components.....................................................................................................................................................................528 Context...................................................................................................................................................................528 Tools.......................................................................................................................................................................529 Scaffolds ................................................................................................................................................................529 Epistemology, Foundations, and Assumptions ...............................................................................................................530 Epistemology .........................................................................................................................................................530 Foundations and Assumptions...............................................................................................................................530 Psychological ...............................................................................................................................................530 Pedagogical ..................................................................................................................................................531 Technological ...............................................................................................................................................531 Cultural.........................................................................................................................................................531 Pragmatic......................................................................................................................................................531 Resource-Based Learning Research................................................................................................................................531 Issues and Implications ...................................................................................................................................................533 References .......................................................................................................................................................................534

ABSTRACT
The nature of information has changed dramatically during the past 25 years. The digital age has redened the nature of a resource and dramatically changed how

resources are used to support learning. Media of often unknown origin and quality are now used across a wide range of learning systems to address diverse epistemological beliefs and associated learning goals. The number and types of resources have also grown exponentially. 525

Michael J. Hannan and Janette R. Hill Several factors increase the viability of resources for learning, including access to resources in contexts not previously available, increased exibility in their use, and ready availability, manipulability, and sharability. The purposes of this chapter are to present a brief historical perspective on resource-based learning; describe components of resource-based learning; introduce the inuence of underlying epistemology, foundations, and assumptions in grounding resource use; critically analyze related research; and identify implications for RBL. should be used during learning. One distinction has focused on the extent to which resources embody pedagogical attributes. Wiley (2001) characterized a learning object as a digital resource that embodies pedagogical properties that can be reused to facilitate learning. Downes (2004) characterized a resource as being comprised of and supporting varied functions distributed across users and locations. Increased granularity may enable educators to utilize resources to address a wide variety of learning needs and to support a broad range of learning models, as well as to realize the potential of digital resources (Hodgins, 2001; Schatz, 2005). Earlier, we characterized a resource as an information asset of broad applicability and dened resources as media, people, places, or ideas that have the potential to support learning (Hill and Hannan, 2001, p. 38). Furthermore, we argued that the meaning of a given resource varies according to the epistemological, psychological, and pedagogical context of its use. Accordingly, we dene resource-based learning as the use and application of available assets to support varied learning needs across contexts (Beswick, 1977; Doiron and Davies, 1998; Haycock, 1991). Several factors increase the viability of resources for learning, including access in contexts not previously available, increased exibility in their use, and ready availability, manipulability, and sharability across multiple contexts and purposes. The purposes of this chapter are to present a brief perspective on and describe components of resource-based learning, describe how resource denitions and use are mediated by the underlying beliefs and practices associated with different learning models, and identify implications for creating and using digital resources for varied learning purposes.

KEYWORDS
Resource: Media, people, places or ideas that have the potential to support learning (Hill and Hannan, 2001, p. 38). Resource-based learning: The use and application of available assets to support varied learning needs across contexts. Scaffolding: Process through which individuals are supported in identifying, interpreting, or otherwise using resources. Tools: Devices that aid individuals to engage and manipulate resources and ideas.

INTRODUCTION
The digital age has both redened the nature of information and transformed educational resources. Resources need no longer be intact and self-contained but can be readily repurposed as well as accessed, created, modied, and assembled from virtually anywhere to address individual goals and needs. The educational implications have only begun to emerge as homes, schools, classrooms, workplaces, and community centers become increasingly resource centered. The potential and challenges of resource-based learning (RBL) are considerable. Increasingly, designers and learners must evaluate growing numbers of digital resources that are developed for purposes other than those being sought and used, that exist in everexpanding and geographically dispersed repositories, and that are often of unknown quality, accuracy, and integrity. So, while technology has been lauded for potentially democratizing access to information (Kellner, 2003), educational use remains fraught with issues of literacy, misinterpretation, and propagandizing (Brooks, 2003) as well as problems with copyright and fair use (Kahle, 1997). No singular, universally accepted denition exists as to what constitutes a resource or how resources 526

