Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 18 (2003) 127144

Latest technology of underground rock cavern excavation in Japan

Masanobu Tezukaa, Tadahiko Seokab,*
b a The Kansai Electric Power Co., Inc., Osaka, Japan San Roque Power Corporation, San Roque, San Manuel, Pangasinan, Philippines

Abstract Four major projects with large-scale rock underground caverns are discussed in this report; two hydropower stations, one underground oil storage facility and one underground museum in Japan. The technology applied to the construction of these caverns have some unique characteristics and can be applied to various other underground uses for different purposes and applied to larger-scale underground rock caverns with different geological and in situ stress conditions. Generally, construction of an underground cavern is comprised of five major activities: geological investigation; cavern stability analysis; initial rock support design; excavation works; and redesign of rock support according to the observational construction method. Weighted factors allocated among these factors should be established based on the rock properties and the purpose of the underground cavern use, which would define the major characteristics of the construction project. This report discusses some of major characteristics of these projects in Japan. 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Underground cavern; Powerhouse; Oil storage; Underground museum; Observational method

1. Introduction Typical large-scale rock underground caverns in Japan are seen in underground powerhouses at over 50 locations and oil storage facilities at three locations. The history of underground powerhouses, which started with the Uryu Power Station (Hokkaido Electric Power Co., Inc., 51 MW, 1943), extends over some 60 years. Currently Kan-nagawa Power Station (Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc., 2700 MW) and Omarugawa Power Station (Kyushu Electric Power, 1200 MW) are under construction. Construction of underground oil storage at three locations, Kuji, Kushikino and Kikuma, was completed consecutively during the period from 1994 to 1995, and are under normal operation. Planning of construction of a LPG storage facility has been underway employing such technology. However, there has been an increase in the number of underground cavern for general public use. An example of a newly constructed underground cavern for general public use is the Takayama Festival Float Art Museum (Gifu Prefecture, 1998). It is a facility for storage and exhibition of
*Corresponding author. Tel.: q63-75-614-2080; fax: q63-75-6142117. E-mail address: hikoseoka@aol.com (T. Seoka).

traditional art objects such as floats used for the famous Takayama Festival. This report delineates a summary of discussion of the following four projects to introduce the latest rock underground cavern construction technology in Japan: a. Kazunogawa Power Station (Tokyo Electric Power Co. Inc., 1999). b. Okutataragi Power Station (Kansai Electric Power Co. Inc., 1998). c. Underground Oil Storage Projects (Kuji, Kushikino and Kikuma) (Japan Underground Oil Storage Co. Ltd., 1995). d. Takayama Festival Float Art Museum (Tobishima Construction Co. Ltd., 1998). Their locations are indicated in Fig. 1 (Tezuka, 2001). 2. Kazunogawa Power Station (Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc., 1999) Tokyo Electric Power has been constructing the Kazunogawa Pumped Storage Power Station with a maximum output of 1600 MW, maximum discharge of 280 m3 y s and effective head of 714 m in Yamanashi Prefecture. The construction project started in January 1993, and the first and the second units have already

0886-7798/03/$ - see front matter 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 8 8 6 - 7 7 9 8 0 3 . 0 0 0 3 9 - 7

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Fig. 1. Location of the underground caverns.

started commercial operations with an individual output of 400 MW in December 1999 and June 2000, respectively. The underground powerhouse cavern is approximately in the middle of an 8 km water conduit connecting upper and lower reservoirs and approximately 500 m below the ground surface. The underground cavern has a width of 34 m, height of 54 m and length of 210 m, and its cross-section has a horseshoe profile (Koyama and Nambu, 1998; Koyama et al., 1997). Cross-sectional views of the underground cavern are indicated in Fig. 2. The cross-sectional area of excavation is 1500 m2, while the excavation volume is 250 000 m3. 2.1. Geology and rock characteristics The underlying geology surrounding the power station consists of Shimanto Terrane of mixed beds of sandstone and mudstone, which are considered to have deposited during late Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic era and the Tertiary Cenozoic era. The site of the power station is composed of highly developed jointed rocks, where the dip of the discontinuity is mainly classified into three categories. Table 1 indicates the results of the rock tests conducted at the pilot tunnels excavated above the powerhouse cavern site prior to the construction. 2.2. Observational construction system Uniqueness of this underground cavern project is the use of observational construction system (Koyama et al., 1999). The rock characteristics that affect stability of the underground cavern such as tangent modulus of elasticity (12 600 MPa is the average value of the geologically good zone) remain relatively lower, while the geology presents complicated conditions as numerous faults exist behind rock surface. The overburden is

Fig. 2. Cross-section of the powerhouse cavern.

