Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Leo Strauss
Edited
by
David Janssens
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
Daniel
Tanguay
of Ottawa
University
The
following
of
lecture
textual evidence, on
by Leo Strauss was delivered, according to internal February 26, 1941, in the General Seminar of the Graduate
Social Science
of the
Faculty
Political
and
will prove
to be of particular
more
students of
generally interested in the intellectual Germany. For the former, the lecture presents itself as one of
and
for those
the rare occasions on which Professor Strauss suspended his customary reti
directly addressed an important contemporary issue. For the latter, it offers an interesting and compelling outlook on the intellectual currents of one of this century's key periods. Finally, both audiences will find that Professor
cence and
Strauss
combines
his
perspicacity
with
firsthand knowl
and raised
Jew, bom
in
he
was without
doubt
man
representatives and
its historical
origins.
The basis
the Leo
of this edition
is
the Regenstein
Library
The
University
ten pages.
Chicago. The
mostly typewrit
It bears many
some
corrections and
by
typewriter,
by
hand. In preparing the text, we have systematically incor and additions made by Professor Strauss so that the present
reflect
faithfully
his for
a
actual
presentation.
We
note
the few in
stances
in
which we
have
edited
readability.
We have
also
taken the
liberty
some
comment,
few
misspellings
in the typescript. At
in
Strauss
in hand
in the text,
In
some cases
the
handwriting
was
difficult to
read or altogether
interpretation,
Spring 1999,
354
Interpretation
parentheses
between
underlined
by
as well as some
in the
notes.
Certain
words
were
by
typewriter,
some
by by
hand: in the
number
a view to
restricting the
hand
are
indi
cated
in the text
with an asterisk
other than
the
word.
Words from
editors.
Finally,
we
sources and
dates
As the
of contents.
The first
on a
is
part of
second was
found
handwritten
The
latter,
as
however,
is
the
contents of the
lecture
it
presented.
we
have
chosen to
include it
directly
after the
Jenny Strauss Clay and Professor Joseph Cropsey for their generous help in deciphering Professor Strauss's handwriting. Professor Cropsey, Leo Strauss's literary executor, has also generously given permission for
We
are grateful to
this publication.
German Nihilism
Graduate
355
Faculty
of
Political
and
Social Science
of
the
February 26,
1941
German Nihilism
I.
a
Leo Strauss
The
questions:
(a) What is
nihilism?
(b)
How far
can nihilism
be
said to
be
phenomenon?
II. It
is
a phenomenon much
be described provisionally as the young atheist to the communist ideal. III. The
nihilism of the
young
IV.
The
nihilistic
meaning
of the
future."
V.
Nihilism is defined
VI.
German
nihilism rejects
favor
of
ideals.
VII.
German
nihilism
is
a radicalized
form
of
German
militarism.
VIII.
One
of the roots of
German
militarism
is
moralism.
IX.
The
present
Anglo-German
war
is
German Nihilism
1.
The
questions:
What is
nihilism?
can nihilism
be
said
to be a
specifically German
German
phenomenon?
2.
nihilism
is the genus,
of which
National
socialism
is the
best-
known
species.
356
I.
Interpretation
The ultimate,
non-nihilistic motive
underlying German
nihilism.
3.
The inseparable
connection
of
morality
and
the closed
society:
the
the principle
of modem civilisation.
II.
The
situation
in
led to
nihilism.
4.
German
nihilism
is the
young
atheist to the
communist
ideal
or prediction. of youth to
5.
On the affinity
nihilistic consequences of
6.
aim
On the affinity of progressivism to nihilism: progressivism leaves the undefined; it therefore opposes an indefinite No to the given order.
nihilism?
III. What is
man ?
can nihilism
be
said to
7.
Nihilism is the
isation is the 8. 9.
defined is
characteristic of present
day Germany
rather than of
other country.
nihilism rejects
virtues.
war and
the warlike
10. 1 1.
German German
nihilism nihilism
is therefore
akin to
German
of
militarism. and
is
a radicalized
of
form
the
German militarism,
that
radicalization modem
romantic opinion
12.
German
is
related
to the
reaction
to the modem
is
characteristic
philosophy:
self-interest;
courage
of self-sacrifice
uously non-utilitarian virtue. 13. German idealism, while opposing Western philosophy,
synthesis of the modem not work;
modem
to be a
ideal
of
ideal;
the
influence
German idealism
made the
on the pre-modem
the pre-modem
a polemic
ideal
as
interpreted
by
German
idealism, i.e.,
14. The
as
interpreted in ideal is
intention
a modem
distortion
of the pre-modem
ideal.
a tradi
of
English
origin: the
German tradition is
a
ideal
the classical
so much
ideal,
they
the
working Germans
that
were
ultimately
of civilisation as
perial
such,
the
i.e.,
to nihilism. The
as
English
of
gentlemen as an
im
nation
vs.
German Herren
a nation
provincial,
resentful
fanatics.
German Nihilism
GERMAN NIHILISM. LECTURE TO BE DELIVERED ON FEBRUARY, 26, 1941.
357
1. What is
nihilism?
can nihilism
answer
be
said
to
be
specifically
German
to
phenomenon?
to
try
elaborate*
them a
phenomenon which
am
going to discuss, is
of an
adequate
much
permit
description
scratch
disposal. I
cannot
do
more
than to
its
surface.
we
2. When
of us
hear
at
nihilism,"
most
stood
naturally think at once of National Socialism. It must however be under from the outset that National Socialism is only the most famous* form of
nihilism
German
its lowest,
most
provincial, most
unenlightened
and
most
its very vulgarity accounts for its great, These successes may be followed by failures, and ulti
probable that of
by
complete
National Socialism
mean
the end of German nihilism. For that nihilism has deeper roots than
the preachings of
explain
to proceed in the
following
way.
first
is
explain not
motive
led to
nihilistic aspirations.
Finally, I
from the
of that
shall attempt
to give the
definition
of nihilism as
is
not assailable
point of view of
non-nihilistic motive
in question,
and on the
basis
definition,'
to describe
German
fully.
nihil, to will the nothing, the destruction of therefore primarily the will to self-destruc
3. Nihilism
everything,
including
oneself,
and
beings
who
have
such strange
desires. I do
nihil
believe, however,
that such a
desire is the
ultimate motive of
German
to
if
such
to be the
motive,
we still should
be
at a
loss to fin de
understand
siecle
on
the
form,
To
mood called
nihilism
or of
militarism.