THE EMERGENCE OF RESOURCE-BASED LEARNING

Although the use of resources for learning is not new (Beswick, 1977; Haycock, 1991), their creation and use were limited in predigital environments. Resources were typically static, created and published by companies, and used largely intact to address specic, welldened needs and goals. In some instances, parts of an intact resource were used (e.g., chapter in a textbook), but it remained difcult to adapt resources to address individual needs. The digital age has changed the very nature of a resource. The resulting opportunities are considerable and range from increasing the number and availability through granularization, to repurposing component resources to address myriad individual needs, to providing multiple perspectives. We now have

Resource-Based Learning ready access to more traditional historic (e.g., books, articles) and contemporary (e.g., daily news) information sources (Maddux and Johnson, 1997), as well as emerging, dynamic information sources (e.g., blogs, wikis, podcasts) (Martindale and Wiley, 2005). Although the opportunities afforded through digitization are considerable, challenges remain. In this chapter, we describe the transformation of resources for educational purposes; introduce the foundations, assumptions, and components of resource-based learning; and describe a range of studies utilizing resourcebased learning in varied teaching-learning models. of ideas (Engstrom and Jewett, 2005). Rainie (2005), in his work with the Pew Internet and American Life Project, documented a 58% rise in blog readership in 2004. Political blogs, such as Instapundit and Daily Kos (Harp and Tremayne, 2006), were among the top blogs visited, with 9% of respondents to the Pew Internet survey reporting regular or occasional readership (Rainie, 2005). The increased use of political and news-related blogs provides an important indication of how socially constructed resources have democratized access to ideas and information (Bichard, 2006). Educators have used blogs and wikis both within their classes and to share ideas across a variety of disciplines and grade levels (Martindale and Wiley, 2005). (For a description of wikis in a graduate-level information systems course, see Raman et al., 2005; for a discussion of preservice teachers using blogs to facilitate learning in an instructional technology course, see West et al., 2006; for a discussion of the use of wikis with middlegrades students to engage the learners in the critical examination of an environmental challenge, see Engstrom and Jewett, 2005.) Whereas interest in and the use of forums such as blogs and wikis appear to be increasing, some question their contributors, readers, and value of the integrity of their contents. Harp and Tremayne (2006) indicated that the majority of blogging in political contexts is male dominated. Likewise, upon examining bloggers in the Pew Internet project, Rainie (2005, p. 2) concluded that like bloggers, blog readers are more likely to be young, male, well-educated, Internet veterans. This suggests that the presumably open-forum blogging available on the Internet may actually reect rather narrow, rather than democratic and open, information resources. Other challenges discussed in the literature include variable reading level, unique communication styles, quality of information, and information literacy skills needed to generate, interpret, and use such resources (McPherson, 2006).

Metamorphosis of Media
Media have become vastly easier to produce and access; for example, high-quality, sharable digital documents have become commonplace through word processing, movie making, and desktop publishing (Counts, 2006). It is no longer necessary for large design and production facilities to assemble or develop information resources, as individuals and small teams now have the ability to createeven customize resources rapidly. Digitization has also reduced the need to warehouse resources at centralized repositories. According to Lyman and Varian (2003), the Web has become the leading technology for accessing and sharing information. Traditional publishing and production houses, although important, are no longer required to produce, store, and distribute information. Users must no longer wait for a book to arrive in a library or bookstore; many titles are now available directly from authors (see, for example, Stephen Kings downloadable novels at http://www.stephenking.com/). Likewise, television and movie titles are now downloaded directly or accessed on-demanda trend that is projected to expand rapidly (Avery, 2004). Numerous online brokers and vendors (e.g., iTunes, Microsoft, Amazon.com) allow users to download digital music, computer software, books (.pdf documents or audiobooks), and video resources directly. Finally, public information, such as historical documents, weather information, and government reports, is increasingly digital in nature. Digital media are now available directly from a myriad of primary sources and brokers, democratizing availability and access across a vast array of hitherto centralized resources.

