PRACTICAL REPORT OF BASIC BIOLOGY-II MITOSIS

Group II: MUFTI NUR ILMA SULCHANA SARASWATI DIANA ARFIANTI ISLAMIAR NUR RANI HIZKIA YOGA ADHITAMA ROSITA SARI NUR RAHMADI (11315244002) (11315244005) (11315244010) (11315244020) (11315244023) (11315244031)

INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION PROGRAM FACULTY OF MATHEMATHICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY 2011/2012

ACTIVITY 9 MITOSIS OF ONION (Allium cepa) ROOTS A. OBJECTIVE In this experiments is to observe the process of mitosis in onion/ garlic root B. BACKGROUND Mitosis cell reproduction is the way in which cell divide through the regular stages, namely anaphase-prophase-metaphase-telophase. Between telophase stage to the next stage of prophase there is a rest period called interphase cells (this step does not include cell division stage). At this stages of interphase nuclei of the cell, the characteristics to the synthesis of core materials. Broadly speaking, the characteristic of each stages of the mitotic division are as follows : 1. chromosomes begin duplicate to chromatids. 2. Metaphase : at this stage chromosomes/ chromatids lined up regularly in the field division (of the equator)so that at this stage of chromosomes/ chromatids easily observed and studied. 3. of the cell division. 4. Telophase cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm into two parts). All complete division the cleavage stage of reproduction is as follow : in contrast to mitotic division, the division between telophase meiosis 1 and prophase II, there is not resting phase (interface). Once completed : at this stage there is an incident kariokinesis (core division into two parts) and Anaphase : in this phase will be attracted by the chromatids toward the spindle thread to the poles Prophase : at this stage it is important the reads of chromatin thickens into chromosomes and the

telophase II and will proceed to prophase I then found a resting phase or interface. C. BASIC THEORY Cell division is the process by which cells divide into two or more progeny cells, usually referred to as "daughter" cells. Cell division happens for a number of reasons. Simple unicellular organisms reproduce by cell division. Cell division serves many functions in multicellular organisms, such as growth, replacement of tissues that shed (such as the skin or intestinal lining), or reproduction. Prokaryotes such as bacteria undergo cell division by a process known as binary fission. This is not covered here. The corresponding process in eukaryotes is mitosis, which is described below. Additionally, multicellular organisms can also use a different process - meiosis - to produce specialized reproductive cells called "gametes".

Mitosis
Mitosis is the eukaryotic equivalent for binary fission - the process by which a cell splits into two daughter cells. Unicellular eukaryotes reproduce through mitosis. Some multicellular organisms, such as plants which are propagated through cuttings, can also reproduce through mitosis. Mitosis is also used to replace or regenerate lost tissues, for example the skin, or even whole organs in animals which can regenerate body parts. It is involved in wound healing, in the production of immune cells, and in the growth of a zygote to embryo, fetus, newborn, to adult. Mitosis results in the production of daughter cells which are identical to the mother cell in terms of their genetic makeup. The DNA of the daughter cells is identical to the DNA of the mother cell (apart from any errors that may occur in the duplication process). This is different from meiosis,

where the daughter cells are not identical to the mother cells from which they are produced.

The Cell Cycle Mitosis can be thought of as a cycle, since it can occur many times in the same cell line. A diagram of the cell cycle is shown on the left. The mitotic or cell division phase is quite small, representing about 10-20% of the total cycle time, even in rapidly dividing cells. The cell spends the rest of the time either preparing for mitosis (the G1, S and G2 periods of interphase), or in a quiescent state where it is not dividing and not preparing to divide (G0 state). The dividing cell goes through a rest and growth period, during which it acquires and processes raw materials to increase in size, and produce multiple copies of cellular organelles such as mitochondria and ribosomes, which will be later divided between the two daughter cells. During this rest phase, the cell also duplicates its DNA. Finally, it enters the mitotic phase, where the duplicated DNA is separated into corresponding groups, to form two separate nuclei. Then the rest of the cell splits into two, with each half

