J. Construct. Steel Res. Vol. 37, No. 3, pp.

229-261, 1996
Copyright © 1996 Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved
S0143-974X(96)00006-$ 0143-974X/96 $15.00 + 0.00
ELSEVIER

An Analytical Model for Fatigue Life Prediction Based

on Fracture Mechanics and Crack Closure

J. B. Ibs¢ & H. A g e r s k o v

Department of Structural Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 118, DK-

2800 Lyngby, Denmark

(Received 15 June 1995; revised version received 29 October 1995;

accepted 18 January 1996)

ABSTRACT

Fatigue in steel structures subjected to stochastic loading is studied. Of spe-

cial interest is the problem of fatigue damage accumulation and in this con-
nection, a comparison between experimental results and results obtained
using fracture mechanics. Fatigue test results obtained for welded plate test
specimens are compared with fatigue life predictions using a fracture mech-
anics approach. In the calculation of the fatigue life, the influence of the
welding residual stresses and crack closure on the fatigue crack growth is
considered. A description of the crack closure model for analytical determi-
nation of the fatigue life is included. Furthermore, the results obtained in
studies of the various parameters that have an influence on the fatigue life,
are given. A very good agreement between experimental and analytical
results is obtained, when the crack closure model is used in determination
of the analytical fatigue lives. Both the analytical and experimental results
obtained show that the Miner rule may give quite unconservative predictions
of the fatigue life for the types of stochastic loading studied. Copyright ©
1996 Elsevier Science Ltd.

NOTATION

C Half length of physical crack; crack depth

C Crack growth coefficient
Ci Initial crack size
C Crack shape parameter

d Half length of effective crack

dc Crack growth rate
dn
229
230 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

f Stress intensity factor correction; influence function for dis-

placements
Yield stress
f. Ultimate tensile strength
Fs, F ,FT, Fo Stress intensity factor corrections
g Influence function for displacements
Zi Length of bar element i (amount of permanently deformed
material)
m Crack growth coefficient
Snain
R Stress ratio, R -
Smax
S Remote applied stress
So Crack opening stress
t Thickness of specimen
V Crack surface displacement
Wi Half width of bar element i
Ac* Crack extension increment
AK Stress intensity factor range
AKeff Effective stress intensity factor range
AKeff,th Effective threshold stress intensity factor range
AS Remote applied stress range
A&ff Effective stress range
or Normal stress
ar Residual stress
tro Flow stress, O'o = ½(fy+fu)
P Plastic zone size
OL Constraint factor on tensile yielding
CA Constant amplitude
VA Variable amplitude
max Maximum
rain Minimum

1 INTRODUCTION

Fatigue crack growth under variable amplitude loading was first studied for
aircraft structures. Later on, variable amplitude fatigue was also found to be
relevant to bridges and various structures in industrial fields, such as ships,
cars and offshore structures.
A considerable number of experimental investigations on variable amplitude
fatigue has been carded out over the years, and on the basis of the results
obtained in these investigations, various empirical formulae for fatigue life
 Fatigue life prediction 231

predictions have been proposed. However, in order to attain a better physical

understanding of fatigue crack growth under various load histories and differ-
ent stress states, theoretical analyses are needed. Theoretical models which
consider the material behaviour and the mechanistic aspects of fatigue crack
growth, such as crack closure and load interaction effects may provide the
basis for a better understanding of different fatigue crack growth behaviours.
Fatigue test results from laboratory experiments can provide important and
useful information, however the results may only be valid for the specific test
conditions applied, and often they may not be readily generalized. On the
other hand, a theoretical model, which is based on a solid background and
checked against fatigue test data for various test conditions may provide a
reliable basis for the analysis of fatigue crack growth cases, for which no pre-
knowledge exists.
During the last 5 years, an investigation on fatigue life of offshore steel
structures has been carried through at the Department of Structural Engineer-
ing of the Technical University of Denmark. This investigation comprises
mainly experimental work. The present study is a continuation of this investi-
gation, however, it concentrates on the theoretical determination of the fatigue
life. Comparisons between theoretical and experimental results are included.

2 CRACK CLOSURE

In the following, the significance of crack closure for fatigue crack growth is
investigated. The crack closure model accounts for load interaction effects,
such as retardation and acceleration, under variable amplitude loading.
In a body with crack growth, the crack surfaces remain closed during a
part of the load cycle even under tension-tension loading. Elber 1 was the first
to notice this phenomenon and related an effective stress intensity factor range
for a fully open crack to the fatigue crack growth rate.
The mechanisms of crack closure have been attributed to plasticity-induced
closure, roughness-induced closure and environment-induced closure. In the
present investigation, only plasticity-induced crack closure is considered.
Plasticity-induced crack closure is caused by residual plastic deformations
in the wake of an advancing crack. During the unloading part of a load cycle,
the crack will close (at least partly) before the minimum load level is reached
due to the residual plastic elongations, which are left along the crack surfaces
as the crack grows. After full unloading, compressive residual stresses will
be present in the wake of and ahead of the crack tip.
As a result of the closure of the crack during a part of the applied loading
range, the driving force for fatigue crack growth is the effective value AKeff,
which is the part of the total stress intensity factor range, AK where the crack
is fully open:
232 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

aKo. = Kmax - (1)

where Kop is the stress intensity factor representing the value at which the
crack is fully open, i.e. when there is no longer crack surface contact behind
the physical crack tip during the uploading part of a load cycle.
If effective stress intensity factor ranges are considered, the fatigue crack
growth rate in structural steels and steel weld metals may be presumed to
follow a power law of the following form:

dc
= C(aK~f - AKe~n}f,th)

for AKeff ->AK~ff,~ (2)

dc
--=0
dn
for AKeff <AK~ff,th

where AKeff,th is the effective threshold stress intensity factor range, below
which no crack growth takes place, considering the effect of crack closure.
The crack growth rate eqn (2) is based on effective stress intensity factor
ranges for a fully open crack. Therefore, when used in this equation, the crack
growth coefficients C and m can be considered as constants for a given
material. The Paris-Erdogan crack growth equation 2,3 is often used for crack
propagation calculations, using full stress intensity factor ranges, AK. How-
ever, the Paris-Erdogan equation has been found not to correlate with fatigue
crack growth rates in the near threshold region, neither does it account for
mean stress effects. Furthermore, the Paris-Erdogan equation has been shown
not to correlate with fatigue crack growth rates of small cracks. Equation (2)
takes account of the near threshold fatigue crack growth through the term,
AKefe,th. Furthermore, the effect of the mean stress on the fatigue crack growth
is taken into account in eqn (2), since it is based on effective stress intensity
factor ranges for a fully open crack. In general, the effective stress intensity
factor range of a stress cycle depends on the stress ratio and the maximum
stress level in the stress cycle. If crack closure can be determined for small
cracks, there is some evidence4'5 that modifying the driving force into AKoff,
this will result in good predictions of fatigue crack growth of small cracks.