500 m, which constitutes a higher initial stress condition (s1s12 MPa, s2s11 MPa, data used for the stability analysis). In order to detect the rock behavior during excavation, which cannot be detected in the prediction analysis prior to excavation works, installation of measTable 1 Rock properties Test results Deformation wJack Testx (=103 MPa) Tangent elastic modulus Modulus of Loading Unloading deformation Average 11.5 7.2 4.0 (Range) (5.022.5) (2.615.0) (1.011.1) Good Region E (Unloading) Ave. 12.6=103 MPa Weak Region E (Unloading) Ave. 7.7=103 MPa wRock Specimen Testx Unconfined Compression Test Ave. 106 MPa (35.3245 MPa) High Pressure Triaxial Compression Test Peak Strength ts12.8 MPaqs tan 578 Residual Strength ts2.8 MPaqs tan 488 wRock Shear Testx Good Region (Peak) ts1.5 MPaqs tan 588 Weak Region (Peak) ts0.8 MPaqs tan 558 Residual Strength ts0.5 MPaqs tan 508 wInitial Rock Stress Measurementx Overburden: 520 m s1s14.2 MPa (N178E, 688down) s2s12.0 MPa (N1918W, 208down) s3s9.4 MPa (N978W, 98down)

Strength

Rock stress

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Fig. 3. Results of measurement and back analysis in the model cavern.

uring instruments and intensive analysis of the measured data should be conducted. One of remarkable features of the observational construction system conducted at the site is the prevalent use of the back analysis. Particularly, it is notable that prior to the underground powerhouse cavern excavation, a trial of back analysis was conducted by actually excavating the model cavern at a scale of 1 y 5 to measure the rock deformation and to provide approximate guidance of the initial stress. Fig. 3 indicates the measurement results of the model cavern excavation. Study flow of back analysis is shown in Fig. 4. The initial stress obtained from the back analysis under the assumption that the vertical stress is equivalent to the overburden, s1s12.5 MPa, s2s9MPa, ws13.18, which proved to be almost in line with the actual data provided by the stress measurement at the site. The equivalent modulus of elasticity is Es12 900 MPa, which almost matches the tangent modulus of elasticity Ets12 600 MPa of the geologically good zone subject to the jack tests. However, the displacement of the underground cavern end wall measured in the direction perpendicular to the prevalent discontinuity, was greater than that of the sidewall, while the equivalent modulus of elasticity (perpendicular to dominant joint set) computed by the back analysis presented a substantial anisotropy at some 1 y 4;1 y 7 in the parallel direction. The rock behavior data obtained from the model cavern and the back analysis were used to determine the physical property for the predictive analysis and back analysis for the underground powerhouse cavern excavation to be mentioned below.

2.3. Cavern behavior caused by the excavation 2.3.1. Overall cavern behavior Distribution of cavern surface displacement in stage of full section excavated is indicated in Fig. 5. The maximum displacement at the sidewall is 56 mm at the F cross-section of the penstock side (d zone) (Kudoh et al., 1999a,b). 2.3.2. Resultant behavior of critical management zone (d zone) The d zone had been originally estimated as the good zone, but then was designated as critical management zone for occurrence of displacement during the excavation as a result of the re-evaluation of geology. The resultant behavior is as follows: a. The area adjacent to the cross-section FG was mudstone dominant, which was relatively evenly distributed over the wide area. During vault excavation, numerous long (maximum length at 6 m) joints strike south to north with a steep dip to the east (JNS-h series) was detected. Additionally, a kink band (densely jointed zone) (N20W y 85E(50)) that crosses at a lower angle with the sidewall was confirmed during bench excavation, which had not been detected in the preliminary geological study. b. Displacement (sidewall displacement at 17 mm) occurred at the spring line on the penstock side during the period the second stage expansion work of vault excavation to first bench excavation of main body of the cavern. It was considered to derive from the