German
explain
in terms
of mental
diseases, is
less
to
advisable than
it is to
in
such terms
the desire
of a cornered gangster
bump
doubleoff together with himself a couple of cops and the fellow who
crossed
him;
not
being
of
Stoic, I
is
that
that*
desire
a morbid
desire.2
The fact
of the matter
German
nihilism
is
not absolute
nihilism, desire
everything
almost*
including
oneself, but
specific:*
of modern civilisation.
absolute nihilism
an
because the
the
No, is
not
guided, or accompanied,
by
any
358
Interpretation
nihilism
German
of modem civilisation as
far
as mod
em civilisation
has
As
everyone
moral
knows, it does
not object so
much to modem
technical*
devices. That
to which the
German
nihilists
rights
of
greatest possible
happiness
lar
What is the
Anglo-Saxon*
West?
a moral protest.
The
answer must
be: it is
That
protest proceeds
from the it
conviction
modem
perfectly
open
society
is
as
were
from the
life is essentially
therefore eternally the closed society; from the conviction that the open society
is bound to be, if
and
not
immoral,
at
least
amoral:
irresponsibility
lack
of
seriousness.3
means serious
life. Seriousness,
,
the
flag
society,
of the
society
flag which by
are the
distinctive features
confronted
with, and
war.
ment,
M-day,
oriented
such a tense
life
which
is
based
sacrifices*
it
owes
its existence,
and of
of sacrifice of
life
human: the
is
unknown
to the open
society."
to
aspire
actually
in
disintegration: their
their still
being
closed societies.
Let
us pursue
further. The
not proved
open
society, it is asserted, is
at all
merely
present
verbal.
of
human
nature
recognized
by
the
and
time verbally
denied, superficially
who
covered over
war
by fictions
legal
others, e.g.,
by
the
belief that
breaks
calling
the
the pact, or
ministries of defence* or
by
capital punishment
das hochste
also*
Strafmass.5
to the closed
society
because
underlying the protest against modem civilisation has ba sically nothing to do with bellicism, with love of war; nor with nationalism: for there were closed societies which were not nations; it has indeed something to
The
conviction
German Nihilism
do
the
with what
359
is
best
society in
the sense
indicated. The
love
tion I am
trying
love
to
describe,
origin a
of war:
it
is
rather a
of
morality,
a sense of
responsibility for
endangered morality.
our midst
passion, from
Glaukon's,
brother's,
noble virtue.
They
the
know it,
city of pigs, in the name of all, from Jean- Jacques Rousseau's passionate
protest against
taste,
and
easy-going and somewhat rotten civilisation of the century of from Friedrich Nietzsche's passionate protest against the easy-going
century
of
industry. It turned, if in
passion
let there be
which
passionate and
tion of
infinitely less intelligent form, against the alleged or real corrup post-war Germany: against "the subhuman beings of the big cities (die
Grossstadt),"
Untermenschen der
etc. shown
against
"cultural bolshevism
(Kulturbolscheas
wismus),"
That passion,
or conviction
is then
not
in itself nihilistic,
is
by
Rousseau, if
(One may even wonder whether it was not a sound demand, remembering, e.g., the decision of the Oxford students not to fight for king and country and some more recent facts.) While not nihilistic in itself, and perhaps even not being
conviction
led however to
nihilism
in
post-war
Germany
in
suffi
a number of circumstances.
Of those circumstances, I
of this seminar nor
shall mention
survey
which
follows, only
been
ciently
emphasized
in the discussions
in the literature
on
the
subject.6
4. One
would
have to
reporter, in
post-war
ism.7
have
lyrical
years
in
Germany,
me
idea
of the emotions
underlying German
nihil
Let
tentatively define
a
nihilism as
the desire to
destroy
the present
world and
desire
not accompanied
by
any
clear conception
in its
place.
And let
us
try
desire No
racy
with
could
one could
of all
descriptions
to many
people
the
difficulties
with which
Germany
was confronted.
This
created a pro
democracy
One
about
Two
articulate
was simple
reaction, as expressed
by
Ruprecht
of
Bavaria in The
history
cannot
an
The
interesting.
in
inherent in the
or
necessarily lead
a
to a revolution, accompanying
following
World War
rising
of
the
society
in the
360
Interpretation
of the
withering away
tion and
State,
injustice,
the era of
final
peace.
It
least
as much as
led to
nihilism.
The
prospect of a pacified
planet,
ruled, of
sumption
rial
intelligent
prospect
and
to that
be
were worrying about their own economic and social position; for in that respect they had no longer anything to lose. Nor did they object certainly to it for religious reasons; for, as one of their spokesmen (E. Jiinger) said, they
they
knew*
that
they
were
the*
men.
What they hated, was the very prospect of a world in which everyone would be happy and satisfied, in which everyone would have his little pleasure
by day
beat
and
his little
pleasure
by
night, a world in
which no great
heart
could
fice, i.e.
Germans
breathe, a world without real, unmetaphoric, sacri blood, sweat, and tears. What to the communists
of the
appeared to
be the fulfilment
dream
of
of
as the greatest
debasement
humanity,
coming
of the end of
humanity,
they
put quel:
latest
a
in
They really know, and thus clear language, what they desired to tolerably
man.
did
in the
or se
the only
thing
of which
they
were
absolutely
be destroyed
final
the
in
order to
prevent
necessary coming
the chaos, the
of the communist
order:
literally
anything, the
nothing*
jungle,
they
which
the Wild
West,
Hobbian
state of
infinitely
communist-
Their Yes
proved
was
inarticulate
were unable to
say
No! This No
however
the action of
whenever
phenomenon
nihilism.
to me
first
I hear the
German
It is
question.
lution
hardly necessary to point out the fallacy committed by the young men in They simply took over the communist thesis that the proletarian revo and proletarian dictatorship is necessary, if civilisation is not to perish.
rather more
((/"civilisation is
for
choice:
they
of
chose what
according
in favour
ible
argument what
they admitted that all rational argu communism; but they opposed to that apparently invinc they called "irrational Unfortunately, all rational
decision."
argument
was
historical argument,
future,
predictions,
which were
based
on
analysis of the
social
past, and above all, of the present. For that modem astrology,
predicting
German Nihilism
science, had taken hold
emphasized
of a
361
very large
youth.
I have
before that
5. One
was
or
feel that
not
everything
are
bad in that
For, he
might
argue, it is
not unnatural
ligent
section of a
young
generation should
be dissatisfied
with what a
they
told
a
to believe
new
by
they
should
have
longings,
is
not a virtue of
extreme word.
Moreover, he
would
conceivably
unable
say, it
is
not unnatural
new
being
constitutionally lover
to
discover that
word,
more than
of paradoxes
be tempted to
assert an essential
affinity
of youth to nihilism.
should
be far
the to
as
last to
deny
the
juvenile
I have tried in
so
describe. But I
I
must
disagree
men was
precisely teachers,
to
is
they
be
undogmatic enough
understand
the
aspirations
of
their
pupils.