Sophistication of Information Systems

During the past two decades, the amount of information available has increased exponentially; for example, Lawrence and Giles (1998) estimated that the indexable Web was comprised of approximately 320 million pages. More recently, DeKunder at Tilburg University estimated the total Web pages to be 14.3 billion, with a sustained growth rate of 2% per month (Tilburg University, 2006). With the extraordinary volume of available resources, problems have emerged, particularly with locating the right information. Mark-up technologies provide descriptive metatags 527

Socially Constructed Resources

Blogs and wikis have become a primary source of information across a growing range of users. Blogs enable a wide distribution of ideas, and wikis enable broad distribution as well as the collaborative building

Michael J. Hannan and Janette R. Hill where authors can specify unique search terms and categories for the end user (Hill et al., 2007), which provides ne-grained indexing previously unavailable by a resources creator; however, some have suggested that the use of a given resource is continually redened by subsequent users. Metadata may provide guidance in identifying media attributes but little insight into appropriateness for use in given contexts or for learning models (Mwanza and Engestrom, 2005).

Economic and Practical Inuences

According to the National Education Association (NEA, 2004), the past two decades have brought radical budgetary constraints to both formal and informal educational initiatives. Availability of resources is required across learning contexts and models to enable use for varied purposes. Resource-based learning, particularly in digital environments, offers promise for broad applicability across a variety of contexts to provide access to an expanding global library of digital resources.

Affordability, Power, and Availability

Technologies have decreased in cost while growing exponentially in capability. According to recent estimates, the cycle processing rates of computer operating systems double every 18 to 20 months (Ekman et al., 2004). At the onset of the 21st century, a high percentage of households in Western countries reported at least one computer with Internet access (NTIA, 2000). Low-cost wireless computer technologies are now widely available and in use, enabling costeffective access to almost anything, anytime, and anyplace (for a recent study exploring the promises and challenges of nomadic computing, see Cousins, 2004). Internet access has also improved exponentially. According to recent Federal Communication Commission statistics (FCC, 2006), access speeds range from telephone dial-up at 56 kilobits per second to broadband speeds of 200 kilobits per second to the home. T-1 access speeds (1.5 megabytes per second) are now commonplace in public and business facilities. For RBL, both traditional digital text and graphic resources, as well as streaming video and audio resources, can now be provided to the home as well as to education settings affording ready access to a wealth of basic and high-end media resources.

COMPONENTS
Resource-based learning involves establishing contexts for, tools for acting on and with, and scaffolds to guide the differentiated interpretation, use, and understanding of resources in ways that are consistent with the epistemology, foundations, and assumptions of a given learning model (Hill and Hannan, 2001). RBL does not embody a particular epistemology but rather provides a process through which epistemologically different, but grounded, learning models are enacted. WebQuests, for example, are inquiry-oriented activit[ies] in which some or all of the information that learners interact with comes from resources on the Internet (Dodge, 1995, p. 12). In open-ended learning environments, resources are presumed to be epistemologically neutral until contextualized and designed to support unique learning goals (Hannan et al., 1999). In the following sections, we describe how resourcebased learning is enacted differentially to support different teaching-learning models.

Context Changing Nature of Resources

The emergence of learning objects (Northrup, 2007; Wiley, 2001) has stimulated alternative conceptions of resources. Traditional video content can be segmented into a series of scenes or clips that can be accessed individually or viewed in their entirety. Books need not be dened in their entirety but can be comprised of individual objects (e.g., words, tables, gures, and pictures) that can be used independently or in combinations. The meaning is continually redened as audio recordings, video scenes, and Web resources are recontextualized. Individual resource components, thus, are malleable rather than xed, affording innite potential to redene meanings, allow multiple literacies (Huot et al., 2004), and support different learning goals, contexts, and models. 528 External contextssupplied situations or problems are provided by an instructor or external agent to orient learners to a particular learning goal. Specic problem statements or questions, consistent with objectivist epistemology, direct expectations explicitly and guide the strategies and resources used by teachers and students (Hannan et al., 1997). In individual contexts, learners establish learning contexts based on their unique circumstances or needs. Consistent with constructivist epistemology, individuals establish the learning context, dene their knowledge and skill needs, identify resources to meet the needs, and situate the resources meaning to address their needs. Negotiated contexts combine aspects of external and individual contexts. Typically, an external problem or issue is provided (e.g., social justice, civil rights), but the