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anisotropic inhomogeneity model with consideration to the kink band. The analysis results were used to calculation of displacement coming out upon completion of the excavation, and to calculate the required load to be removed from the prestressed anchors. Then new prestressed anchors were installed additionally, and the existing anchors loads were reduced (294235 kN). The results of the back analysis are indicated in Fig. 6. As a result, the displacement at the final stage of the excavation was contained within the predicted range upon completion of the 8th bench, while the prestressed anchor load was limited to the yield load (330 kN). 2.4. Conclusions The observational construction system with an emphasis on the back analysis produced the following assessment results: a. As a result of the preliminary evaluation of the model cavern, the back analysis has proved to be an effective survey and review method to determine the rock deformation property and initial stress for evaluation of the rock behavior during excavation of the underground powerhouse cavern, which would not be affected by local factors (such as geological property) inherent to the in situ rock test. b. The back analysis proved to be effective as a measure to explore the causes of discontinuous deformation behavior hardly detected in the preliminary investigation for underground cavern excavation, and subsequently to make adjustments to the prediction analysis and rock support design. c. This underground cavern presented an example of excavation of one of the largest underground caverns in Japan, under the severe conditions such as highly developed jointed rocks, complex geological structure and intensive initial stress, which was made possible by applying precise geological survey and sophisticated observational method system. 3. Okutataragi Power Station (Kansai Electric Power Co., Inc., 1998) Kansai Electric Power constructed the Okutataragi Power Station (pumped storage power station) with a maximum output of 1212 MW in Hyogo Prefecture in 1974. Twenty-four years later, the project to expand the capacity (720 MW) was implemented to meet the growing demand for electric power in the service area. In June 1998, the power station with a maximum output of 1932 MW started its operation. The summary of construction of a new underground powerhouse cavern for the capacity expansion project is discussed in this section.

Fig. 4. Study flow in back analysis.

above-mentioned southnorth series joints, and constituted asymmetrical deformation behavior unlike the tailrace side (sidewall displacement at 3 mm). c. Displacement occurred at the sidewall of the penstock side as a result of cutting-down the bench. It was considered to derive from the above-mentioned southnorth series joints and kink band. Displacement of 19 mm and 17 mm was detected at the upper portion of the sidewall (EL.646 m) and middle (EL.636.0 m), respectively, as of the completion of the excavation of the 8th bench. These figures exceeded the predicted figures (16 mm, 16 mm) based on the results of the back analysis upon completion of the 6th bench excavation, and neighboring prestressed anchor load constituted a breach of the excavation control criteria (294 kN). Therefore, the excavation of the area concerned was discontinued to conduct the back analysis based on the

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Fig. 5. Displacement on the cavern surface (at the completion of excavation).

The underground cavern was excavated above the water conduit with a length of approximately 3.5 km connecting the existing upper and lower regulating reservoirs. The powerhouse cavern is located approximately 250 m below ground surface and 200 m away from existing powerhouse caverns. The underground caverns dimensions are 25 m wide, 47 m high, 130 m long, while its cross-section has a bullet-like shape. Cross-section views of the underground cavern are indicated in Fig. 7. The cross-sectional area for exca-

vation was 1000 m2, and the excavation volume was 94 000 m3 (Seoka et al., 1997). 3.1. Geology and rock characteristics The geology surrounding the power station is mainly comprised of volcanic rocks of Ikuno Group Chubu Sg such as rhyolite and homogeneous volcanic rocks in the middle of the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic era. Porphrite and diabase were identified as the intruded

Fig. 6. Back analysis results and maximum shear strains based on the results.

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Fig. 7. Cross-section of the powerhouse cavern.

rock, which strikes almost south to north (in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the underground cavern). Dominant join set has a strike in the directions south to north and east to west and a dip with large angle of 708 or more. The results of the rock test conducted for the survey audit are indicated in the Table 2. 3.2. Cavern stability analysis and rock support design

Such mitigated support pattern is a major characteristic of this underground cavern. The only difference from the Kazunogawa power station (Section 2) lies in the difference of the rock in collapse mode, which is
Table 2 Rock properties Test results

The rock support design was conducted in accordance with the procedures described below. a. Assume that the whole cavern is an isotropic homogeneous CH-class rock. b. Non-linear visco-elastic and sequential excavation numerical analysis with the use of FEM is adopted as cavern stability analysis model. The analysis results are indicated in Fig. 8. c. Design the prestressed anchor for the supporting areas under the assumption that shear failure and tensile failure compose an unstable rock mass. Established rock support patterns are indicated in Fig. 9. Shotcrete and rock bolts, and prestressed anchors to be installed in the end constitute the support members. d. Design of the prestressed anchors was not provided for the area, which is not subject to (c) above, only the rock bolts and shotcrete were applied. Therefore the significantly asymmetrical design was provided for the cavern cross-sections as indicated in Fig. 9.