2.1 Crack closure models

In the present study, a strip fatigue crack growth analysis model based on the
Dugdale6-Barenblatt 7 strip yielding assumption is used.
 Fatigue life prediction 233

Compared to the Dugdale-Barenblatt procedure, the present model is modi-

fied to leave plastically deformed material along the crack surfaces as the
crack advances. Plane stress and plane strain conditions, as well as conditions
between these two, are simulated in the model by using a constraint factor,
a on tensile yielding at the crack front to approximately account for three-
dimensional stress states. 8
The crack closure model presented herein will be used for calculation of
the fatigue crack growth life of welded plate elements under constant ampli-
tude loading and under stochastic loading. Methods to include the influence
of stress concentrations and welding residual stresses upon crack closure and
fatigue crack growth in the analysis are presented.
In the following, a crack closure mechanism-related and generally appli-
cable model is described. The basic layout of the strip yielding model was
established in the early works of Dill and Saff 9 and Fuehring and Seeger. 1°
Newman 8 improved the strip model by introducing a relatively sophisticated
numerical procedure which led to better results for the crack tip plasticity
computations for variable amplitude loading. Wang and Blom 5 developed a
new procedure based on the weight function theory in order to facilitate the
analysis of any two-dimensional geometry.

2.2 Analytical crack closure model

In the Dugdale model,6 yielding is assumed to occur along a strip ahead of

the physical crack tip. Crack tip plasticity is corrected in the Dugdale model
by adding the plastic zone size, p to the physical crack length. This defines
the fictitious or imaginary crack. The Dugdale model states that there will be
no stress singularity physically existing at the fictitious crack tip, i.e. the stress
at the fictitious crack tip should not be infinite. Thus, the stress intensity fac-
tor, K% due to the uniform tension in the plastic zone will numerically be
equal to the stress intensity factor, Ks due to the remote load, i.e.

Ks + Kro o.= (3)

The Dugdale plastic zone size, PDug can be determined by solving eqn (3).
In the present crack closure model, rigid-perfectly plastic material behav-
iour is assumed. For the majority of metallic materials, there is more or less
strain hardening in the plastic deformations. As a first approximation for strain
hardening, a flow stress tro, which is the average value of the yield stress, fy
and the ultimate tensile strength, fu is proposed in the model. The crack surface
displacements, which are used to calculate contact stresses during unloading,
are influenced by plastic yielding (and reversed plastic yielding) at the crack
tip and residual deformations left in the wake of the advancing crack (see
234 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

S
_JJ I._

I2dY
.~X

%" 2C "~p

2Vt

S
Fig. 1. Centre crack tension specimen with Dugdale plastic zones and residual plastic defor-
mations.

Fig. 1). Upon reloading, the remote applied stress level at which the crack
surfaces become fully open (no crack surface contact) is directly related to
the contact stresses. This stress is called the crack opening stress and it is
denoted So.
The crack surface displacements are obtained by superposition of the sol-
utions for two elastic problems, a crack subjected to remote applied load and
a crack subjected to a uniform stress applied over a segment of the crack
surface (see Fig. 2). The uniform stress applied over a segment of the crack
surface represents the contact stress for an element along the crack surface or
the residual stress for an element in the plastic zone ahead of the physical
crack tip. The crack displacements of the effective crack surface, that is, the

Y
S
_[_LJ.J_IJ L

17
rill

I. d I
Fig. 2. Crack surface displacements of effective crack.
 Fatigue life prediction 235

crack surface displacements of a crack consisting of the physical crack and

the plastic zone ahead of the physical crack tip, V(x) (see Fig. 2) at any point
x will be determined by the relation

V(x) = Sf(x) - o'g(x,Xo). (4)

where Sf(x) is the crack surface displacement at x due to the remote applied
stress S, and og(X,Xo) is the crack surface displacement at x due to a uniform
stress o- acting on a segment of the crack surface with the centre at Xo (see
Fig. 2).
If the effective crack is divided into a number of constant stress bar
elements, and all the elements along the effective crack are considered, the
crack surface displacement at the centre of element i can be calculated from

n
gi = Sf(xi) - Z o'jg(xi'xj) (5)
j=l

where n is the number of elements, o-j is the stress on element j, S is the

remote applied stress, f(x3 is the crack surface displacement at element i due
to unit remote applied stress, and g(xi,Xj) is the displacement at element i due
to unit stress acting on elementj. Equations for the calculation of the influence
functions f(xi) and g(xi,xj) for a crack in an infinite plate are given in Ref. 11.
These equations have been modified in Ref. 12 for the calculation of the
influence functions for a surface semi-elliptical crack in a structural detail.

2.3 Numerical aspects

Equation (5) can be rewritten in a short form in the following way:

n
ojg o = Sfi - Li (6)
j=l

where Li is the length of element i. For elements in the plastic zone and
elements along the physical crack surface, which are in contact, L / i s equal
to the displacement at element i of the effective crack surface (Vi = L3. The
length of a bar element, Li is the amount of permanently deformed material.
For elements along the physical crack surface, which are not in contact, the
crack surface displacement Vi is greater than Li and oi = 0 for these elements.
The plastic deformation, Li only changes, when an element yields in tension
(oi >--oto',,) or compression (O"i ~ - - O ' o ) , assuming rigid-perfectly plastic
236 J. B. Ibs~, H. Agerskov

material behaviour. In eqn (6), functions f and g~j are based on the effective
crack length, d.
To keep the number of elements to a reasonable size (30-60), a lumping
procedure is used. This procedure combines adjacent elements ( i - 1 and i) to
form a single element. In the present modelling, the following criterion of
lumping is used:

2(w~ + Wi_l) ~ c - - Xi-- 1. (7)

In eqn (7), w i is half the width of element i, x i _ 1 is the coordinate location

for element i - 1 , and c is half the physical crack length (see Fig. 3). If the
criterion in eqn (7) is fulfilled, the elements i - 1 and i are lumped together
to form a single element. Lumping is carried out starting with the elements
farthest away from the physical crack tip. The consequence of this sequence
of combining adjacent elements and the criterion in eqn (7) is that the elements
far away from the crack tip are more likely to be lumped together as compared
to those elements nearer to the crack tip. In the present modelling, lumping
is carded out in a way so that the number of elements is always greater than
30 (except in the very initial stage of the crack growth simulation). In the
lumping procedure, the width of the lumped element is the sum of the widths
for the two adjacent elements, and the length is the weighted average of
the two:

~mta

1..t 1.1 kl 1 1
I/Elementn Crack tip
Element i el?mcnt (i=11)

Ln~.~ent 1
X

I 'q-~

w ~,

Fig. 3. Schematic of analytical crack closure model at minimum applied stress.