Resource-Based Learning specic problems to be addressed (e.g., what led to nonviolent protests in the mid-20th century?) are unique to individual learners (Hill et al., 2007). In problem-based learning models, the context typically enables multiple issues to be identied and studied using varied resources to support individual approaches. Iiyoshi (1999), for example, examined the effects of different orienting contexts on nursing students search strategies, interpretation, and understanding using multimedia resources contained in a multimedia database, the Human Body. Students were provided tasks that explicitly directed them to specic resources, focused on relationships between two or more resources, or posed a problem requiring a synthesis of information across multiple resources. Participants tended to learn specic concepts using directed tasks but were only able to synthesize meaning across resources when oriented accordingly. Similarly, the Jasper Woodbury series establishes problem contexts using authentic video vignettes depicting dilemmas wherein different problems and subproblems can be identied to establish and implement a plan (Barron et al., 1995; Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1992). lesson planning resources, provide sophisticated function-specic searching tools. Domain-specic resources can be searched using the State of Georgias GALILEO database (www.galileo.usg.edu), which contains a variety of subject-specic as well as general search engines, enabling direct access to associated electronic resources (e.g., journal articles, reports) as well as resources in libraries. Manipulation tools are used to test or explore. Consistent with constructivist epistemology, applications such as SimCity or SimEarth empower learners to hypothesize, design, build, test, and rebuild cities and ecosystems to investigate relationships between and among objects and systems. Manipulation tools allow the testing of environmental scenarios and manipulation of systemic concepts such as global warming in ways otherwise impossible or impractical. Finally, communication tools support the ability to exchange information and ideas. Asynchronous tools such as e-mail, podcasts, blogs, and wikis enable and sustain access among learners, instructors, and experts. Synchronous communication tools (e.g., instant messaging, videoconferencing) provide access to others in real time, whether they are located a few rooms away or around the globe.

Tools
Tools enable learners to engage and manipulate both resources and ideas. Tool use varies with context and intention; the same tool can support different activities based on its alignment with given learning models. Numerous tool types (see, for example, Hill and Hannan, 1997) and functions (Iiyoshi et al., 2005) have been identied. Processing tools help to manage cognitive demands associated with different RBL models. When embodying objectivist epistemology, spreadsheets enable learners to manipulate scenarios to test the limits within a simulation, extend their cognitive abilities, and reduce the extraneous cognitive load associated with tasks and mental manipulation (Hannan et al., 2007). The same tools, in contrast, may embody constructivist epistemology when used to negotiate a resources meaning in technologyenhanced, distance learning environments (Hill et al., 2007). Searching tools can be used in directed as well as learner-centered environments. General-purpose Webbased search engines such as Google (www.google.com) identify the location of and direct access to a variety of electronic resources. Google Scholar, which seeks and generates Web-indexed links among published documents, and Apple Learning Interchange (http://ali.apple.com/ali_appleworks/templates.shtml), which supports searching for highly indexed pre12

Scaffolds
Scaffolding is support provided initially and subsequently faded in a continuous cycle as knowledge and understanding develops. The amount and frequency of scaffolding vary with the individual learner, problems encountered, and the needs or demands of a specic context (Sharma and Hannan, 2007). Procedural, conceptual, metacognitive, and strategic scaffolds are especially relevant for RBL. Procedural scaffolds emphasize how to use the features and functions of a given resource. Greene and Land (2000), for example, made extensive use of procedural scaffolds to support preservice teachers in their development of an Internetbased RBL lesson. Procedural scaffolds allow learners to focus cognitive resources for other learning activities (e.g., problem solving). Conceptual scaffolds guide learners in what to consider by assisting with the identication of knowledge related to a problem or by making connections between concepts more apparent. Resource-intense toolkits were created by the Open University to assist students with learning at a distance in a directed environment (Jelfs et al., 2004). Metacognitive scaffolds, common in inquiry-based environments, prompt reection, comparison, and revision based on self-assessments of understanding. Checklists, for example, can assist the learner with reecting upon decisions made or actions to take. 529