Deformation

wJack Testx (=103 MPa) Tangent elastic modulus Modulus of Loading Unloading deformation Average 16.9 17.3 14.5 (Range) (7.726.0) (7.726.8) (3.325.7) Very Good Class (Unloading) Ave. 23.5=103 MPa Good Class (Unloading) Ave. 15.7=103 MPa Fair Class (Unloading) Ave. 4.9=103 MPa (existing report) wRock Specimen Testx Unconfined Compression Test (58.9147.1 MPa) Triaxial Compression Test Good Classts15.7 MPaqtan 608 Fair Class ts7.3 MPaqtan 498 wIn situ Shear Testx Good Class (Peak) ts2.5 MPaqtan 57.38 Good Class (Residual) ts2.0 MPaqtan 42.98 wInitial Rock Stress Measurementx Overburden: 250 m s1s7.9 MPa s3s4.7 MPa us53.68

Strength

Rock stress

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basic concept behind pursuing optimization of the final support configuration based on the observational construction system for both Kazunogawa and Okutataragi is exactly the same. 3.3. Observational construction system The observational construction system using the keyblock analysis in addition to the general measurement control is described in this section. 3.3.1. Keyblock analysis a. Modeling of the discontinuity The flow chart of the excavation control system from the joint survey to the keyblock analysis and then to the design and execution is indicated in Fig. 10. b. Assessment of characteristics of the discontinuity In order to determine the characteristics of the discontinuity such as internal friction angle w, cohesion strength c, the multi-stage three-axial compression test using the block sample and boring core, and direct shear test are conducted. At the same time, in order to verify the test results, a tilt test and a direct shear test of polished rhyolite are conducted for supplemental purposes. w is distributed in the range of the basic friction angle (28.18) to the inclination angle (46.58). The angle tends to depend heavily on the interlocking situation. Thus, ws32.48 and cs0 kPa were determined as such, as the result of the direct shear test of the polished rhyolite is assessed to indicate the lowest measure of the internal frictional angle w based on the fact that the joint roughness coefficient (JRC) at the site has proved to be relatively small at 18. c. Analysis results and assessment The slide modes of the identified unstable block are classified into three types of mode:

Fig. 8. Results of cavern stability analysis. (Failure zone in stage of full section excavated.)

subject to the assumptions based on the property of the rock surrounding the respective underground cavern. The area surrounding the cavern is composed of hard igneous rock (rhyolite), and the rock behavior during excavation is assumed to be dominated by significant movement of keyblocks, judging from the property of the discontinuity. Therefore, the rock support pattern for the initial stage of excavation was limited to a minimum, and an emphasis was put on the supplementary reinforcement based on observational construction system including the keyblock analysis as described below. The

Fig. 9. Standard rock support patterns.

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Fig. 10. Study flow for keyblock analysis.

i. wedge sliding mode; ii. plane sliding mode; iii. falling mode. The basic equation without directions of each working force at the extreme equilibrium analysis on the basis of the Fig. 11 is indicated as follows: FssRjc,w.qRctc.qT. y W (1)

where Fsssafety factor, Rjsstrength of discontinuity, Rcsshear strength of shotcrete, Tssupport force of rock bolt or prestressed anchor, Wssliding force. Londe et al. (1969) proposed to give a safety factor corresponding to the uncertainty of each constituent factor of the equation of equilibrium. Eq. (1) based on this proposal is expressed as follows: 1sRjc,j.1 y fj.qRctc.1 y fe.qT1 y ft. y W (2)

the safety factor has been already reflected to the design procedure of tension load to be installed. An example of the supplementary reinforcement design to the unstable block identified at the vault part is indicated in Fig. 12. The unstable block with 10.5 m in height, 144 m3 in volume and 3678 kN in weight was detected in the range of approximately 10 m from the immediate top of facing to the ending corner of the vault, as a result of the analysis of joint survey at TD 120 m of the central heading. The outline of the supplementary reinforcement design is indicated as follows:

where f j, f c, f t: indicates, respectively, safety factors of the strength of discontinuity, shear strength of shotcrete and the support force of a rock bolt or prestressed anchor. Herein Eq. (2) has been introduced, and the safety factor of shotcrete and the discontinuity resistance is set at f cs f js3.0, taking into account dispersion of strength. Regarding the support force of rock bolts or prestressed anchors, each support member is designed at f ts1.0 as

Fig. 11. Rock supports for keyblock failure.