getting one nucleus, and two daughter cells are produced. Each of these two daughter cells then enters the rest and growth phase, and in turn can enter a mitotic phase of its own, each producing the next generation of daughter cells. This is why it is considered cyclic - rest and growth mitosis - rest and growth - mitosis - etc. In this way, a cell can continue subdividing many times, until its cell line reaches senescence, after which it stops dividing. In humans, normal cells can undergo mitosis about 52 times (Hayflick Limit) until it becomes senescent and stops dividing. Senescence is thought to be related to shortening of the telomeres, which are repetitive sequences at the ends of each chromosome. Each time a cell divides, the telomeres become shorter. Presumably, they reach some critical lower limit, after which the cell cannot divide any more. Of course, this applies only to normal cells. Cancerous cells can keep dividing forever, because the enzyme telomerase is activated in such cells, and this enzyme continues to lengthen the telomeres after each division. Some normal cells, such as various cells in embryonic tissue, can also divide many more times than normal adult cells. The phases of mitosis are described below. It is important to remember that not all eukaryotic cells divide in exactly the same way. The process described below applies to mammals and many other "higher" organisms. However, there are many eukaryotes that undergo mitosis differently. For example, the dissolution of the nuclear membrane shown below does not happen in many molds and lichens. The separation of the chromosomes in anaphase happens within the nuclear membrane (which never disappears in such organisms), and two nuclei are formed inside the same cell. Each of these nuclei can further subdivide, and often there are cells with multiple nuclei. Cytokinesis can then happen later, and each of the nuclei becomes a new cell. In mammals, cytokinesis usually follows the last phase (telophase), but can also sometimes be delayed.

Interphase
This is the long phase in between cell divisions. This is much longer than all the mitotic phases combined (about 90%, compared to 10% of the time the cell spends in mitosis, in mammalian cells). This is the period during which the cell grows and produces organelles and eventually duplicates its DNA. The figure on the right shows a diagram of a cell during interphase. The bars below show the mitotic "cell cycle". The left bar shows the cell phases - G1, S and G2, which are collectively known as interphase, and M which is the mitotic phase.

The bar on the right shows the subdivisions of the M or mitotic phase, which are P for prophase, M for metaphase, A for anaphase, and T for telophase. These phases are characterized by what is happening to the DNA of the cell. However, during cell division, it is not only the DNA of the cell that divides; it is the whole cell. The division of the cytoplasm, with its various cell organelles, is known as cytokinesis. In mammals, this typically happens after the last phase of mitosis, and results in the production of two daughter cells.

The cell spends the bulk of its time in interphase, the period between two cycles of cell division. Interphase is divided into 3 periods - G 1, S and G2. The S period is shown in the figure to the right. This is the period during which the DNA is duplicated. At this time, the DNA (which is normally dispersed through the nucleus and mostly invisible) condenses into discrete, dark staining bodies, called "chromatin". G1 and G2 are the growth phases, also sometimes referred to as the "gap" phases. This is the period during which cellular organelles such as ribosomes, mitochondria, and other machinery of the cell are produced in large numbers. This material is eventually split between the two daughter cells. Some cells which are not actively dividing enter a phase termed G 0. During this phase, the cell is not preparing to divide. Cellular activities are mostly concerned with sustaining the cell and performing its normal functions, and there is no extra protein synthesis or organelle synthesis as there is when the cell is preparing to divide. There is a point in time during G1, known as the restriction point, which is sort of a checkpoint to cell division. Provided that the cell receives a suitable mitogenic or growth signal by the restriction point, it will continue on towards the S phase and the duplication of the DNA, followed by mitosis. However, if the appropriate signals are not received by the restriction point, the cell reverts to G0. During interphase, the nuclear membrane is present. The nucleolus (a nuclear structure which is responsible for assembling ribosomes) is clearly visible. DNA is visible in the form of chromatin clumps scattered throughout the nucleus.

Prophase

During prophase, the chromosomes appear for the first time during cell division. Prior to prophase, the DNA is loosely coiled in chromatin bundles, but during prophase it forms itself up into highly ordered elongated structures, called chromosomes. Chromosomes appear bifurcate, that is, they look like they are made of two identical strands, joined at the middle. This is because the DNA is already duplicated (it was duplicated during the S period of interphase). Each chromosome is made of two chromatids. Some people confuse the terms "chromosome" and "chromatid", so I wrote a brief explanation describing the difference here.