Michael J. Hannan and Janette R. Hill Cases also support reection and comparison, presenting scenarios for learners to consider as well as conrmation points where learners reect on their understanding to reveal what they do or do not understand (Kim and Hannan, in press a; Kolodner et al., 2004). Finally, strategic scaffolds provide assistance in identifying ways to analyze, plan, and respond (e.g., identifying and selecting information, evaluating resources). Many models have been developed to guide learners in developing and applying information literacy skills (see, for example, Eisenberg et al., 2004). Several libraries have created websites to guide learners with evaluating print and electronic resources that can be used across learning contexts. The University of CaliforniaBerkeley (http:// www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Evaluation.html) and Purdue University (http://owl.english. purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_evalsource.html) have established extensive websites for evaluating resources. Similarly, Trochims (2004) social science research website provides strategic scaffolding to guide the research process. alignment of associated foundations and assumptions underlying epistemological beliefs. The unique ways in which design practices are enacted vary according to the epistemology, foundations, and assumptions consistent with and extended from a given learning model (for a discussion of grounded design practices in casebased learning, see Kim and Hannan, in press a).

Foundations and Assumptions

Psychological Specic instantiations vary based on epistemological differences, but the importance of psychological foundations has been long recognized (Bednar et al., 1995; Brown and Campione, 1996; Gagn and Glaser, 1987). Beginning in the early 20th century, associationism dominated the psychological learning landscape. Operant behavioral theory and research, reecting objectivist epistemology and inuenced strongly by Skinners research in operant conditioning, posit that learning involves an enduring change in behavior regulated by associations between a stimulus, a response, and a reinforcer: The more a desired behavior is reinforced in the presence of controlling stimuli, the greater the likelihood of repeating the response and the stronger the learning. Characteristically, behaviorists paid little attention to thinking or the organization of knowledge, tending instead to characterize learning in terms of complex stimulusresponsereinforcement associationsthat is, observable phenomena deemed to inuence learning (Burton et al., 2004). Like behaviorism, cognitive psychology is largely rooted in objectivist epistemology; unlike behaviorists, cognitive psychologists emphasize the individuals processing of information and how knowledge is stored and retrieved (Winn, 2004). Cognitive theorists, for example, posit that mental processes mediate what is selected, remembered, recalled, and generalized based on individual background, needs, and interests. Information processing involves an exchange between external stimuli and internal mental processes such as sensory registers, selective perception, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM) (Shuell, 1986). According to information-processing theory, sensory registers lter external stimuli, selectively isolating information and signals to be processed more deeply. This information is processed temporarily in working memory, where it is further ltered. Relevant information is encoded in permanent memory, and the remaining information is discarded. Learning, then, involves the transfer of information from working to permanent memory, while retrieval involves retrieving knowledge from permanent to working memory. The

EPISTEMOLOGY, FOUNDATIONS, AND ASSUMPTIONS

In grounded design practice, epistemology, foundations, and assumptions are aligned to maximize their coincidence. Although isolated for clarity in the following, the extent to which activities are aligned with the associated foundations and assumptions determines how (or if) a given learning model is consistent with its espoused epistemology.

Epistemology
We have advocated that learning systems be aligned with and grounded in underlying epistemological beliefs and associated foundations and embody the assumptions and practices underlying those beliefs and foundations (Hannan and Hill, 2006; Hannan et al., 2004). Objectivists values and beliefs about the nature of knowledge and learning, for example, differ fundamentally from those of relativists (Jonassen, 1991). To ground design practices that reect and manifest the values of objectivist epistemology, corresponding design foundations and practices are applied to support learning. Conversely, constructivists emphasize the uniquely individual construction of knowledge and the generation of meaning; accordingly, practices are designed to support unique rather than particular sense making (Hannan et al., 1997). In effect, grounded design criteria require that the components, strategies, and activities of any learning environment reect an 530