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Fig. 12. Calculation sheet of keyblock analysis.

a. A layer of the primary shotcrete 8 cm thick was installed, and its expected strength was 440 kPa at the age of 2 h. The shear resistance of the perimeter of 31 m is calculated in the following equation: 440 kPa=8 cm=31 ms1091 kN (3)

bolts or prestressed anchors used for supplementary reinforcement. 3678 kNy1091 kN y 3s3314 kN (4)

b. In this case, the keyblock sliding force is equivalent to the weight of the keyblock at 3678 kN, and the safety factor is calculated as Fss0.3. The resistance required to meet Fss3 is calculated in the equation below. This is equivalent to support force of rock

c. The number of the required rock bolts in the following cases: (A) ultimate tensile force between rock bolt and injected grouting material; (B) cohesive force between rock bolt and grouting material; and (C) tensile stress of the rock bolt. Among these three cases, (C) would require the largest number of rock bolts, which is calculated as follows:

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3314 kN y min (0.6 Tsu, 0.75 Tsy) y Arb s3314 kN y min (0.6=500 MPa, 0.75 =352 MPa) y 4.9 cm2 s26

(5)

where Arb is the cross-section of the rock bolt; and Tsu, Tsy is the ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of rock bolt. d. Similarly, the number of prestressed anchors required is calculated as follows. 3314 kN y min (0.6 Psu, 0.75 Psy) s3314 kN y min (0.6=967 kN, 0.75 =823 kN) s6

od at Kikuma (started in 1980). Construction of large-scale bases started in 1987. Oil-in has been completed at all the bases in 1995. Currently, the underground oil caverns at three bases have maintained stable operation. Dimension of caverns are different from base to base. Each base consists of some caverns (up to 10) excavated in parallel. Cavern scale ranges from 22 to 30 m in height, 18 to 20.5 m in width, and 230 to 555 m in length. Storage capacity ranges from 1.5 million kl to 1.75 million kl and the total excavation volume of the underground caverns ranges from 1.6 million m3 to 2.2 million m3 (Hoshino, 1993). 4.1. Design An underground cavern for oil storage is subject to the regulations of Fire Service Law, and it is necessary to review the items stipulated in its guideline (dated May 1987). The following four requirements should be reviewed for designing an oil cavern: 1. ensure enough clearance between rock caverns; 2. ensure stable groundwater level surrounding a rock cavern; 3. ensure cavern stability against the load of a rock cavern; and 4. critical groundwater level of a rock cavern (the minimum groundwater level to be maintained to prevent vapor or oil leakage). 4.1.1. Advanced parallel underground caverns The underground oil storage facility comprises some parallel caverns with a similar size to ensure storage capacity. Clearance between caverns is determined by dynamic conditions and underground hydraulic conditions. As for dynamic conditions, the Fire Service Law stipulates a requirement to ensure the clearance between oil caverns at or greater than the figure (L) as specified below: LsB1qH1qB2qH2. y 4qR1qR2 (7)

(6)

where Psu, Psy are ultimate tensile strength and yield strength of wire strand, respectively. Therefore, 26 rock bolts or six prestressed anchors are required as a supplementary reinforcement in addition to the primary shotcrete. Herein prestressed anchors are adopted as supplementary reinforcement for the reasons that a larger number of rock bolts would be required, and the length of Ls5 m is insufficient for the height of keyblock at 10.5 m. 3.4. Conclusions As in the past, keyblock theory proposed by Goodman and Shi (1985) has been applied to design the most suitable layout of underground cavern that minimize the scale of unstable blocks in the excavated rock surface. There are many advantages in applying the keyblock analysis to the daily excavation management. Firstly, as it would be possible to detect unstable blocks immediately after blasting and scaling, a safer working environment for workers and on site equipment could be provided. Secondly, a required amount of rock supports could be designed effectively. The observational construction method including real time processing of keyblock analysis would be considered to contribute toward rational excavation management of large underground caverns in the jointed rock mass. 4. Underground oil storage project (Japan Oil Storage Co. Ltd., 1995) History of the use of underground cavern for oil storage in Japan started with construction of three bases: Kushikino (Kagoshima prefecture, andesite), Kikuma (Ehime prefecture, granite) and Kuji (Iwate prefecture, granite). The Agency of Natural Resources and Energy started a broad regional survey of site locations in 1975. It was followed by the verification test of the underground oil storage technology with water injection meth-