Each chromatid has a structure near its center, called the kinetochore. This is a complex protein attached to the chromosome, which serves as an attachment point for microtubules, which are used to guide the chromatids towards each half of the cell during later phases. As the name "kinetochore" indicates, this is a motor protein, that uses energy in the form of ATP to "climb" its way along the microtubule to one pole of the cell. The kinetochores of sister chromatids are also connected to each other through the centromeres, which are regions of the DNA on each chromatid

that are connected to each other. The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are connected to each other through the centromeres. During prophase, the centrosomes separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell. The centrosome is a microtubule organizing center, which helps in organizing the microtubules or spindle fibers, which guide the movement of chromosomes in later phases of mitosis. Normally, each cell has one centrosome (which consists of two centrioles), which is found associated with the nuclear membrane during most of interphase. However, during the S period of interphase (when the cellular DNA is duplicated), the centrosome is also duplicated, so prior to prophase the cell contains two centrosomes. Each of the centrosomes moves towards opposite poles of the cell, and each daughter cell will inherit one centrosome. Centrosomes play an important part in cell division, but are not absolutely necessary, since cells can divide without centrosomes. Some types of cells (such as higher plants) do not even contain centrosomes, but contain some other form of microtubule organizing centers. Towards the end of prophase, the nuclear membrane dissolves. This happens in humans and in most other mammalian cells, but as mentioned earlier, not in all eukaryotic cells. There are some plants, fungi and lichens in which the nuclear membranes remain intact through all of mitosis. In such cases, the microtubules from the centrosomes (or other microtubule organizing centers) penetrate the nuclear membrane and attach the chromatids inside the nucleus.

Metaphase
In metaphase, the microtubules originating from the centrosomes (arranged in bundles called spindle fibers) attach to the kinetochores of the chromatids.

The kinetochores can be imagined as somewhat ring-shaped structures, and the end of each spindle fiber is a "hook" that attaches to the ring. Spindle fibers growing from the centrosomes are of two types. One type can be considered the "kinetochore type" fibers, which specifically look for a kinetochore on a chromatid to attach to. In fact, it is thought that an unattached kinetochore continues to broadcast a signal which tells the cell that kinetochore attachment is not yet complete, and therefore the cell is prevented from moving on to the next stage of the cell cycle. Only when all kinetochores are attached to a spindle fiber does this signal cease, and the cell reaches the mitotic spindle checkpoint, which tells it that it's okay to proceed with the next stage.

The other kind of spindle fibers are known as the "non-kinetochore type", and these do not attach to the kinetochores of chromatids. Instead, they attach to similar non-kinetochore type spindle fibers from the opposite centrosome. This network of fibers stretching from one centrosome to the other is called the mitotic spindle. The function of these fibers is to push the two centrosomes apart, increasing the distance between them. This happens in the next phase (anaphase); however the connections necessary for forming this mitotic spindle happen during metaphase.

As a result of kinetochore-type fibers attaching to the kinetochore of each chromatid from opposite sides, each chromatid pair is under two opposite forces which balance each other. Each chromatid of a chromosome is trying to climb up the spindle fiber on its own side. However, since the chromatids are joined in the middle at the centromeres, they can't actually move at this stage. But the presence of these equal and opposite forces lines the chromosome up at the central or equatorial plane of the cell. This happens to every chromosome of the cell. Therefore, one of the characteristic features of metaphase is that all the chromosomes appear to line up in the middle of the cell, along what's known as the equatorial plane of the cell, as shown in the diagram. This is very common in mammalian cells. However, there are some cells which don't show such a neat lining up of chromosomes, and in those cases the chromosomes tend to oscillate between the two poles, sometimes nearer one centrosome and sometimes nearer the other.

Anaphase
After all the kinetochore type spindle fibers are attached to the chromatids, and the chromosomes are lined up along the equatorial plane, anaphase begins.

The two chromatids of each chromosome are held together by a protein called cohesin. At the start of anaphase, a protein known as separase cleaves the cohesin, separating the two chromatids of each chromosome from each other. Separase is normally present in the cell, but is under inhibition by a protein called securin. Removal of this inhibition (by a protein called M-phase cyclin) is what initiates anaphase. Separation of the chromatids allows them to start moving up the spindle fibers towards the centrosomes on their respective sides. As mentioned previously, the kinetochores on the chromatids are motor proteins, that attach themselves to the spindle fiber and "drag" themselves along the fiber, pulling the chromatid with them. This process uses energy in the form of ATP. As the chromatids move along the spindle fibers, the distal ends of the spindle fibers disintegrate, so the fibers appear to shorten as the chromatids move along their lengths. Recall that in addition to the kinetochore type spindle fibers (along which the chromatids move), there are also non-kinetochore type spindle fibers, which stretch pole to pole across the cell, from one centrosome to the

other. These fibers start lengthening towards the end of anaphase, which increases the separation between the two centrosomes (and therefore also increases the separation between the two sets of chromatids, since the chromatids are attached to each centrosome). At the end of anaphase, the two sets of chromatids (each of which contains 1c/2n DNA, or exactly the same amount of DNA as a normal adult cell) are at the two polar ends of the cell.