Resource-Based Learning richer the initial and updated encoding, the more likely knowledge will be activated and retrieved under appropriate conditions, retrieved (decoded), and applied or transferred (Hannan et al., 2007). The psychological foundations of contemporary resource-based environments, such as inquiry-based learning and problem-based learning, are often rooted in constructivist epistemology. Kim and Hannan (in press b), for example, described numerous examples of situated, constructivist-inspired inquiry learning. Situated cognition researchers and theorists consider knowledge and context to be inextricably intertwined; that is, meaning does not exist independent of context, but rather context shapes and denes meaning (Brown et al., 1989). Pedagogical Psychological and pedagogical foundations are interdependent. Direct instruction, for example, typically emphasizes explicit identication of objective outcomes, hierarchical structures, and objective-based activities and assessment consistent with objectivist epistemology and behavioral psychology, whereas student-centered pedagogical approaches tend to be contextually based and epistemologically aligned with constructivism. Taken together, they reect underlying beliefs about the nature of learning, the methods and strategies employed, and the ways in which domain information is organized and made available. Technological Technological capabilities dictate the extent to which features can support learning, but pedagogical requirements dictate how and which capabilities should be integrated. Technological capabilities vary widely, but it is the manner in which they support or hamper efforts, not their mere availability, that inuences learning. Some features are available but not appropriate given the pedagogical requirements of a given learning environment, while others may be desirable but inherently limited. Cultural Cultural considerations reect beliefs about education, the role of individuals in society, traditions in how different disciplines teach and learn, and the prevailing practices of a given community. They inuence design by dening the values of a given setting. As an example, back to basics learning cultures tend to embrace objectivist epistemology, emphasize behavioral or cognitive psychological foundations, and apply direct instruction pedagogy. In effect, different learning models are both reections and extensions of the cultures for which they are designed. Pragmatic Each setting has unique situational constraints that affect how a learning model is implemented. Collins (1996), for example, described competing consequences involved in making practical tradeoffs, such as determining what should be taught, assessing costs and benets, and evaluating activity alternatives. Issues such as hardware and software type and availability and costs routinely inuence the adoption and diffusion of innovations. They establish, from a practical perspective, why a particular approach may or may not be feasible in a given learning environment.

RESOURCE-BASED LEARNING RESEARCH

As noted previously, RBL-related approaches are commonly reected in research on different learning models. We will not attempt to discuss research within different learning models; instead, we examine research involving the use of resources where no formal learning model was specied or apparent. Armatas et al. (2003) explored how individual characteristics (e.g., learning goals, study strategies, subject interest, computer attitudes) inuenced learner engagement with course resources in an online environment involving 731 on- and off-campus students enrolled in a rstyear psychology course in Australia. A learning management system (LMS) linked the course structures to a variety of prescribed and optional resources, ranging from a textbook to lectures to websites to discussion groups. A 165-item survey that assessed study habits, resources accessed, difculties accessing, and perceived value of the resources was distributed toward the end of the term. In addition, computer attitudes, learning goals, study strategies, and interest in psychology were assessed. Results indicated a signicant inuence for background factors, engagement with, and perceived value of RBL resources. Among enrollees, off-campus students reported spending more time studying than oncampus students. Off-campus students also indicated a preference for electronic resources and reported fewer problems with accessing the LMS than on-campus students and were more positive toward resource organization and usefulness. Overall, older students (more prevalent among off-campus enrollees) preferred working with the computer more than younger 531