 Fatigue life prediction 237

L i _ l W i _ 1 .t- L i w i
( L i _ 1)new = (8)
Wi-- 1 q" W i

Crack extension is simulated at the moment of maximum applied stress. The

amount of crack extension, Ac* is chosen as

Ac* = 0.01 Pmax (9)

where Pm,x is the size of the plastic zone caused by the maximum applied
stress during the Ac* growth increment. The crack growth increment given
in eqn (9) will result in reasonable computation times and good prediction
accuracy on the calculated results. 5,13 In the simulation, the crack opening
stress level is held constant within each crack extension increment, Ac*.

2.4 Effective stress intensity factor ranges

The effective stress intensity factor range, AK~ff may be expressed as

AKeff = z l S e f f f ~ - ~ (10)

where f is a dimensionless stress intensity factor, AS~ff is the effective stress

range considering crack closure effects, and c is half the physical crack length.
For constant amplitude loading, AS~ff is determined as

ASeff ~-~ S m a x - Smin if Stain -----So (11)

AS~ff = Sm~ - So if Smin < S o. (12)

For variable amplitude loading, AS~ff for a stress cycle with a minimum stress,
S m i n and a maximum stress, Smax just following it, is determined as follows 8

I f : Smi n ~--- S o (13)

then: AS~ff= Sm.x - So (14)
If : Stain > So (15)
then : AS,el = Sm,x - Stain (16)
o r " ASeff = [(Sma x - So) m - (Smi n - - So) ,]um. (17)

The use of eqn (17) is necessary because no crack growth law, when expressed
in terms of a power function with an exponent m =4=1 would sum to the correct
growth increment under variable amplitude loading. Equation (17) is only
238 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

applied, when Smi n is greater than So, and only when the current maximum
stress is higher than the highest maximum stress occurring since a stress excur-
sion crossed So. Otherwise, when Smin is greater than So, eqn (16) is applied.
For instance, if Smin,k< So < Smax,kfor stress cycle No. k, and the load excur-
sion S~nax,kt o Smin,k+ 1 is extremely small and Smin,k+~is assumed to be greater
than So, then the growth increment (Ack + Ack+~)should be equal to the growth
increment of one stress cycle of range (S~nax,k+~-So), assuming
S. . . . k+l ;> Smax,k+l" On the other hand, if Smin,k+ 1 is less than So, then the growth
increment Acj,+l alone should be equal to the growth increment of one stress
cycle of range (Smax,k+~-- So). Equations (13)-(17) take account of these limit-
ing behaviours.

2.5 Crack opening stresses

Different methods for calculating the crack opening stress level, So may be
u s e d . 4'8 In the present modelling, the crack opening stresses are calculated by
a displacement method. The crack opening stress is determined by setting the
displacement at each physical crack surface element due to an applied load
increment (So - Smi,) equal to the displacement at the corresponding element
due to the contact stresses at Smin. The maximum value of (So - & i n ) gives
the load level at which the last element in contact separates.
The displacement at element i along the physical crack surface due to a
remote applied stress increment (So - Smin) is

VSi _~. ( S o - Smin)f(xi) . (18)

The displacement at element i due to the contact stresses o) is (see Fig. 3):

V~ = - Z °rjg(xi,xj)" (19)
j=ll

Equating eqns (18) and (19) and solving for (So)i gives

_ ~ %.g(xi,xj)
(So), = Sn n j="7, f(xi) " (20)

The maximum value of (So),. gives the crack opening stress, So. The functions
f(xi) and g(xi,x) in eqns (18-20) are based on the physical crack length, c.
 Fatigue life prediction 239

2.6 Proof testing of crack growth program

Based on the crack closure model described above, a computer program

FAWS (Fatigue Analysis of Welded Structures) has been developed, lz In
Ref. 12, analytical results obtained by use of the program for various fatigue
crack growth cases are tested against both experimental results and crack clos-
ure analyses from the literature. In general, very good agreement was obtained.
In the following, some examples are given showing comparisons between
analytical results obtained from the program and test results.
The effect of a single tensile overload on the subsequent fatigue crack
growth under constant amplitude loading is experimentally well documented.
On the other hand, even in the simple case of a single tensile overload different
well known models, such as the Wheeler model 14 and the Willenborg model 15
fail to model the delayed retardation following the single overload, see e.g.
Ref. 16.
The crack closure model and the crack growth computer program for the
plane strain condition are tested against the experimental results of ChananP 7
for the overload effect in an A1 7075-T73 aluminium alloy material. For the
test specimen of thickness t = 12.7 m m in Ref. 17, the plane strain condition
according 1-o the ASTM Method E399-74 was fulfilled for both the baseline
CA loading and the overload. Single-edge notched (SEN) specimens of width
63.5 m m were used. The yield stress of the A1 7075-T73 material was reported
as fy = 419 MPa and the ultimate tensile strength as fu = 491 MPa. The test
results from Ref. 17 for a single overload are shown in Fig. 4 as triangular
and square points. The triangular points were determined from surface crack
length measurements using a travelling microscope, and the square points were
determined from the striation spacing on the fracture surfaces measured by
use of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The prediction by the strip
model is made with the introduction of Irwin's TM plane strain constraint factor
a = 1.73, and the prediction is represented by the solid curve in Fig. 4. In this
and in the following predictions, the fatigue crack growth rates are determined
from the relation in eqn (2). As may be seen from the prediction given in
Fig. 4, there is an immediate crack growth acceleration just after the appli-
cation of the overload. Initial acceleration of the crack growth was also
reported in Ref. 17. The initial acceleration is followed by retardation until a
minimum value is reached. The crack growth then gradually recovers to the
normal level as the crack grows out of the overload plastic zone. As may be
seen in the comparison in Fig. 4, a good agreement exists between the test
results and the analytical prediction under the plane strain condition.
Predictions in the plane stress condition are performed using the crack
growth computer program on Jacoby et a l . ' s 19 experiments on the aluminium
alloy A1 2024-T3. Thin centre crack tension (CCT) test specimens were used
240 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

P(kN)

~/NOL = l
35.6

dc/dn (mm/cy'cle) 17.8 ~ A A A / / A A A A ....

4 h kl 7 0 7 5 - T 7 3 1.78~ I v , ! ! ! ' ' ' - Tixne

O- I [ a = 1.73
7.
8-
5- ~ Ac" = O.Ol p
4-

3-

z~
z5.9 se.l 26'.s aa'.5 z6'.? ~6'.0 ~'.1
Crack lenEt, h, c (mm)

Fig. 4. Variation in fatigue crack growth rate in AI 7075-T73 material following a single ten-
sile overload.