Telophase
This is the end phase of mitosis, and it basically reverses the elements of prophase. The non-kinetochore type spindle fibers continue to elongate, pushing the centrosomes even farther apart and elongating the cell along the polar axis.

Meanwhile, each set of chromatids develops a nuclear membrane around it. This nuclear membrane is made of fragments of the original nuclear membrane which dissolved towards the end of prophase. The completion of the two nuclear membranes results in two separate nuclei, each containing a full complement of the organism's DNA. Note that is only

happens in some kinds of cells (most mammalian cells, including human cells). In other organisms, the nuclear membrane never dissolves, and is therefore does not need to be regenerated. In such cases, the maximal separation of the two centrosomes and the consequent elongation of the cell marks the end of telophase. The chromatids inside each nucleus then appear to "dissolve" - the tightly packed and organized structure is lost as the DNA uncoils, and it reverts to the normal DNA appearance during the cell's resting phase, a loosely organized chromatin network. The nucleolus reappears inside each nucleus. This is a dark staining body that contains the machinery for assembling ribosomes from ribosomal RNA. At this point, mitosis is complete, but cell division is not yet complete. In order for that to happen, the cell must divide physically into two daughter cells, which happens during the next phase of cytokinesis. Telophase accounts for about 2% of the cell cycle in dividing cells.

Cytokinesis
This is the last phase of cell division, which occurs after mitosis is complete. The diagram to the right shows cytokinesis in a typical animal cell. Cytokinesis is very different in plants, which have cell walls.

In animals cells, soon after the end of telophase, cytokinesis begins. The cell, which was already elongated along the polar axis due to the separation of the centrosomes, begins to pinch off in the middle at the equatorial plane. The equatorial plane is the plane along which the chromosomes aligned themselves during metaphase. The "pinching off" is due to contractile non-muscle type myosin II and actin filaments, which are deposited on the cell membrane in a ring around the equatorial plane. Contraction of this ring produces a cleavage furrow, which continues to deepen as the ring contracts and the cytoplasm in the region is hydrolysed. As the cell membrane furrow continues to deepen, the mitotic spindle which was previously pushing the two centrosomes apart during telophase is forced into a narrower and narrower communicating gap between the two halves of the cell. The microtubules start to decay across the cell, except in the region of the constriction itself, where they compact to form the midbody structure, a flattened dense patch between the two separating halves of the cell. Finally, the process of abscission cleaves the midbody structure into two halves, and the two daughter cells separate, and cytokinesis is complete.

Cytokinesis in plant cells is very different. Since plant cells have cell walls, there is no constriction of the membrane and no cleavage furrow. Instead, a new cell wall (known as the cell plate) is deposited at the equatorial plane, and a complex procedure beginning with the creation of the phragmoplast begins, which through a series of steps leads to the formation of the two daughter cells. This process is not covered here.

Cell reproduction is one of the fundamental essence of life. The process of cell reproduction involves the process of nuclear division to form a new nucleus (mitosis), followed by cytoplasmic division (cytokinesis). This process produces two tersipasah nuclei in different cells. Mitosis and cytokinesis are components of cell division that are collectively known as reproductive cells. In mitosis, all of the properties contained in the cell nucleus are recorded fully in the new cell. Active mitosis occurs in meristem tissues that are growing rapidly, such as root tips, shoots, and shoots. Speed of cell division in each different organs beda.Tujuan mitotic division is to pass on all the properties of both parent and child cells play an important role in biological processes, such as growth, replacement of damaged cells and tissue repair . (Dotty Suryati , 2008) In the field of genetics, mitosis is the process that produces two identical daughter cells. Mitosis maintains the same pair of chromosomes through cell division of somatic nuclei, respectively. This process occurs simultaneously with cleavage of the cytoplasm and nucleus material outside the cell (cytokinesis). This process has an important role in the growth and development of almost all organisms. (LV Crowder. 1997) Mitosis takes place in several phases, including: 1) Interphase cells at this stage ready to perform the cleavage, but do not show splitting activities. 2) Prophase in this phase of the chromatin strands become more and more into short, so thick .