Michael J. Hannan and Janette R. Hill students, who reported less condence in study strategies than older students. On-campus students, generally younger, preferred print-based resources. Newnham et al. (1998) explored the use of Internet-based resources in an undergraduate geography course. The learning environment was largely externally directed, with the course instructor supplying extensive structure and explicit directions (for detailed discussions of directed distance learning environments, or DDLEs, see Sharma et al., 2007). Course resources were predetermined by the instructor and downloaded to a local network. In addition, students were encouraged to use bulletin boards related to topics under study (volcanic and earthquake activity). Student performance and student course evaluations were gathered over two academic years. Results indicated signicant improvements in student performance associated with externally directed use of Internet-based resources. According to the researchers, the standard of academic coursework was higher when students were provided directed access to Internet-based resourcesparticularly in the second year. Student perceptions related to the use of Internet resources were also positive, both for completing course assignments and for long-term employability. Greene and Lands (2000) qualitative analysis of the use of resources in a college-level problem-focused RBL environment examined how learners used resources during project-based learning, how procedural scaffolds inuenced project progress, and how interactions (studentstudent, studentinstructor) shaped project quality. Participants were 18 undergraduate preservice teachers (16 female, 2 male) in an educational technology course. The activity involved students developing a project that integrated Web resources into the curriculum. Participants chose their own topics (e.g., trip planning for third graders) and elected to work in groups of two to four members or independently. Data collection focused on surveys, researcher observations, videotaped observations of Web use, and transcriptions of student verbalizations during Web use. Results indicated that the ability to recognize and integrate specic Web resources into projects was inuenced by knowledge of the Web, the topic under investigation, and a willingness to consider alternatives. Within-group studentstudent interactions and instructorstudent interactions were reportedly valued and useful; across-group studentstudent interactions were successful only when the interaction was perceived to be of value. The dynamic questions and discussions between instructor and students promoted reection on why students used Web resources. Greene and Land (2000) concluded that the contextualization and scaffolding supporting resource use inuenced stu532 dents perceived and actual usability, indicating that learners may need explicit guidance in selecting resources until they become sufciently familiar with their topic or the context. They also noted that online information lacks adequate indexing to support educational purposes, and they underscored the need to structure and scaffold both search and use of Web resources. Jelfs et al. (2004) explored resource toolkits for students in a directed, online learning environment at the British Open University. The researchers sought to determine which, when, and how to provide resources to assist distant undergraduate students during their online learning. Participants included 60 part-time undergraduates, and data included questionnaires and interviews. The questionnaires focused on students perceptions of the resource scaffolding toolkits. Interviews were conducted by phone with students throughout the United Kingdom (England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland) to supplement questionnaire responses. Overall, although the resource toolkits were effective in scaffolding resource use, students requested alternative formats (e.g., print, people) and the ability to access resources when needed. Some students preferred receiving the toolkits in print format, and others preferred retrieving materials from the Internet. Generally, students indicated a preference for fewer activities and for aesthetically attractive resources in the toolkits. Macdonald et al. (2001) examined resource use in both an undergraduate and a graduate course taught over a 3-year period at the British Open University. Both courses included a variety of resources (electronic, human, Web-based) in multiple formats (print, video, animations) to support the learning process. The researchers examined the inuence of informationhandling skills and factors that inuence the acquisition of those skills. Data sources included computer conferences, observations, interviews, and e-mail reective follow-up; questionnaires were used to gather quantitative data. Undergraduates indicated that they enjoyed the resource-based learning approach; however, both time constraints for using the resources and information overload were cited as problems. Participants indicated that access to resources (primarily via CD-ROM) was relatively easy, although the skills needed to analyze and evaluate the information were not sufciently developed. Graduate participants also indicated that they favored the resource-based approach, but the researchers noted that they may have had greater prior experience and condence in using multiple resources. Some participants indicated that RBL may be more applicable in some areas than in others (e.g., engineering) and that resource-based approaches may be more appropriate for upper-division undergraduate and graduate