Unfortunately,
the
belief in
old-fashioned
which great
post-war
William II had
of the
by
liberals
discontinued, but
rather enlarged
by
of
the
Republic. To this
may
add the
influence
frequently
Nor
ought we
to
forget that
some of
discipline*
brothers
had
under
gone what
may be described
of
as the emotional
discipline
of the youth
movement,
been
century Germany Needless to say that not in all cases the natural progress from adolescence to senility ever interrupted by a period however short of maturity.
called the
the
child:
in
it
proved
adolescent.
was*
The decline
I have
speaking,
of reverence
for
old age
found its
of
most
telling
expression
in Hitler's
imminent death
fact that the young nihilists were atheists. Broadly to the World War, atheism was a preserve of the radical left, just
atheism was
as throughout
history
had been
predominantly idealistic, and the German idealists Schopenhauer was, to my knowledge, the first non
German
philosopher
who
openly
professed
his
insignificance, if
compared
that of Nietzsche. Nietzsche asserted that the atheist assumption is not only
reconcilable with,
according to
for, a radical anti-democratic, anti-socialist, him, even the communist creed is only a
362
Interpretation
form
of theism, of the belief in providence. There is no other phi influence on postwar German thought is comparable to that of
secularized
losopher
I I
whose
Nietzsche,
am
of the atheist
Nietzsche. I
of the
cannot
dwell
on
am not a theologian.
gentleman who
is
Graduate
Faculty
it
will
this aspect of
published
German
I
requires
be
in Social
Research.
The
plain
adolescents
am
speaking of,
were
in
merely
destructive,
in that
meaning
their aspirations.
They
such teachers
group of professors and writers who knowingly or ignorantly paved the way for Hitler (Spengler, Moeller van den Bruck, Carl Schmitt, [illegible], Ernst Jiinger, Heidegger). If
we want
Hitler, but
of
those writers, we must cast a quick glance at their opponents who were at the
same time the opponents of the
frequently
the
a grave mistake.
young nihilists. Those opponents committed They believed to have refuted the No by refuting
not
Yes, i.e.
did
the
inconsistent, if
try
men.
But
has
thoroughly
understood.
And many op
ponents
tion of the present world and its potentialities. As a consequence, the very
refutations confirmed the nihilists
in their belief;
beg
the question; most of the refutations seemed to consist of pueris things which the young people knew already
decantata,
or meth
of repetitions of
by
heart. Those
young
men
had did
come to
doubt seriously,
of modem
and not
merely methodically
odologically, the
civilisation would who
principles*
civilisation; the
no
longer impress them; it was evident that only such opponents who knew that doubt from their own experience, hard
and
through years of
opponents
did
not meet
that condition.
independent thinking had overcome it. Many They had been brought up in the belief
and a
in the is
principles of modem
civilisation;
belief in
which one
is brought up,
apt to
degenerate into
nihilists
prejudice*
Consequently,
of the
young
principle,
were compelled
to take a
the mind,
taking
defensive ideal
stand
essentially aggres defensive stand; and, in the realm of looks like admitting defeat. The ideas of
generation to
young
be the
old
ideas;
thus
of progress were
in the
they
manner of
conservateurs,
what
in the
meantime
has been
the
future.
the
the
heavy
burden
of a
tradition
movement
They made the impression of being loaded with hoary with age and somewhat dusty, whereas hampered by any tradition, had complete freedom of
of the mind no
less than in
nihilists
real
wars, freedom of
all the
The
opponents of the
young
had
advantages,
German Nihilism
but likewise all the
the
363
intellectual proletarian, the sceptic. The situation of modem civilisation in general, and of its backbone, which is modem science, both natural and civil in
particular, appeared to be comparable to that of
emergence of methods and scholasticism
the
to be a
strong argument against the old school. For technical perfection is basic problems. Or, if you wish, the bird of the goddess of wisdom
only*
to
starts
when
the sun
is
setting.
It
was
certainly
characteristic of
German
given
terms, at no time negligible in Germany, The only answer which could have impressed the in non-technical language. Only one answer was
have impressed the young
period nihilists
if
they had heard it. It was not however given by a German and it year 1940 only. Those young men who refused to believe that the
the
was given
in the
following
have been defeat in
jump
into liberty,
following
in
of mankind
general and of
Germany in
particular,
would
as much as we were,
by
what
about
had taught
which was
them to see
ancient*
in Cannae the
greatest moment
that glory
Rome."
circumscribe
which a
in
all cases
base in its
origin.
Moreover, I
take
they despised,
is
not
was
Let
us
beware
us not
limited
justice,
acknowledges
no
limits. Let I
us
then not
one
moment at
the
phenomenon which
called
point of view of
"Nihilism,"
they
would
say, is a
slogan used
by
those
do
not understand
ideals,
the destruction
judge the
new
by its
first
deeds,
How
which
are, of necessity,
the
ideal
of a new epoch at
when the sun
its flight
its beginning, considering that the owl of Minerva starts is setting? The Nazis? Hitler? The less is said about him, is merely the rather contemptible the birth of the new epoch, of a
nothing
of the genius at whose
tool
new
"History": the
spirit;
and a midwife
usually
understands
birth
new
is
be
a competent gynaecologist.
the whole world; in the meantime reality is in the making; it is transforming Nazis are as unsubstantial as nothing. The a fertile there is: nothing, but
present
by
those*
364
Interpretation
storm, but
at
tating
will
bring
new what
(here I
am almost
quoting) do
end of an
not
lose hope;
began in 1517
or so.
frankly
resist the voice of that siren who expect the answer to the question
first
and the
last
the
from
"History,"
as
such*
present or past or
who
believe in
a progress toward a
goal which
is itself
by
known
by
is
able, and
which
is known
and not
merely believed. In
other
reason,
which
is
it is not, forces
For if
reason
is changeable, it is dependent
servant or slave of
those
its
changes; it is a
distinction
which
is
not
arbitrary, between
base emotions,
once one
has denied the rulership of reason. A German intimate intercourse with the superhuman father
as*
who could
boast
of a
life-long
us
origina
of all nihilism,
has informed
reliably,
as we were ever
informed
by
tor of all nihilism admitted: "Just despise reason and science, the very highest
power of
completely."12
7. I had to
and read
while
was
living
foregoing fragmentary
marks, because I had to convey an impression of an irrational movement and of the frequently irrational reactions to it, rather than a reasoned argument. I have
now,
however,
definition
of
nihilism.
I do this
trepidation. Not
because
the
definition
which
am
live up to the
requirements of an
orderly*
defini
tion (for I know that sins of that kind are the ones which are more easily
forgiven);
reason.13
nor
It
will
because it is in any way novel, but for precisely the opposite seem to most of you that it is a commonplace and that it
consists of commonplaces.
this: I expected to
find
The only thing which I can say to definition of nihilism as a matter book.
justify
myself, is
of course
in Mr.
well-known gives
me
Only my failure to discover such a definition the courage to indulge in what you will consider a
rejection of the principles of civilisation as
such.
nihilist
knows the
man,
principles of
a
civilisation, if only in
a superficial way.
not a nihilist. This is difference between Ariovistus, the Teutonic chieftain whom Caesar de feated, and Hitler who otherwise have the characteristic qualities of the perfect
A merely
uncivilised
savage, is
the
barbarian (arrogance
turbed the circles of civilisation, and not:
and
cruelty) in
common.