(with thickness equal to 1 mm), and the amplitude of the applied load was
relatively high. Under these conditions, the crack tip plane stress state can be
assumed (c~ = 1) for all tests in Ref. 19. The width of the test specimens was
80 mm. The material properties of the A1 2024-T3 material was not given in
Ref. 19, however, the yield stress is assumed to befy = 340 MPa and the ulti-
mate tensile strength is assumed to be fu = 430 MPa based on the properties
tabled in Ref. 16 for the same material.
The comparison of test results and analytical prediction for 40 overload
cycles is shown in Fig. 5. The test results are represented by the solid symbols,
and the solid curve represents the prediction by the crack closure model using
FAWS. As shown in Fig. 5(a), the crack growth prediction by FAWS models
the crack growth behaviour for 40 overload cycles quite well. For the case of
multiple overloads, prediction can only be logically made with a crack growth
model which involves the plastic deformation in the wake of the crack. In
Fig. 5(b), the variation of the crack opening stress is shown as a function of
the crack length. The overloads cause larger-than-stable plastic stretches left
along the crack surface and in the plastic zone. When the stretches move to
the crack surface, larger-than-stable contact stresses will appear on the crack
surface, So will increase [see AB in Fig. 5(b)], and consequently the crack
 Fatigue life prediction 241

dc/dn (~/cyele) s(m~a)

t |:

I, ~/NoL-4O
|, 150
4,

8. \ ~ 3 100
|.
50

I-
I- ~ "Ih'~lieUon
4-

i.

% 1'1 l~ t'a {4
Crack lenlrtb, c (ram)
(a)
s(m~a)
80- SO B
jNOL= 40
A 150
70- (MF'a)
/~ 100

60-
'nl~I

50-

40-
~ ~ 1.0

30- A &c" = O.Ot p

20
1'0 1'1 l'z 1'a 1'4
Crack length, e (ram)
(b)
Fig. 5. Comparison of experimental and calculated crack growth rates following 40 tensile
overloads. (a) Variation of crack growth rate. (b) Variation of crack opening stress, So.

growth is retarded. The crack opening stress level will recover to the stable
level, when the overload plastic stretches move away from the crack tip [see
BC in Fig. 5(b)].
Figure 6 shows a comparison between analytical prediction and test results
for the crack growth behaviour for the multiple overload case with a single
underload following immediately after the overloads. The test results are rep-
resented by the solid symbols and the analytical prediction is given by the
solid curw~. As can be seen in Fig. 6, there is a very good agreement between
242 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

dc/dn (~/cycle) AI 2024-T3

~
1-

Prediction

0.1
/"- l
A^^AA

.- Time

Ac = O.Ol p -50 /
NUI,~ 1

0.01 l t i
9 10 Ill 12 13
Crack length, c (ram)

Fig. 6. Comparison of experimental and calculated crack growth rates after multiple tensile
overloads followed by a single compressive underload.

the prediction and the test results. In general, an underload following one
overload or multiple overloads will have a significant influence on the fatigue
crack growth retardation due to the overload(s). When large compression is
applied, the plastic stretches both on the crack surface and ahead of the crack
tip are 'squeezed' flat. The crack surface near the crack tip will then contact
at a lower-than-normal level, and consquently the crack growth is accelerated.

3 FATIGUE LIFE PREDICTIONS FOR WELDED PLATE ELEMENTS

Fatigue tests on plate elements with groove welded transverse attachments

have been carried out at the Department of Structural Engineering of the Tech-
nical University of Denmark. 2°'21 In Refs 20 and 21, two types of test speci-
mens were investigated (see Fig. 7), with a plate thickness of the main plate
of 16 and 8 mm, respectively. The material used in these test series was St.
52-3 (Fe 510C) according to DIN 17100. The yield stress, fy, and the ultimate
tensile strength, fu, of the material used were fy = 400 MPa and fu = 530 MPa
for the main plate of thickness 8 mm, andfy = 405 MPa and f , = 575 MPa for
the main plate of thickness 16 mm, respectively. These values Offy and f~
 Fatigue life prediction 243

I *_p
I _*p

300
-.~.__ 187.5
_.~.__
,•L
• PL 10x90 5xB

-7oII'0
1.5°Ii

-I-- " "i-

12
90 167-~
" 9o t

30C
_11 187.5
-'~-~ PL8xB

B=/.O
Meosures in mm
Fig.7. Fatiguetest specimens.

were determined from tension coupons taken from the plates that were used
for the fabrication of the test specimens. 21 The tests of the present investigation
were carried out under either constant amplitude loading or stochastic loading.
The fatigue crack propagation analysis is carded out by a fracture mech-
anics approach employing the crack closure model presented in Section 2. In
the following, only the fatigue life corresponding to the crack propagation is
calculated. The initiation or nucleation period of cracks growing from defects
in welded connections is most often considered to be insignificant in relation
to the crack propagation period. 22

3.1 Fracture mechanics analysis of welded plate elements

In the analysis, it is assumed that the fatigue crack propagates in a semi-

elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 8. This assumption is in good agreement
with experimental observations of the crack shape in many of the fatigue tests
carried out. Furthermore, in the analysis it is assumed that the fatigue life of
244 I. B. Ibso, H. Agerskov

Fatigue fracture
surface
t '

c :crack depth
2b: surface width of c r a c k
Fig. 8. Schematic of semi-elliptical surface crack growing from weld toe.

the welded plate test specimens can be estimated by considering only one
crack growing from the weld toe as shown in Fig. 8. In some cases, this
corresponds to the actual crack growth behaviour observed in the fatigue tests
carried out. However, in other cases it was observed that two or more small
cracks grew together, forming a single fiat crack at an early stage of the fatigue
life. In the crack propagation analysis, crack coalescence at an early stage
may be modelled in an approximate way by considering only one crack with
a low value of the semi-axis ratio, c/b (see Fig. 8).

3.1.1 Stress intensity factor due to remote load

A widely used approximative calculation of the stress intensity factor for a
surface semi-elliptical crack in a structural detail is obtained by using the
method given in Ref. 23. Using this method, K is expressed as follows

K = Fs.FE.FT.FG.S. (21)

where Fs is the (front) free surface correction factor, FE is the elliptical crack
shape correction factor, Fv is the finite plate thickness (or width) correction
factor, Fc is the stress gradient or geometry correction factor, S is the remote
applied stress and c is the crack depth. The stress intensity factor corrections
in eqn (21) may be found from Refs 11, 22 and 23:

C
Fs = 1.12 - 0 . 1 2 . ~ (22)

C "] -- 1/2
FE = 1 + 4.5945(~)1"65J (23)

and
 Fatigue life prediction 245

FT = x/sec('n'cl2t) (24)

in which t is the thickness of the specimen.