3) Metaphase in this phase of the chromosomes to put yourself in the middle of the cell. 4) Anaphase at this stage of the centromere divides and the two chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell. 5) Telophase in this phase at each pole of the cell has been formed identical daughter cells, each of which remain diploid. (Suryo, 2001) Meiosis, on the other hand, reduces the number of chromosomes by half, so that, for example, human egg and sperm cells, called gametes, each have 23 chromosomes and can join to produce a zygote with 46. It has two division phases, whereas mitosis has only one. Meiosis in animals is called gametogenesis, specifically, spermatogenesis, producing sperm, in males and oogenesis, producing eggs or ova, in females. In the unfused state, the egg and sperm are called haploid cells having only a single set of chromosomes, and they become diploid having a pair of each type of chromosome again when they unite during fertilization. Meiosis specifically works to combine the genetic material of two individuals. When there is only one parent in the reproductive cycle for example, in ferns, which reproduce through spore the daughter cell must have the full genetic material all the chromosomes of the parent cell. Therefore, in the case of the creation of spore sporogenesis reproduction is accomplished without meiosis. chromosomes. In the process of mitosis from each parent is diploid (2n) produces two

Phases of plant cells division: 1) Interphase is considered the first and last stage of plant cell division. It is the stage in which the cell is growing in size and replicating its DNA in preparation for division. The nucleus is apparent.

2) Prophase. During Prophase the nuclear envelope starts to break down and all the chromosomes start to coil up in the center of the cell. 3) Metaphase is the middle stage at which point all the chromosome pairs line up in the center of the cell along spindle fibers that pull to either side of the cell. 4) Anaphase. The spindle fibers become shorter and pull each chromosome pair apart to the opposite ends of the cell. 5) Telophase. The final stage of cell replication.The nuclear envelope is reformed. Cytokinesis takes place. A new cell wall is created down the center and two daughter cells are formed.

1) Interphase

2) Prophase

3) Metaphase

4) Anaphase

5) Telophase

(http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artnov04macro/jronionroot.html)

D. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 1. Stain (aceticorcein) tongs 2. Microscope 3. HCl in glass bottles with pipette (1 M) 4. TV and flaxcam 5. Watch glass 6. Hot plates 7. Methilated spirit burner and match

8. Scalpels/ razors, mounted needles, forceps 9. Microscope slides and coverslips 10. Cleaning tissue 11. Filter paper 12. Pipettes 13. Prepared mitosis slides too

E. PROCEDURES 1. 2. furthest from apex. 3. orcein to root tip on slide. 4. to spread it out thinly as possible. 5. with filter paper and squash gently. 6. very warm, but not too hot to touch). 7. mitosis. Examine the stages in Warn the slide on the hot plate for about tes seconds to intensify the staining (the slide should be Put on a coverslip, cover it without interfering too much with the arrangement of the cells, break the root tip up with a needle so as Add two drops of acetic Place onions/ garlic on boiling tubes or beakers filled with water so roots will grow. Place the stained toot tip on a clean microscope slide. Cut it in half transversely and discard the half

F. THE OBSERVATION DATA

G. DISCUSSION This experiment in activity 9 is about Mitosis of Onion/ Garlic Roots. After we did this experiment, we are expected to observe the process of mitosis in onion/garlic root. This lab work and observation activities have been done on Monday, 26 March 2012 in biology laboratory. This activities are observe and notice some objects by using Stain (aceticorcein) tongs, Microscope, HCl in glass bottles with pipette (1 M), TV and flaxcam, Watch glass, Hot plates,Methilated spirit burner and match,Scalpels/ razors, mounted needles, forceps, Microscope slides and coverslips, Cleaning tissue, Filter paper, Pipettes, Prepared mitosis slides too. Dalam percobaan ini, kami mengamati proses pembelahan mitosis yang terjadi pada akar bawang, pembelahan mitosis sendiri yaitu, pembelahan reduksi karena meliputi dua proses pembelahan berurutan, yaitu kanokinesis dan sitokinesis. Dalam praktikum ini kami menggunakan preparat yang dibuat dari ujung akar bawang merah. Sebelum dibuat preparat, akar bawang merah yang sudah dipotong direndam kedalam larutan FAA dengan tujuan untuk mempertahankan kondisi sel-sel akar bawang saat pemotongan kurang lebih 12 jam,yakni menghentikan kondisi proses mitosis yang sudah terjadi pada akar bawang merah. Pemotongan akar bawang merah dilakukan dalam waktu-waktu tertentu yaitu antara pukul 00.00 03.00 WIB atau antara pukul 07.00 09.00 WIB. Pemotongan dilakukan pada pukul tersebut karena pada waktu itulah selsel yang berada dalam akar bawang sedang aktif melakukan pembelahan.