The Roman
soldier who
a soldier.
dis
said
Archimedes,
culture.
was not a
For I have
noticed that
many
German Nihilism
lovers
of
365
culture,
as
distinguished from,
and opposed
to,
civilisation.
which
Besides,
culti
leaves it
undetermined what
the
thing is
is to be
(blood
designates inhabitant
at
of
making
man a
citizen,
and not a
slave;
an
cities,
and not a
being,
and not
a ruffian.
hymns,
fairy
it
cannot
however be
civilised.14
wonder
whether*
the
lost
much of not at
a quiet and
becoming
resis
being
to
civilised, is
tance to nihilism.
shall
try
be
By
civilisation,
we understand
the
conscious culture of
humanity, i.e.
of
being
human
all, in
being, i
can
e. the
conscious*
culture of reason.
Human
reason
is active,
above
be
understood
by
man; as
practical
reason.
The
united.
For science
of the
itself;
degenerates into
philosophy; it is
superstition and
thus
is
apt to
become fanatic
Science is the
with
universe and
necessarily
identical
noble
with
science.
By morals,
we understand
conduct, as
nature applicable to
them; those rules are by their any human being, although we may allow for the possibility human beings have an equal natural aptitude for decent and noble
a reasonable man would understand
Even the
or
at
what
is implied in
such an action of
despising,
I
excusing,
would
lead to that it
will
sketched.
For
suffice
remote
by
is equally
from
from deriving pleasure inability remark that decent and noble conduct has to other the Or by inflicting
to inflict physical or other pain as the
of
do, not so much with the natural aim of man, as with the means toward that aim:
view
is
tolerably
complete
expression*
immoralism. I
"art"
deliberately
excluded
Hitler,
is
the
best-known
artist
champion of never
nihilism,
even an
or with am
heard that he had anything to do with search for truth to instill the seeds of virtue into the souls of his subjects. I
"art"
confirmed
in this
prejudice
concerning
by
founding
are, did
and the
fathers
is
not
it is in is
180 years,
the
term,
discipline,
aesthetics which
of
equally
recent origin.
This is
not to
366
Interpretation
rather to
deny, but
are close
relations
between
science
and
hand,
and
both
science
The definition
which
which
I suggested, has
another
implication,
or
advantage,
nihilism as
explicit.17
must make
1 tentatively defined,
at the
beginning,
the
desire to
destroy
modern civilisation.
By
my
second
definition I intended to
modern civilisation as
make clear that one cannot call the most radical critic of
such, a
nihilist.
Civilisation is the
not
This
is
identical
with
human life
human
existence.
There were,
and there
are,
many human beings who do not partake of civilisation. Civilisation has a natu ral basis which it finds, which it does not create, on which it is dependent, and
on which
it has only
poetic
of
as a
highly
overstatement,
is
in
a nonsensical expression.
The
natural
basis
of civilisation shows as
well
of armed
force
they
must use
from
not
8. I presume, it is
necessary to
e.g.,
in the
sense
defined is
more
dominant in Germany,
than any other country.
Germany
Japan,
cannot
be
as nihilistic as
much
less
civilised
in the
sense
is the
rejection of
tion is based on recognition of the fact that the subject of civilisation is man as man, every interpretation of science and morals in terms of races, or of nations,
or of
nihilistic.
Whoever
accepts
the
idea
of a
Nordic
German
or
rejects eo
of science.
Different
may have produced different types of "science"; but only be true, can be The nihilist implication of the nation interpretation of science in particular can be described somewhat differ
science.**
"cultures"
ently in the following terms. Civilisation is inseparable from learning, from the desire to learn from anyone who can teach us something worthwhile. The na
tionalist
philosophy implies that we cannot really learn anything worthwhile from people who do not belong to our nation or our culture. The few Greeks whom we usually have in mind when we speak of the
of science or
interpretation
Greeks,
were
willingness
to learn
Greek barbarian
are solved would
as well
by,
or on the
barbarians, so to speak exclusively by their barbarians; whereas the barbarian, the as the Greek barbarian, believes that all his questions basis of, his ancestral tradition. Naturally, a man who
from
non-
one nation
may have
a greater aptitude to
not
understanding
nations, would
be
German Nihilism
nihilist: not
367
of science or
essential
intention is
in general,
and the
German
question
nihilists
in
the
The
arises, in favor
do the
to
try
to answer that
question
with on
the
basis
has
Mr. Rauschning's
book."
This
tunity
Mr.
foregoing
definition
of nihilism.
Rauschning
called
nihilism."
revolution of
This
means:
the
making,"
but "the
wasteful and
fruitful
not
(xi). This
would mean
that N.S.
is
nihilistic
necessarily
mean that
it is
nihilistic
Rauschning
said of the
says
in this
Nazis,
might
Communist If in its
nihil object
And yet,
it is
not
intention. This
Rauschning's: he identifies
standards"
ism
with
(xn). What I
to, is the
in the definition
of nihilism.
It is
evident
by
their nature,
beyond
criticism and
is good, and not what we have inherited, to quote Aristotle. In other words, I believe it is dangerous, if the opponents of National Socialism withdraw to a mere conservatism which defines its ultimate goal by a
specific
tradition*
an unimpressive present on
an
impressive
ought not,
past
every
past
is
as such
impressive
is very
great
indeed.
We
however,
in
cede to that
temptation, if for
no other
reason, at least
appear as
for
as
is
not so
homogeneous To
as
it may
long
is
engaged
polemics or
in
apologetics.
Voltaire is
representative, is hard to
even
is
representative,
if both traditions
should
Socialism.20
Besides, I
wish, Mr.
Rauschning
had
view
that materialism is
essentially nihilistic; I believe that materialism is an error, but I have only to recall the names of Democritus and Hobbes in order to realize that materialism is
not
essentially
nihilistic.
Not to
of
mention
the
fact
idealism is lack
at the
bottom
German
nihilism.
Rauschning
of
he
stresses the
Nazis'
any
settled aims.
He
understands
then
by
German
nihilism
the "permanent
destruction"
revolution of sheer
sake"
for the
sake of
destruction,
of the
own
(248). He
"aimlessness"
stresses
the
Nazis; he
they
calls
have
their
no program except
revolution
action; that
they
replace
doctrine
by
tactics
(75); he
"a
doctrine"
revolution without a
(55); he
speaks of the
"total
368
Interpretation
rejection"
by
the
doctrine"
sort of says:
(56). This
appears
to be an
exaggeration. not: a
For
elsewhere
Rauschning
Yet it has
a
doctrine
while
philosophy."
or philosophy.