Fo may be determined from the results of a finite element analysis using
the weight function method. In the present study, F~ is computed according
to the method presented in Ref. 23, by integrating away the normal stresses
in the uncracked body at the line, where the crack is to be inserted. F~ is
high at small crack depths, c, which reflects the high stress concentration at
the weld toe, but then at larger crack depths, F~ decays to a value of 1, or
no effect, due to the nearly uniform stress distribution existing in the interior
of the plate. For the small welded plate test specimens, F c = 2.19 for c = 0
and F c = l for c-----2.5 mm. For the large welded plate test specimens,
Fc = 2.54 for c = 0 and Fc = 1 for c = 5 mm. All the results of the calculation
of Fo for the welded plate test specimens investigated are given in Ref. 24,
and the results from this calculation are used in the fatigue life predictions
presented in the following.

3.1.2 Stress intensity factor due to welding residual stresses

The stress intensity factor due to the welding residual stress field can be calcu-
lated from

/c r O'r,X, (25)

where o'rC0 is the welding residual stress distribution in the uncracked body
at the line of potential crack growth.
Fatigue crack growth in residual stress fields may be analysed by using the
crack closure model presented, if the following procedure is employed. The
residual stress field is transformed into an equivalent, remote uniform stress,
which results in the same stress intensity factor at the crack tip as the residual
stress field. The method used to take into account the effect of the residual
stresses is based on the concept that the primary effect of the residual stress
field is to change the local mean stress. Thus, the effect on crack closure and
hence on the fatigue crack growth of the change in the mean stress caused
by the residual stress field is considered.
The stress intensity factor due to a remote, uniformly distributed stress, S~a
is given by

K = F s . FE" FT" FG" Seq" ~f~. (26)

246 I. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

Equating the expressions in eqns (25) and (26) gives the equivalent stress of
the residual stress field:

_ 2 I O'r(X)_..dx

For the welded plate test specimens analysed, the through thickness variations
of the residual strains and stresses have been determined. 12,25 In Ref. 25, the
neutron diffraction technique was used to measure the true bulk values rep-
resentative of the bulk state of strains and stresses in the welded plate test
specimens. On the basis of the residual strain measurements on the welded
plate test specimens, discrete values of the residual stresses were estimated.
The residual stress distributions through the thickness of the specimen are
shown as open and solid symbols in Fig. 9 for the test specimen of thickness
16 mm (DTH16) and 8 mm (DTH08), respectively.
The estimated residual stress fields as shown in Fig. 9 are used in the calcu-
lation of the fatigue crack growth life of the welded plate test specimens in
Sections 3.2-3.3.

30o ~ ~ 300
~ ~ DTHI6 zT-
250-~ ~, : : : : : DTH08 /~250

200 , ¢, 200

150 , / - 150

1 O0 , .100

~ 50
m
5 0
° 0 ............ ~ ...... ,. . . . . . -/ ............ o

-50- i /' -50

,~__~___;'
-1oo. 1 -ioo
I

-150 [ -150
0.0 0.'I 0.'2 0.~3 0.'4 0.50.f6 0.'70.r8 0.'9 1.0
x/t
Fig. 9. Estimateddistribution of residual stresses, ~r acting in loading direction, as a function
of relative position xlt in plate.
 Fatigue life prediction 247

3.1.3 Parametric studies

In order to investigate the possible scatter in the test data due to the variation
in the crack: shape (c/b), and the initial crack size (cO, calculations were carded
out using the crack growth computer program FAWS. In the calculations, the
fatigue crack growth in the 8 m m thick test specimen (DTH08) was simulated
for CA loading at R = - 1.
The crack growth coefficients C and m in eqn (2) were determined by a
linear regression of crack growth rate data using the method of least squares. 12
The values of C and m found were compared to the results of Ref. 26, in
which crack growth rate measurements were carried out for the same type of
material. On the basis of this comparison, C and m were determined as

m = 3.1 (28)

m
C = 5.1- 10-12iMPax/-~)31. (29)

The values of m and C obtained in Ref. 26 and given in eqns (28)-(29) may
be considered as being only minimally influenced by crack closure due to the
high stress ratio applied, R = 0.6 and the plane strain condition, which may
be assumed to exist in the test specimen used in Ref. 26.
For the material investigated, AKeff,th was estimated as

AKeff.t, = 2.5 MPa~j-m (30)

based on test results tabled in Ref. 22.

The calculations were performed using the applied (full) stress ranges, that
is neglecting the influence of crack closure and assuming that the welding
residual stresses are +fy all through the thickness of the specimen. The possible
scatter in the fatigue life due to the variation in the initial crack size is shown
in Fig. 10 for the fixed value of clb = 1/4. In the calculations, the final crack
size was chosen as ce = 4 mm. This crack size corresponds to the final or
critical crack size observed in the fatigue tests. The fixed value of the crack
shape parameter, c/b = 1/4 in Fig. 10 was chosen based on experimental obser-
vations of the crack shape using the dye marking technique. ~2 The initial crack
size was varied between ci = 0.075 m m and ci = 0.4 mm, which may be con-
sidered as a lower and an upper bound, respectively, for the initial crack size
in the welded plate test specimens investigated, cf. Ref. 27. As may be seen
in Fig. 10, the initial crack size has some influence on the calculated fatigue
lives. Especially for low applied stress ranges, the initial crack size becomes
a dominant factor as can be seen in Fig. 10. For comparison, the mean SN-
248 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov
1000 I I
I
I
I
I
I
I I II
I I II
I I I|11 I I I I I Ill
s I I .......
et:0.075 Intla I I1''"
I I IMeltll S-N lille of

'~~.
5-
1 i I tent data (DTEI08) [ I[i
I I Letff" I IIIllJ
IJl[I

N
lOOg
e
¢11 JtJJ IIIII IIIIll ~ -7~'t-.1-11
Illtl I I IIII I Iq"tl
Iflfl IIIII1 Illll
,llll IIIIII
Jlfll
IIIII
IlllJ
IIIlll
~'J Ei
c/b = 1/4

IO
10
I I I IIII
i0 5 I0 ~
rl I0
N u m b e r of c y c l e s
Fig. 10. Influence of initial crack size on calculated fatigue lives for the welded plate test
specimen, D T H 0 8 .

line from the test series on the 8 mm thick specimens under CA loading at
R = - 1 is also shown in Fig. 15. 20 As may be seen in Fig. 10, there are con-
siderable differences between the calculated fatigue lives and the mean fatigue
lives of the test data. The main reasons for this discrepancy are--to the
authors' opinion--that the effect of crack closure is not included in the calcu-
lations shown in Fig. 10, and that the residual stresses are overestimated by
using a value equal to +fy throughout. In Fig. 11 is shown the possible scatter