Resource-Based Learning level study. The authors concluded that: (1) a variety of skills is needed to effectively use resources (e.g., IT skills, cognitive skills); (2) course complexity should inform how many and what resources are introduced; and (3) opportunities are needed for students to understand the benets (as well as challenges) of RBL. Although published research typically focuses on postsecondary environments, a few researchers have examined the use of resource-based approaches in elementary and secondary settings. In a seventh-grade project, Children, Access, and Learning, McNichol et al. (2002) examined the RBL approaches of four U.K. schools. One class was selected from each school, and students were required to use information and communication technology (ICT) resources (e.g., Internet, CD-ROM) at school, at home, or in the community (e.g., public library). Participants represented a range of socioeconomic backgrounds (low socioeconomic to prosperous) and environmental settings (semi-rural, semi-urban, inner-city, rural). Student logs recorded resource use, summary logs documented reection on the process, and individual follow-up interviews obtained student perceptions. Parent or guardian questionnaires and interviews provided independent data related to home resource usage. Results indicated that ICT resource use in the home was high, even in poorer regions of the country (93%). While access varied (individual machine to a single shared computer in the house), the majority of the students had access to and made use of ICT resources. The perceived value of ICT resources differed between students and parents. Students expressed concern over the limited number of resources available, while parents expressed concerns related to laziness (i.e., too easy to nd information), inadequate information literacy, access to inappropriate information, the cost of Internet access, the use of chatrooms, and inappropriate use of the ICT resources. School-based ICT access varied widely from location to location. At one school, most resources were accessed in the classroom, library, and at home. Another school provided very limited and highly centralized access to ICT resources, housing most computers in the library. As a result of limited access, resources use was limited and the project teacher developed few skills. resources, the presence of erroneous or misinformation, and the use of resources as propaganda. The largely unregulated generation, distribution, access, and use of digital resources pose both signicant opportunities and challenges for resource-based learning. Given the challenges associated with the identication of reliable and valid resources, developing literacy across media and multiple ways of knowing have become increasingly important (Mackey, 2002). Information literacy has a long history with both traditional text and electronic contexts. Barnard et al. (2005, p. 509) noted: Individuals who are information literate can determine the extent of information needed, access information effectively, and critically evaluate information and its sources. Researchers in the United States and Western Europe have underscored the growing signicance of information literacy; for example, in the study by McNichol et al. (2002), one participant stated: They use [information literacy] in schools and businesses and this is the way things are going, so they need to have a good knowledge of computers. Its the future; if they dont know, theyre stuck (p. 399). Other researchers have advocated an expansion of our denitions and understandings of what it means to be literate in the information age. Mackey (2002) described the ecologies of literacy in a 1.5-year-long study exploring young students (age 10 and 13) using multiple resources. Huot et al. (2004), along with other scholars writing in their edited book, advocated that literacy is not one thing and that time changes what we mean by literacy (p. 1). Despite widespread agreement as to the importance of information literacy, little is known about how recontextualized resources (as the raw materials of the information age) inuence interpretation, meaning, and understanding during RBL. In externally imposed contexts, the range of intended interpretations and meaning is largely constrained by the tasks, activities, and goals to which their use is directed. The objectivist-inspired learning models typically convey common rather than unique meaning; however, in individual and negotiated learning models where individual selection and interpretation of a resources meaning are expected, considerable variability has been reported in the resources used and their meaning. Resource-based learning components are designed to instantiate individual resource selection and meaning making by providing the contexts and tools to explore and rene understanding and the scaffolds to guide and support reasoning. In some cases, unique sets of resources, tools, and scaffolds have been developed for specic learning models; see, for example, the description by Linn et al. (2003) of the Web-Based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) program, as well 533

ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS

One area of particular interest to RBL is literacy. As we have noted throughout the chapter, literacy concerns related to the multiple types and forms of resources include the rapid but largely unmanaged growth of

Michael J. Hannan and Janette R. Hill as the summary of Jaspers affordances by the Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (1992). In others, however, existing resources are recontextualized by the individual. Little evidence exists documenting their effectiveness in different, often distal, learning contexts. We need to further explore how literacy affects the use and interpretation of resources within these contexts. Likewise, a great deal of literature has been published on orienting individuals to varied learning goals, activities that engage individuals with learning content, and guiding performance. Although this research provides some guidance for resource use, the epistemology, foundations, and assumptions embodied in the research often differ from those embodied in specic learning models. Findings related to providing prequestions may prove to be of value in designing directed learning models but of little utility in enabling contexts designed to induce unique learning goals. In addition, comparatively few researchers have examined interactions among contexts, tools, and scaffolds in learner-centered models. So, although a great deal of related research has been published, their relevance to learning models reecting fundamentally different epistemologies has not been documented conclusively. Finally, Wellington (2001) identied a host of issues related to resource use, including teacher control, worries about plagiarism, and perceived threats to teacher authority. Clearly, increased availability and quality have not tempered educators concerns regarding the risks associated with everyday resource use. Signicant barriers derive more from teachinglearning traditions than concerns over the inherent vs. malleable properties of a resource. These barriers are deeply engrained in education culture and may prove more formidable than quality, interpretive, and technical issues related to recontextualization. REFERENCES
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