Setelah kami mengamati preparat dibawah mikroskop, ternyata akar bawang merah buatan memiliki kromosom, kromosom terlihat setelah dicampur dengan acetocarmine yang berfungsi untuk memperjelas inti sel dan mengetahui letak inti sel. Jadi kromosom hanya akan terlihat jelas apabila membelah, maka dari itu kami menggunakan acetocarmine untuk memperjelas kromosom yang terdapat pada akar bawang merah. Setiap kromosom akan tampak seperti dua kumpulan benang yang disebut kromatid, dan dihubungkan dengan kromatin. Dalam pembelahan mitosis ada yang disebut sitokinesisyaitu pembelahan suatu sel yang menjadi dua sel anakan yang masing-masing mengandung inti sel. Pembelahan sel berlangsung dalamempat tahap yaitu profase, metaphase, anaphase, dan telophase. Benang benang yang terdapat dalam preparat buatan yang terdapat dalam inti sel sel akan membentuk kromosom benang-benang spindle pada sentromen yang terikat dan setiap kromosom akan terlihat tampak jelas dan dapat diamati hanya menggunakan mikroskop.

Berikut hasil dari pengamatan yang kami peroleh, PROPHASE During Prophase the

nuclear envelope starts to break down and all the chromosomes start to coil up in the center of the cell.

METAPHASE Metaphase is the middle stage at which point all the chromosome pairs line up in the center of the cell along spindle fibers that pull to either side of the cell.

ANAPHASE The spindle fibers

become shorter and pull each chromosome pair apart to the opposite ends of the cell.

TELOPHASE The final stage of cell replication. The nuclear envelope is reformed. Cytokinesis takes place. A new cell wall is created down the center and two daughter formed. cells are

H. CONCLUSION The process of mitosis in onion / garlic roots are, Prophase. During Prophase the nuclear envelope starts to break down and all the chromosomes start to coil up in the center of the cell.

Metaphase is the middle stage at which point all the chromosome pairs line up in the center of the cell along spindle fibers that pull to either side of the cell. Anaphase. The spindle fibers become shorter and pull each chromosome pair apart to the opposite ends of the cell. Telophase. The final stage of cell replication.The nuclear envelope is reformed. Cytokinesis takes place. A new cell wall is created down the center and two daughter cells are formed.

I. QUESTIONS 1. Why cut the roots that will be used for observation of preparations immersed in FAA? Answered : larutan FAA berfungsi untuk mempertahankan kondisi selsel akar bawang saat pemotongan kurang lebih 12 jam,yakni kondisi proses mitosis yang sudah terjadi pada akar bawang merah. Atau untuk menghentikan aktivitas mitosis dan mempertahankan kondisi sel-sel akar bawang merah. 2. What is the purpose cutting roots with a rusty razor blade? Answered : karena silet berkaran mengandung besi yang dapat teroksidasi sehingga mampu menyerap air dan membantu proses pengikatan zat warna pada acetocarmine. 3. Why need to be soaked within HCl? Answered : untuk melunakkan dinding sel akar bawang merah sehingga memudahkan dalam pemotongan tundung akar. 4. What was stage most evident? Why?

Answered : metafase Karena pada fase metafase membrannya sudah menghilang, jadi kromosom mudah untuk diamati.

J. REFERENCES Campbell, N.A., J.B. Reece, L.G. Mitchell. 2009. Biology, Eight Edition. . San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings Gerking, Shelby D. 1969. Biological Systems. Toronto: W. B. Saunders Company Priadi, Arif. 2009. Biology 3 For Senior High School Year XII . Jakarta: Yudhistira Roektiningroem, Ekosari dan Widowati, Asri. 2011. Practical Manual of Basic Biology II. Yogyakarta: FMIPA UNY. Sutrian, Yayan. 1992. Pengantar Anatomi Tumbuh-tumbuhan (Tentang Sel dan Jaringan). Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta Dari web yang diunduh pada hari Kamis, 29 Maret 2012: Anonym. 2009. http://www.microscopyuk.org.uk/mag/artnov04macro/jronionroot.html Anonym. 2007. http://essayweb.net/biology/celldivision.shtml Anonym. 2010. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-cell-division.htm