100001 i i i ill
B I[
t
I
I
I
I Ill
Illl I Illll I I I::iiii
7
e I
5
I
I
I
I Illl
Illll ,! Ilrtl
i !!Mean S-N line of~4~
i i I I IIIII

[[ test data (DTII08I[-I-~

4
$
e.lb
"
=
~
;_.'~ i~d-,91b e 11,~/
i
i,illl
Ill
r~

lOOg
!!
II I I I ~",,,,ET'I'~I.J I I I
II
o I Jill
m
fi
4
II II[ll
tllll
II
II } IlJll
e~ = 0.1 m m

10 I II IIIIIJ
10 5
........ II 10 o
, IIIIJ
i ill I
10 7
10'
Number of cycles
Fig. 11. Influence of crack shape on calculated fatigue lives for the welded plate test specimen,
DTH08.
 Fatigue life prediction 249

in the fatigue life due to the variation in the crack shape parameter, c/b for
the fixed value of ci = 0.1 m m and cf = 4 mm. As may be seen in Fig. 11, the
crack shape parameter, c/b has a considerable influence on the calculated
fatigue lives. The two extreme cases in Fig. 11 are c/b = l, which corresponds
to a half circular surface crack, and c/b = 0, which corresponds to a tunnel
crack.
In the final calculations of the fatigue life of the welded plate test specimens
given in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, an initial crack size of ci = 0.1 mm and a crack
shape parameter of c/b -- 1/4 were used.

3.2 Constant amplitude loading

For the welded plate test specimens of thickness 8 mm (DTH08), constant

amplitude load test series at two different applied stress ratios, R - - 0 and
R = - 1 , have been carried through. For the test specimens of thickness
t = 16 mm (DTH16), one constant amplitude test series at R = - 1 was carded
through. "['he crack growth calculations are compared with the test results of
these three CA test series. The calculations have been performed using the
computer program FAWS.
In Figs 12 and 13 are shown results of crack growth calculations for the
Constant amplitude loading, R = -1.

Small test specimens (DTH08).

lO00t I Illl
Illl II
] IIIII
IIIll II
i'
I

?-
6 I Illll
IIIII I
IIIII II
~ 3
JI
(1)/ l
~ 2

I00 IIlII
IIIll . "~"~,J III
71 ]1111
IIIII I
, , i,,,g, lllll
'~'6', .~
I, I , ! !ll
10 ' 10 5 10 6 10 7
Number of cycles, N
Fig. 12. Crack growth calculations for DTH08 test specimen under CA loading at R = - 1 ,
considering the effect of welding residual stresses. (1) Full stress ranges. (2) Actual welding
residual stresses applied. (3) Mean SN-line of fatigue test series.
250 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

Constant amplitude loading, R = -i.

Large test specimens (DTIII6).
1000 s I II
i II l i
I il I I

i J
';"J J i ....

~D
100 9
7
6
I
I il li J i
I I ' ~ i I II
['T'~
I]li

5 r
.... ~
l illl
, ,~ , ~ , ~ , ~
lO ' 10 ~ 10 6 .tO 7

N u m b e r of cycles, N
Fig. 13. Crack growth calculations for D T H I 6 test specimen under CA loading at R = - 1 ,
considering the effect of welding residual stresses. (1) Full stress ranges. (2) Actual welding
residual stresses applied. (3) Mean SN-line of fatigue test series.

Constant amplitude loading, R = -I. • . . . . Test results

Small test s p e c i m e n s (DTHO8). _ _ Prediction

'°°°'I
6"f
IIJl Fi
i~ll
rl
Jl

~ liIJ'"Cd

loo ,,,,, I Nt-~--~ r

?a ill i liilli I

10 ' 10 5 10 6 10 7
N u m b e r of cycles, N
Fig. 14. Comparison of experimental and predicted fatigue lives for DTH08 test specimens
under CA loading at R = - 1 .
 Fatigue life prediction 251

welded plate test specimens considering the effect of the residual stresses. In
the calculations, it is assumed that there is no plastic deformation remaining
ahead of and behind the physical crack tip. Thus, Kop = 0 is assumed for all
applied stress intensity factor ranges. For comparison, the mean SN-lines from
the fatigue test series under CA loading at R = - 1 are plotted in Figs 12 and
13. These figures also show the SN-lines resulting from crack growth calcu-
lations using (full) applied stress ranges, i.e. assuming the residual stresses to
be equal to +fy.
As may be seen in Figs 12 and 13, the residual stresses have a considerable
influence on the calculated fatigue life for the high applied stress ranges,
especially for the small test specimens. However, for the low applied stress
ranges approaching the threshold level or fatigue limit, the effect of the
residual stresses diminishes, and the calculated curves converge at the thres-
hold level. Figures 12 and 13 also show that there are considerable differences
between the calculated results and the mean SN-line for the fatigue test series,
when crack closure is not considered in the calculations. The largest differ-
ences exist for the calculation using the (full) applied stress ranges.
Figures 14-16 also show the prediction results and the fatigue test results
for the constant amplitude test series. However, for the predictions shown in
Figs 14-16, both the influence of crack closure and of the actual welding
residual stresses on the fatigue crack growth are considered. In these and in
the following predictions, Irwin's plane strain constraint factor, ot = 1.73 is
used. For the prediction shown in Fig. 16 (CA, R = 0), the crack shape para-
meter, c/b was chosen to 1/3 based on the experimental observations of the
crack shape using the dye marking technique. 12
As may be seen in Figs 14-16, there is very good agreement between the
prediction results and the fatigue test results for the welded plate test speci-
mens investigated. Furthermore, it may be seen from Figs 14 and 16 that both
the test results and the prediction for the small test specimens show signifi-
cantly shorter fatigue lives at R = 0 than at R = - 1 , especially for the high
applied stress ranges. The main reason for these differences in fatigue life is
that the effective stress ranges and stress intensity factor ranges are larger for
the case of R = 0 than for R = - 1, due to the relatively low tensile residual
stresses present in the small test specimens.

3.3 Stochastic loading

3.3.1 Description of load spectra

In the experimental investigation carded out at the Department of Structural
Engineering of the Technical University of Denmark, three different load spec-
tra have been applied. 2°,21 These spectra are denoted BROAD64, PMMOD64
and NARROW64. The spectrum BROAD64 was evaluated from a truncated
252 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

Constant amplitude loading, R = -I. • - ° , * Test results

Large test s p e c i m e n s (DTHI6). _ _ Prediction

1000 o Ill[ IIIIIJ
8
?
6
fill
IIII
fill
I Ill
IIll
llIfli
iJll[I

,I IIII II Irlr
I
,o 8
Iltl ,.~ Illl IIIrll
I
lOOg
2

!!- I111
8
I1:
[ III
Ill[
;111
IIII
IIII
Illl
"..11 I I I I
F ' M III

Iltl [trill
2
10' 2 , e~O e

Number of c y c l e s , N

Fig. 15. Comparison of experimental and predicted fatigue lives for DTH16 test specimens
under CA loading at R = - 1 .