"One thing National Socialism is (23). Or: "the fight against only in
material con
(22).21
doctrine"
Judaism,
Their
even
it is beyond
of cultural
policy, is
part of the
party
if it
policy does seem to be taken seriously by the Nazis. But true, that no single point of the original party program or party
doctrine had
a
be
at
loss to
understand
not
program or
doctrine
but
any
aims.
For it
seems
any human
no
being
having
an aim.
an aim.
considered
carefully
enough
defines
entity; if he defines
as
a political
movement
doctrine,
As
aims:
then
he
would
have to
be
too uncharitable to be
a matter of
true.22
not always
"a
destruction
tatorship
to
brute force
itself in
power"
Nazis: that
is their power;
destroy,
but in
order
to maintain themselves in
a certain
power.23
deny that the Nazis have by means of which a dic (xif). Here, Rauschning they do not destroy in order Now, to keep them
make their
selves
subjects, the
mans.
Germans, happy,
as matters
on their
This means,
ability to satisfy the needs of the Ger stand, that, in order to maintain themselves in
policy
of
power,
they
aggression,
world-dominion.
Rauschning
"the German
Their
"goal"
corrects
his
Nazis
by
indefinite to-day only because they are is "the world-wide totalitarian (58). They have
aims are
empire"
infinite"
saying (275).
aims, their
principal
scribed
aims
form
even
hierarchy leading
world"
by Rauschning,
who are
is then
by
the
Germans
by
any
means
which makes
life
worth
an opinion we
living
believe that they desire German world-dominion not merely as a means for themselves in but that so to power, keeping they derive, speak, a disinterested pleasure from the prospect of that glamorous goal "Germany ruling the I should even go one step further and say that the Nazis probably derive a disinterested pleasure from the aspect of those human qualities which enable
nations to conquer.
world.
am certain
that the
Nazis
consider
any
pilot of a
bomber
or
German Nihilism
any
submarine commander
salesman or
369
absolutely
superior
in human
dignity
to any travel
ing
to any
physician or
For,
German
intelligent
and much
"What kind be
of minds are
those
do
not even
know this
knowing
fell
anywhere at the
Somme
or
in
need."
("Was
aber sind
Geister, die
kann
als
der jedes beliebigen Soldaten, der irgendwo an der Somme oder in Flandem fiel? Dies ist der Massstab, dessen wir bedurftig Junger, Der
sind."
Arbeiter, 20
preference
1.)24
The
admiration
of the
warrior as
given
German
what
nihilism:
it is
even
in favor
of
does German
nihilism reject
therefore be answered
of
by
those principles
must
in favor
mind
Rauschning
war
have had in
when
is
considered
more noble
than
peace, if war,
purposes
peace, is
considered the
is for
all practical
nothing
of
other
believing
that the
business
destroying,
killing,
torturing is a source of an almost disin that such, they derive a genuine pleasure from
and
the aspect of the strong and ruthless who subjugate, exploit, and torture the
weak and
helpless.25
10. German
nihilism
rejects
favor
of war and
conquest, in favor
militarism.
the warlike
virtues.
German
nihilism
is
This
is. Militarism
can
be identified
peace
by
the older
is
a
To believe that
eternal peace
is
dream, and not even a beautiful dream, is not militarism, but perhaps
plain commonsense;
it is
at
any
rate not
eternal
peace
is
not
believing
is something desirable in itself; and to believe that war is view something desirable in itself, betrays a cruel, inhuman disposition. The that war is good in itself, implies the rejection of the distinction between just
that war
between
wars of
defence
It is
ulti
nations. mately irreconcilable with the very idea of a law of 11. German nihilism is akin to German militarism, but it is with
not
identical*
it. Militarism
always made at
least the
attempt*
to
reconcile
the ideal
of
war with
Kultur;
nihilism
however*
is based
on
the
assumption
that Kultur
is
finished. Militarism
always
recognized
dignity,
rules of
or almost equal
dignity,
be
When
denying
that the
decency
cannot
applied
370
Interpretation
rules as regards home policy or private life. It never asserted that is essentially national; it merely asserted that the Germans happen to be the teachers of the lesser breeds. German nihilism on the other hand asserts that of those science
in Blatter
und
ability to bear any physical is the virtue left (see Jiinger's essay on Indian, only Steine). The only virtue left: the implication is that we live
particular courage as the
in
decline, of the decline of the West, in an age of civilisation as distinguished from, and opposed to culture; or in an age of mechanic society as distinguished from, and opposed to, organic community. In that condition of debasement, only the most elementary virtue, the first virtue, that virtue with which man and human society stands and falls, is capable to grow. Or, to ex
an age of press the same view somewhat
in
differently: in
an
age of utter
corruption, the
only remedy
and to return
potential*
possible
is to
destroy
"das
System"
to the
uncorrupted and
condition of
and not
actual,
merely
potential*
civilisation,
of the state
of nature, is
cour
nothing
else.
German
nihilism
is
then a radicalized
form
of
German
radicalization about
during
judgment
development,
in
it
in 19th century
which
By
romantic
judgment, I
under
stand a order of
judgment
is
guided
human things
existed
by during some
12. However
nihilism
great the
German
may be: the kinship of the two aspirations is obvious. German militar ism is the father of German nihilism. A thorough understanding of German nihilism would therefore require a thorough understanding of German militar
ism.
for
militarism?
few,
ex
tremely sketchy
To
remarks must
here
suffice.
not
German militarism, it is
sufficient
to refer to the
fact that
German
Western
civilisation
nations, that
is considerably younger than the civilisation of the Western Germany is therefore perceivably nearer to barbarism than are the
For the
civilisation of the
countries.
Slavonic
do
nations
is
that of the
as
are*
Germans,
and the
Slavonic
nations
not appear
to be as militaristic
the
wiser
to
of
history
and
of
civilisation
itself.
Germany
reached the
hey-day
of
her letters
her thought
during
ideal,
the period
from 1760
to that
to
1830; i.e.
almost
after
the elaboration of
and while a
of modern
the ideal of
revision of
modern civilisation
completely,
that
or a reaction and
ideal,
ideal
civilisation
is
of
English
French origin; it is
course,
the
a
German
origin.