C o n s t a n t a m p l i t u d e loading, R = 0. oooooTest results

Small t e s t s p e c i m e n s (DTH08). __ Prediction

1000 II I Illll I I
II I IIIII I I
I Jl[ll I I
IIIII
IflIJ
v
IlJI lllll
6
I
I
100
rillflJ"
II ~-'l
O~
irl I ~ "+44-----.A--
IIIII I IIJ I I I I IIII

I III
Illll I Ill
i,l~,
~'~" ~ ..... J ,,,
~. . . . . . I ~,~, ~,1 4
10" 10 5 i0 e 10 7
Number of c y c l e s , N

Fig. 16. Comparison o f experimental and predicted fatigue lives for D T H 0 8 test specimens
under C A loading at R = 0.
 Fatigue life prediction 253

white noise spectral density function. The P M M O D 6 4 spectrum was evaluated

from a modified Pierson-Moscowitz wave elevation spectrum. The narrow
band spectrum N A R R O W 6 4 , was evaluated from a band limited block spec-
trum.
The main characteristics of the three spectra used are given in Table 1. The
Root Mean Square ( R M S ) - - a n d Root Mean Cube (RMC)---values given in
Table 1 correspond to a maximum load level equal to the number of load
levels, i.e. 64. The irregularity factor, L is defined as the number of positive-
going mean-value crossings divided by the number of maxima. All three spec-
tra used represent stochastic processes, which are symmetric with respect to
zero. Further details of the load simulation procedures and the load spectra
used may be found in Refs 20 and 21.

3.3.2 Crack growth simulation

In the experimental investigations, 2°,21 the stress parameter used to represent
the fatigue test results of the variable amplitude test series is the equivalent
constant amplitude stress range, AS~qu defined as
k
r~-~ - _ 1 l/inCA

(31)

where
k = number of different stress range levels
n; = number of cycles of stress range AS~
AS~ = variable amplitude stress range

N = total number of cycles = n,.

i=1 "

mcA = slope of corresponding constant amplitude SN-line.

TABLE 1
Characteristics of Load Spectra Used

Spectrum BROAD64 PMMOD64 NARROW64

Number of load levels 64 64 64

Irregularity factor, I 0.745 0.817 0.987
Minimum load range 1 1 1
Maximum load range 63 63 63
RMS (rainflow count) 18.6 19.8 22.9
RMC (rainflow count) 21.5 22.6 25.2
254 J. B. Ibso, H. Agerskov

From the constant amplitude (CA) test series at R = - 1, the values of mcA
were determined as mCA = 2.85 and mCA = 3.10 for the test series on the small
test specimens (t -- 8 ram) and the large test specimens (t = 16 mm), respect-
ively. The cycle counting method used in Refs 20 and 21 was the rainflow
counting method.
For the crack growth calculations, the same sequence and magnitudes of
the applied stresses are used as for the fatigue tests carried out. In the crack
growth calculations for variable amplitude loading, the same values of the
initial crack size, ci, semi-axis ratio, c/b, crack growth coefficients C and m,
etc., as used in the crack growth calculations for CA loading at R = - 1 are
applied. Thus, the influence of crack closure and the welding residual stresses
on the fatigue life under both constant amplitude and stochastic loading are
focused.
Comparisons between predictions and fatigue test results for the small plate
test specimens (DTH08) for stochastic loading are shown in Figs 17-19. As
can be seen in these figures, there is in general a good agreement between
prediction and fatigue test results for all three spectra analysed. For the large
plate specimens (DTH16), similar results are presented in Figs 20-22. As may
be seen in Figs 20-22, there is very good agreement between prediction and
fatigue test results for the high applied stress ranges. However, for the low
applied stress ranges, the test results show shorter fatigue lives than the predic-
tion. The exact reason for the deviations at the low applied stress ranges has
not been clarified. However, possible differences between the crack shape
under CA loading and stochastic loading may explain the results at the low
applied stress ranges. Thus, in Ref. 28 it was experimentally observed that
VA tests gave more initiated cracks than CA tests at the low applied stress
ranges, resulting in a higher degree of crack coalescence. The lower crack
semi-axis ratios for VA loading will lead to higher crack growth rates as
compared to CA loading.
In Tables 2 and 3 are given the predicted values of NvA/NcA for different
equivalent constant amplitude stress range levels. NCA is the number of cycles
to failure at constant amplitude loading at R = - 1, and NVA is the number of
cycles to failure at variable amplitude loading including all stress cycles (i.e.
no truncation), at the same stress level. For comparison, the corresponding
ratios of NvA/NcA determined from the linear regression lines of the fatigue
test series are also given in Tables 2 and 3. 2°'21 As can be seen in these tables,
the predicted values of NvA/NcA are less than 1 in all cases. This is also the
case for the experimental values of NvA/NcA except for one case.
The predicted results given in Tables 2 and 3 show that the value of
NvA/NcA increases with decreasing values of the equivalent constant amplitude
stress range. At the higher equivalent stress ranges, the higher magnitudes of
the maximum applied tensile stresses and in particular the higher magnitudes
 Fatigue life prediction 255

Stochastic loading, NARROW64 spectrum. • • ••• Test results

Small tesL specimens (DTH08). _ _ Prediction
10009
I111 I1111
6
7
0
6

4
1111 I1111
Ilil[ Ill
<1
O9

Q)
1006
0
7
IIIII 1]11
:.
8
5
4 8 8 4 6 ~ 2 4
10 5 4 6 ~0 6
10 4 10 ~
N u m b e r of cycles, N

Fig. 17. Comparison of prediction and fatigue test results for small test specimens with NAR-
ROW64 spectrum.

Stochastic loading, PMMOD64 spectrum. • .... Test results

Small test specimens (DTH08). _ _ Prediction
1000 il II
II tl

II

O~
III 1

M
I00 IIII

I
I
Illl
IIII •
: illl
I!ll
,'Ill
tl II
L 1
2 ~'''~ . . . . .
10 ' 10 5 10 6 10 7

N u m b e r of cycles, N

Fig. 18. Comparison of prediction and fatigue test results for small test specimens with
PMMOD64 spectrum.
256 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

Stochastic loading, BROAD64 spectrum. • • ' ' " Test results

Small test specimens (DTH08). __ Prediction
lo0o Illll I ,'"',,, ' Lli !

IIIII i
1111.
IIIII i iiii
!!!!! ! .....

f/3
"0
a) IIIII "~,~ .I III
iiiii i "~
09 lO0 : !11 I IIII • I
i,III
!!
. . . . . .

7' , i i i i i

,~ , ~, . ,,;,~
10 ' 10 5 10 ~ 10 7

Number of c y c l e s , N

Fig. 19. Comparison of prediction and fatigue test results for small test specimens with
B R O A D 6 4 spectrum.

Stochastic loading, NARR0W64 spectrum. • ••=* Test results

Large test specimens (DTH16). _ _ Prediction

1000~
6
JrrI' [i
7
lli i Ill]
i I j i IIII
4
L. I
<1

r~

u~ 100
FI ..
i
"h'l',
II
rJ ~.1 III

IIIII
6
5 I II
10 4 4 6 ~.05 2 4 6 ~0 ~ • . 10 7 2 4
Number of c y c l e s , N

Fig. 20. Comparison of prediction and fatigue test results for large test specimens with N A R -
ROW64 spectrum.
 Fatigue life prediction 257

Stochastic loading, PMMOD64

. spectrum. • • • • • Test results
Large test specimens (DTHI6). __ Prediction
1000
Illlt IIII Illll

[llii
illli
IL IIIII
IIIII
IIIII

v
Illl IIItl

o llli
il L
100 I
IIIII
IIIII
I1111
Illl
"- [illi
ilill
iilii
IIlll
2 4
II
6 8 2 4 @ 8 ~ 4
illll
6 8 2 4
10' 10 5 10 6 10 ~
N u m b e r of cycles, N

Fig. 21. Comparison of prediction and fatigue test results for large test specimens with
PMMOD64 spectrum.

Stochastic loading, BROAD64 spectrum. • • • • • Test results

Large test specimens (DT}tl6). _ _ Prediction

1000 Illll Illl lllll

Illll Illl tl
LilIIL liii
[BIB
L
~oo i
Lql
lilli III1 "~
hi
Lilli
i]lil lill lllli
IIIII
iiilL
e:

4
tllll
6 8 2 4
i111
Illl
6 8 2 4
II
6 8 2 4
10' 10 ~ 10" 10 7
N u m b e r of cycles, N
Fig. 22. Comparison of prediction and fatigue test results for large test specimens with
BROAD64 spectrum.
258 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

TABLE 2
Values of NvA/NcA at Different Stress Range Levels, ASequfor Small Test Specimens (DTH08)

ASequ = 120 M P a Aaequ = 200 MPa ASeq, = 250 MPa

NvA/NcA NvA/NcA NvA/NcA NvA/NcA NvA/NcA NvA/NcA

Spectrum Predicted Test Predicted Test Predicted Test

NARROW64 0.95 0.84 0.76 0.82 0.65 0.81

PMMOD64 0.88 1.03 0.47 0.63 0.41 0.50
BROAD64 0.75 0.49 0.38 0.44 0.34 0.42

TABLE 3
Values of NvA/NcA at Different Stress Range Levels, ASoqufor Large Test Specimens (DTH16)

ASeq u ~- 150 MPa AS~q, = 200 M P a ASequ = 250 MPa

NvA/NcA NvA/NcA Nva/Nca NvA/NcA NvA/NcA NVA/]VCA

Spectrum Predicted Test Predicted Test Predicted Test

NARROW64 0.93 0.58 0.81 0.62 0.69 0.66

PMMOD64 0.83 0.50 0.63 0.58 0.49 0.66
BROAD64 0.74 0.39 0.55 0.41 0.42 0.42

of the applied compressive stresses for the variable amplitude load cases play
a dominant role, and this results in a significant acceleration of the crack
growth as compared to constant amplitude loading. In particular, at small crack
depths, where the plastic stretches in the wake of the crack are being built
up, the higher magnitudes of both the tensile and compressive stresses for the
spectra analysed result in an acceleration of the crack growth as compared to
CA loading.
Different studies in the literature--both experimental and theoretiqal--have
also shown that crack behaviour, and in particular the short crack behaviour
depends not only on AK, but also on the applied load level, especially at low
applied stress ratios, see e.g, Refs. 4, 29 and 30.
At the lower equivalent stress ranges, a larger part of the applied stress
ranges becomes effective and contributes to the crack growth. This particularly
applies for the stress ranges under CA loading. This effect is due to the tensile
residual stresses present in the welded plate test specimens. At the lower
applied equivalent stress ranges, the predicted load interaction effects are
therefore less pronounced for the welded plate test specimens analysed.
 Fatigue life prediction 259

4 CONCLUSIONS

The analyses of the present study have shown that crack closure mechanisms
are of paramount importance for the physical understanding and explanation
of fatigue crack growth under various load conditions and under different
stress states. Fatigue crack growth phenomena such as delayed retardation
following a single tensile overload, crack growth acceleration following a
compressive underload and crack growth retardation following multiple tensile
overloads may be explained on the basis of crack closure analyses.
The parametric studies of the crack growth behaviour of surface cracks at
welded joints show that the following factors are of great importance, and
thus in general they all ought to be included in fatigue life predictions of
welded joints:
-- welding residual stresses
-- crack closure
stress concentrations
-- crack shape.
It is possible to include stress concentrations and welding residual stresses
in the fracture mechanics analysis. Methods to include in the analysis of the
influence of stress concentrations and welding residual stresses upon crack
closure and fatigue crack growth have been developed in the present study.
Using a crack closure model as presented herein and including the influence
of stress concentrations and welding residual stresses results in good agree-
ment between predictions and fatigue test results under CA loading at R = 0
and R = - 1 for the welded plate test specimens analysed. On the other hand,
using full stress ranges in the crack growth calculations, i.e. neglecting the
influence of crack closure and assuming the residual stresses to be equal to
the tensile yield stress, results in a significant underestimation of the fatigue
life under CA loading at R = - 1 for the plate test specimens.
The analytical results for stochastic loading show that acceleration effects
dominate the fatigue crack growth for the load spectra analysed. This main
result is in good agreement with the findings of the experimental investi-
gations. The main reason for the differences in the damaging effect between
the load spectra analysed, and between the load spectra and CA loading at
R = - 1, respectively, is the differences in the magnitudes of the applied
stresses, especially the differences in the magnitudes of the applied compress-
ive stresses. In particular at small crack depths, where the plastic stretches in
the wake of the crack are being built up, the higher magnitudes of both the
tensile and the compressive stresses for the load spectra analysed result in an
acceleration of the crack growth as compared to constant amplitude loading
at R = - I .
260 J. B. Ibsa, H. Agerskov

Both the analytical results obtained by use of a fracture mechanics analysis,

where crack closure and the actual residual stresses are included, and the
experimental investigations in which a large number of fatigue tests with
stochastic loading has been carded out, show that quite unconservative results
may be obtained by use of the Miner rule for the types of loading investigated.

REFERENCES

1. Elber, W., The significance of fatigue crack closure. ASTM STP 486 (1971)
230-242.
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