What the
am not
meaning
of
that
of
highly
controversial question.
of the
If I
greatly mistaken,
define
tendency
intellectual development
German Nihilism
which as
371
it
were exploded
following
terms: to
lower the
moral
standards, the
by
all responsible
had
done, for
human
the putting into practice, into political and legal practice, of the rules of this was most effectually achieved, was the
conduct. of
identification
claiming
honesty
the solu
means of
between
interest
and private
interest
by
industry
and no
and trade. no
(The two
famous
where
philosophers:
Descartes, his
generosite,
justice,
duties; Locke:
of
justice.)
of a of
morality,
decline
truly
philosophic was
Germany
stood
up, to the
lasting
honour
Germany. It century
which
however precisely this reaction to the spirit of the 17th and 18th laid the foundation for German militarism as far as it is an intellec
tual phenomenon.
of enlightened sisted on the
Opposing
self-interest
the identification of the morally good with the object however enlightened, the German philosophers in
good and
difference*
the*
honestum insisted
and
utile;
self-sacrifice*
they
on
it
so
much, that
they
were apt to
forget the
is happiness; happiness
came almost
noble and
and
bad
names
utility as well as commonsense (Verstdndigkeit) be in German philosophy. Now, the difference between the
duty
and self-interest
is
most visible
in the
case of
one
virtue:
other virtue
munificent
is,
or
to be
just, temperate,
it is
the
urbane,
of
field
of
never rewarded:
flower
of
self-
sacrifice.28
menaced
Courage is the only unambiguously unutilitarian virtue. In defending morality, i.e. non-mercenary morality, the German philosophers were
dignity
of
military virtue,
and
in
the cases of
and
Fichte, Hegel,
for
and
Nietzsche, they
In this
in
various other
life,
as
they
are visualized
However
by deep
commonsense.
phy of the Western countries may be: German philosophy ultimately conceived of itself as a synthesis of the pre-modem ideal and the ideal of the modem
period. overrun
That
synthesis
did
not work:
of
it
was
by
natural child of
the enlightenment.
Germany
had been
meprise
educated
by
her
philosophers of
contempt of
Locke, is
saying
Schelling's);
effected not
by
her philosophers,
she saw no
of
ideal
ideal did
work;
the
way
from
influence
372
Interpretation
ideal. National Socialism is the
most
modem
famous, because
pre-socratic
philosophy.
On
all
levels,
as
ideal,
but
a pre-modem
ideal
by
the German
of the
with a polemic
intention
against the
philosophy
18th century,
and therefore
distorted.29
Of
all
and
indeed
a greater
Germany,
was
for the
emergence of
Nietzsche. The
to the
Nietzsche
to the German
revolution
is
comparable
relation of
Rousseau to the
of the
French
revolution.
That is to
one
say:
by interpreting
to
German revolution,
unjust.
is very
unjust
Nietzsche, but
is
is
not
absolutely
It may
not
be
amiss to
from Beyond
race,
Good
and
Evil,
no philosophic
Hobbes, Hume
cept of and stood out.
and
Locke
are a more
degradation
than
and
debasement
of the
very
con
"philosopher"
for
a century.
stood
up
It
was
Locke,
of whom
Schelling
were
to say Je meprise
against
English
and
mechanist
interpretation
of nature
[Newton], ideas,
Hegel
and
Schopenhauer
Goethe
unanimou
"That
the modem
that
disgust
be
no
doubt
about that.
The French
their
actors
of those
ideas, besides
in asserting
best
(aph.
the*
victims."
f.) I believe
that Nietzsche
German tradition is very critical modem civilisation, and those ideals are of English origin. He forgets however to add that the English almost
always
correct
that
baby
with the
bath, i.e.
which
ideals
as a
reasonable adaptation of
decency,
of rule of
law,
and of that
liberty
is
not
license,
taking
through, this crossing the bridge when one comes to it, may have done some harm to the radicalism of English thought; but it proved to be a blessing to English life; the English never indulged in those
radical
breaks
with
ever
may be wrong
the
peculiarly
modem
ideal:
the very
Englishmen tradition,
who
originated
it,
were at
in the
classical
and
the
English
poison.
always
kept in
necessary
counter-
ideal
the pre-modem
ideal,
humanity,
better
preserved than
in Oxford
German Nihilism
[Editors'
373
note:
of this
following
this, the
A
"
sentence
outcome an
English,
Germans,
above
deserve to have
empire"
has been
crossed out.
"
sign
it
refers
to a handwritten
as a re
paragraph at
indicating
it
should
be inserted
in the text.]
war
The
present
Anglo-German
is then
In defend
the
ing
defending
be the
outcome of
is
clear
leader in the
crucial
moment, in
tary
rule
became the
more
order of the
day,
the
claim
to be
it is the English,
imperial
nation:
be,
and to remain, an
note: at
insertion ends,
English,
Germans, have
regere
understood that
one
in
order to
to
a
exercise
imperial rule,
imperio populos,
must
sub-
NOTES
reads
"and to describe,
reversed.
on the
basis
of that
definition":
The
handwritten
before the
sign
order should
be
2. The typescript
reads
"I
desire
morbid,"
"a"
words
word
"desire"
following
it have been
added
by
hand.
see Henri Bergson, Les deux 3. For the distinction between "closed society and open sources de la morale et de la religion, chaps. 1 and 4. The Two Sources of Morality and Religion
society,"
of
life"
is
beginning
with a
words and
continuing in typewriting with "the typical representation of the open society is believed to be Both the handwritten words and the typewritten sentence have been crossed out.
The
"
the
flag
flag
"
by
hand.
Comma 5. The
"existence"
inserted
by
hand.
", it is
asserted,"
by
"recognized,"
"faced"
Above the
alternative.
word
has been
by hand,
possibly
to"
as
an
spade."
The inserted
The
words
"used
have been
"e.g."
letters
"i.e.,"
"called"
of which
have been
crossed out.
crossed out.
Strafmass"
At the
added
sentence, the
words
"or
by
capital punishment
have been
by
hand.
state"
6. After "insofar
as
the
sovereign
.],
the
perfect
society
which
does
not
have
superior, [.
"is,"
which
has been
"offers'
replaces
which
has been
added
crossed out.
example,"
"the best
ple,"
modern
by hand,
replaces
exam
which
has been
crossed out.
morality"
is followed
by
"If there
should
be
a cynic
374
in
our
Interpretation
love."
unrequited
which
by
hand.
"I"
"But"
has been
inserted
crossed
in
has been
capitalized
by
see
hand.
"passion,"
pigs"
Commas
Rand
"conviction,"
after
and
"city
of
by
hand.
McNally
and
see also
City and
Man (Chicago:
turned,"
is inserted hand
preceded
by
"The
same passion
which
"less intelligent
have been
form"
by
hand.
Grossstadt"
Quotation
marks
added
by
around
"the
subhuman
and
"cultural
(Kulturbolschevismus)."
all"
passage
"as is
shown
at
by
Rousseau, if
has been
added
by
hand
indicating
it
should
be inserted
at this point.
"was"
added
by
hand to
"is,"
replace
which
has been
crossed out.
sound,"
"a
demand"
sound
was added
around
by
hand to
Parentheses
"One
facts"
.
. .
which
has been
crossed out.
"sound"
has been
replaced,
by hand, by by
"not entirely
un
sound."
"German
Nihilism,"
followed
largely bly
repeat
the first two paragraphs above. Both the title and the two paragraphs have been
this
crossed out.
Presumably,
first four
"4,"
is
where a
first draft
of
added the
pages
later
continues with a
paragraph marked
lecture below:
at
this
point.
suggesting that he intended to skip the original beginning and continue the With a view to completeness, the editors have included the two paragraphs
German Nihilism
phenomenon?
1. (crossed out) What is nihilism? And how far can nihilism be said to be a specifically German not indeed to answer these questions, but to elaborate them a little. For I shall try
deal, is
to to
descrip
thank
do
more than
the surface.
in
the
discussion
doubt, help
toward greater
clarity about a phenomenon which is so important to all of us. 2. (crossed out) When we hear at the present time the expression "German naturally think at once of National Socialism. It must however be understood from the
nihilism
its lowest, most provincial, most unintel National Socialism is only one form of German nihilism ligent and most dishonourable form. It is probably its very lowness which accounts for its great, if appalling, successes. These successes may be followed by failures and ultimately by complete defeat. Yet the defeat For that
crossed nihilism of
National Socialism
will not
necessarily
German
nihilism.
("First"
has deeper
the
7.
"4."
inserted
"emotions"
"feelings,"
which
has been
crossed out.
Under
lining
added
by
"backward,"
with
the
latter
the word
"alluring"
has been
added
by hand,
which which
possibly
as an alternative.
"spiritual"
"the withering away of the has been inserted has been added by hand to replace
"material"
State,"
by
"material,"
has been
added
by
hand to
"spiritual,"
replace
"Wir
sind.
Sonne, Enkel
im Experiment; wir treiben Dinge, die durch keine Erfahrung begriindet Urenkel von Gottlosen, denen selbst der Zweifel verdachtig geworden ist,
marschieren wir
rohen."
durch Landschaften, die das Leben mit hoheren und tieferen Temperaturen bedErnst Jiinger, Der Arbeiter; Herrschaft und Gestalt (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlaganstalt,
German Nihilism
375
1932), pp. 193-94; Werke: Essays II (Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Verlag, 1963), Bd. 6, p. 214). ["We, however, stand in the middle of the experiment; we are attempting things that have no foundation in experience. Sons, grandsons and great-grandsons of godless men, to whom even doubt has become
suspect, we
march
life
with
higher
and
lower
temperatures"
(our
translation).]
Above
"the" "latest,"
"last"
the word
language"
has been
added
added
by hand,
which
possibly
as an alternative.
Comma The
after
"clear
by
hand.
"its"
before
"potentialities"
added to replace
has been
crossed out.
"-anarchist-pacifist"
words
by
hand.
9. The underlining of the first "if has been crossed-out. Colon after "in other inserted by hand.
words" admitted"
"they
After "all
argument,
inserted
by
hand.
argument"
rational all
"[.
] they knew
has been
of,
i.e.
all
historical It recurs,
crossed
i.e.
[.
This
crossed out.
in
after out.
"all
rational
added
by hand,
replaces
which
has been
The The
of the
words
"For that
modern,"
typescript
by
hand. reading
sentence
"astrology [.
youth"
.]
academic
by
at
page,
indicating
it
should
be inserted
hand
at
at
this
in the text.
"
This last
by
+ "-sign
indicating
10.
"as"
it
be
"5"
"un-"
"constitutional."
"who,"
which
has been
fact"
The
section
section
political
[.
.]
the
has been
"suffrage
by
hand
to replace the
was,"
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elections, of what
added
which
replace
has been
children,
"children's
crossed out.
has been
by
hand to
"in
of
has been
"not in
"ever"
all"
added added
by
hand to
after
some,"
replace
which
has been
crossed out.
by
hand
"senility"
never,"
to replace "was
which
has been
crossed out.
"however
short"
inserted
by
it
hand.
.]
The
long
passage,
"I have [.
Social
Research,"
has been
added
by
hand
at the
bottom
of
the
added
"more"
indicating by hand
should
be inserted
"Hindenburg."
after
which
"showed,"
has been
crossed out.
is
a surmise of the
is difficult to
read.
National
Socialism,"
(May
1942):
1 1. Illegible
word
following
"Juenger,"
added
by
hand
above the
uses
reads
but
as
Professor Strauss
"Junger"
editors
spelling
throughout.
of which the
"seems,"
replaces
crossed out.
The
"be,"
words
"consist
of pueris
decantata,
of
by hand,
to replace
which
has been
crossed out.
"principles" "s"
The The
to
typescript reads
sentence
before "of
progress": the
has been
perfection
[.
.].
Or, if
wish,"
you
has been
by
hand
replace
the
single word
which
has been
only
crossed out.
dusk."
"The
owl of
Minerva
spreads
its is
wings
with the p.
falling
of the
(Hegel, Philosophy of
13.)
insertion.
of Commons and
pp.
a typewritten
(a
speech
Company, 1943),
225-34.
376
Interpretation
risse einer
Professor Strauss is referring to Oswald Spengler. See Der Untergang des Abendlandes: UmMorphologie der Weltgeschichte (Miinchen: Oskar Beck, 1923). Bd. 1, p. 49 |Einleitung,
13]; The Decline of the West (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1939), p. 36 [Introduction, sec. 13]. At Cannae, located in Apulia, the Romans suffered a crushing defeat in the Second Punic War against
Hannibal (216 B.C.).
12.
"6."
inserted
added
"History"
by hand. by hand to
replace
"the
mind,"
world replace
which
"which,"
has been
"who"
"midwife"
after
added
"History"
by
hand to
which
has been
The The
sign
"it,"
"H"
in
has been
capitalized
by
hand.
sentence
"For if
should
has been
at
added
by
hand
at the
bottom
"
of the added
page, with a
"
indicating
which
it
be inserted
"reason"
by hand,
to
replace
has been
crossed out.
man,"
by
hand.
inserted
by
"a"
hand to
replace
"an"
The
"
changed to
before
"orderly."
forgiven"
.]
have been
added
by
hand
at
"
sign
indicating
for
it
should
be inserted
at this point
by
the editors
reasons of clarity.
Caesar, The Gallic Wars, I, 30-54. Livy, The History of Rome, XXV, xxxi, 5-11.
Commas preceding and following the words "and 15. The typescript reads "[man]'s place in the "the
man." enjoy"
14. See
have been
added
by
hand. in favor
of
universe,"
which
has been
crossed out
universe and
time"
is
a typewritten
or that
insertion. inserted
after
"this
man"
by
"to
hand.
"inability"
typescript,
is followed
by
bear,
and,"
which
has been
crossed out.
"or
other"
is
a typewritten
insertion. is followed
"assert" "disinterested,"
"with"
by
the word
which
has been
crossed
Commas
18. The
"or"
"8."
"discipline"
after
after
and
"advantage"
inserted
by
hand.
17. Comma
inserted
by
hand.
has been
inserted
by
hand to
"6."
replace
Germany"
.
sentence
reading "Japan
added
by
hand
at the
bottom
of the
page,
with a sign
"and,"
has been
crossed out,
nation
and
cultures."
"of
The 19.
science"
sentence
cultures
has been
added
by
hand
at the
bottom
of
inserted
indicating by hand to
where
it
should
"7."
replace
Hermann Rauschning, The Revolution of Nihilism: Green and Co., 1939). 20. "and
"
rejection"
Warning
to the
even
by
"
hand.
vii, 1269a.
as such
added
every
past
is
impressive
by
hand.
has been
crossed out.
"Bellarmine"
has been
by
hand to
replace
which
21. Comma
"Judaism"
after reads
added
by
the editors
"had
probably": a
in conformity with the text of Rauschning. handwritten sign indicates that the order should be
The typescript
reversed.
reads
"had doubtless":
handwritten
sign
indicates
(1902-34)
was a
robber
in the twenties
and
thirties.
of,"
without"
political movement
crossed out.
by
hand to
"lack
which
have been
German Nihilism
"non-entity"
377
has been
added
by
hand to
"chimaera,"
replace added
which
has been
"lack
"a
without"
political movement
has been
by
hand to
of,"
replace
has been
crossed out.
"would
have"
has been
added
by
hand to
"had,"
replace
which
has been
crossed out.
23.
":"
has been
"aims"
added after
by
the editors
for
reasons of clarity.
Comma inserted
by
hand
"destroy."
after
24.
"form"
has been
added
by
typewriter to replace
"salesman"
"have,"
which
has been
crossed out.
The typescript
which
continues after
crossed out.
foreign
minister,"
has been
"For"
Comma
"even"
"Das"
after
inserted
by
hand.
is
a typewritten of
p.
insertion.
instead
"Dies"
p.
201;
221).
"destruction,"
"the business
of with the
latter
by
hand.
ewige
26. "Der
Friede ist
ein
Traum,
schoner,
und
der
Krieg
ein
Glied in
und En-
entfalten
sich
die
edelsten
Opferwilligkeit
mit
Einsetzung
peace
Krieg
wiirde
die
Welt im Materialismus
and war
versumpfen."
("Permanent
is
dream,
beautiful one,
self-
is
law
of
God's
order
in the world,
by
death, are developed. Without war the world would deteriorate into materialism.") Letter to Dr. J. K. Bluntschli, 11 December 1880, in FieldMarshal Count Helmuth von Moltke as a Correspondent, trans. Mary Herms (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1893), p. 272. German text: Helmuth von Moltke, Gesammelte Schriften und Denkwiirdigkeiten (Berlin: Ernst Siegfried Mittler und Sohn, 1892), Bd. 5, p. 194.
denial, loyality
and
27.
"made"
"recognized,"
which und
has been
crossed out.
pp.
"Uber den
in Blatter
154-213, in
particular p.
""
particular p.
151-98, in
197).
""
das System
after
by
hand. inserted
28. Comma
"militarism,"
"civilisation,"
"To
German
militarism"
by
hand.
"
root of
is
a typewritten
insertion, replacing
the word
which
crossed out.
"the
history
of
by
hand.
Semi-colon In the
policy"
after
inserted
by
hand.
"The two
most
typescript
only the
famous
is
printed.
The
lapidary
remark. most
style of
the sentence,
however,
suggests that
an aside
famous,"
is
a sign
also
More's
"hedonistic"
have added the opening parenthesis. Above the words "The two referring to a handwritten note at the bottom of the page, reading "Cf. Utopia =t Plato's austere
editors
Republic."
entirely:
Germany"
is followed
by
a sentence which
has been
crossed out
by
the polemic
"the
by
hand.
(Verstandigkeii)"
"as
by
hand.
there
example
philoso
In the
"Opposing
reading "An amusing
is
a sign
referring to
handwritten
vol.
bottom
p.
of the page,
1."
in Grote's
History
of
Greece,
8, Everyman,
"fine"
342,
n.
The
has been
crossed out.
"Western,"
29.
"modern"
"civilisation"
before
"return"
has been
added
by
typewriter to replace
which
has been
crossed out.
"real,"
Before
the word
"i.e."
has been
crossed out
in the typescript.
"interpreted"
after
by
typewriter.
378
The been
Interpretation
words
"and therefore
distorted"
have been
added
30. The
The
words
"It may [.
from"
.
.]
by hand. by hand
his,"
to replace "In
which
has
has
crossed out.
words
"which [.
subject"
.]
read,"
by hand,
to replace "we
which
been
crossed out.
"Newton"
Brackets
"in
a
around
have been
added
by
hand.
"therefore,"
word"
has been
added
added
by hand,
hand to
to replace
which
has been
crossed
out.
by
the editors.
by
"arose,"
replace
which
has been
crossed out.
Evil, 252-53.
the word
"profoundness"
"radicalism,"
word
has been
added
by hand,
possibly
as an
by hand,
before
to replace
a comma.
"classical"
is followed
by
"ideal
of,"
which
has been
crossed out.
"doubt:"
English,
Germans,
who
deserve to
imperial
nation"
has been
"populos"
by
The
words
arrogant"
have been
the
added
by
hand
with a sign.
"superbos"
following
handwrit
";
not
the way of
empire."
to
Interpretation,
vol.
26
no. 3
(Spring 1999),
353-78.
The transcription
the typescript
of
and additions
to
"German
by
Wiebke fol
text published
in Interpretation
should
be
corrected as
National So
motive
led to
led
to nihilism.
led is
underlined
twice.]
militarism
Page 356, line 5: young atheist should read young atheists Page 356, line 23: German nihilism is related should read German
is
related
should read
the
break
to the
the
from the
rejection of
the
tion as such
demand
should read
it has
not a sound
or more
precisely
more precisely Page 360, line 2 from bottom: about the probable future the future [probable crossed out by Leo Strauss]
of the past,
and above
all, of the
present.
before that
the
fact
attention
it
should read
should read
Nietzsche,
der Philosoph
und
Page 364, line 14: a servant or slave should read a servant and slave Page 364, line 15: distinction which should read distinction, which
Page 364, line 28:
which are more
which
easily
easily
the
question of who
is to
exercise
military
interpretation, Fall
34
rule
Interpretation
became the
order of the
day
should read
in
is
Page 373,
wrote:
note
4:
words
should
read
Strauss
Page 375,
correction
11: Illegible
Strauss
wrote:
Baumler [see
to
362,
line 12].