Where, L is the distance between the inner walls of adjacent rock tanks. B1, H1, B2, H2, R1, R2 are as indicated in Fig. 13. Analysis is conducted for the following items: a. analysis method: double linear elastic analysis; b. analysis model: tandem cavern model; c. load conditions: initial stress, interval water pressure inside rocks, seismic inertial force; and d. loosened zone: local safety factor, Fs-1.5. As a result of the review, the interval between centers of the oil caverns was set at 50 m at the Kuji and Kushikino Bases, and 65 m at the Kikuma Base (JSCE, 1996).

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Fig. 13. Minimum clearance between rock tanks.

4.1.2. Assurance of stability of groundwater level Crude oil to be stored remains hermetically sealed under pressure of underground water, which flows extremely slowly across the space of the surrounding rocks. This technology was developed in the 1950s in Scandinavia, and is generally called the water injection method. The permeability coefficient of rock and underground water recharge represents the most important parameters for a water injection type of oil cavern. In case the permeability coefficient of a rock is extremely small and the underground water recharge is relatively large, the natural underground water method is applied; while if the permeability coefficient is small but recharge is small as well, or the permeability coefficient is large, the artificial water injection method is adopted for forced water supply through bore holes. The guidelines of the Fire Service Law requires evaluation of the soundness of the water injection function even during a drought that might occur with an interval of 100 years, or during a change in ground formation. Underground water recharge of a dry year at these sites was estimated based on the precipitation data of the observed dry years and the hydrological tank model method. As for the change in ground formation, the recharge was estimated under the assumption that trees have been burned down due to forest fire, and with consideration to a change in runoff coefficient. Additionally, FEM was applied for the saturated y unsaturated seepage flow analysis to ensure the groundwater level, and the water injection function was evaluated through the reproduction model development and simulation of changes in the groundwater level. The results of analysis of seepage flow related to the artificial water injection at Kuji Base are indicated in

Fig. 14. The analysis results were used to establish the critical ground water level at each point, so that the underground water around the oil cavern (within the range of horizontal distance in five times of the maximum width of an oil cavern from its inner wall) upon its completion would be secured to maintain stable water level to constantly offset the expected change in water level. Kushikino Base adopted the natural water injection method combined partially with an artificial water injection method, while the Kuji Base and Kikuma Base adopted the artificial water injection method. 4.1.3. Stability assurance of surrounding rocks As an oil cavern with the water injection function remains constantly below the groundwater level, dependence on highly corrosive rock support materials should be kept lower. An oil cavern is not basically subject to scheduled overhaul (maintenance) during operation, dependence on the rock supports would be minimized, and the strength inherent to a rock should be utilized to the fullest extent. Accordingly, no prestressed anchor is used on the concerns of its long-term durability at any base, and the support design is provided with the use of rock bolts and shotcrete only. Standard support crosssectional view of a representative rock at Kuji Base is indicated in Fig. 15. In case ordinary supplementary reinforcement with rock bolts and shotcrete is found not to ensure sufficient stability during construction work, a change is made to the excavation shape. 4.2. Observational construction system One of the major purposes of the observational method is to ensure dynamic stability during excavation

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Fig. 14. Seepage analysis with FEM (Kuji Base).

as in the case of the underground powerhouse. A larger weight of underground water management during construction work is a major characteristic of the underground oil storage (Fukuhara and Hasegawa, 1995; Sakurai et al., 1998). 4.2.1. Observational construction system concerning the underground water management The case of the Kuji Base is introduced below. The rock condition of Kuji Base is harder and finer compared with that of the other two bases. Overall, it has developed discontinuity, with great permeability coefficient. As a result of the preliminary survey, developed discontinuities perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the oil cavern, with a extension in direction of depth of cavern were detected, which cause the formation of a so-called developed water path in the surrounding rock. The flow chart of the observational construction system for the purposes of underground water control is indicated in Fig. 16. Among individual sub-systems constituting the system, the permeability test system, the drill logging system, and the groundwater level monitoring network system were developed as a tool for actively collecting the hydraulic geology information and its use. The groundwater level monitoring network system allows monitoring the surrounding groundwater level as necessary by networking groundwater level monitoring bores installed around the oil cavern through a fixedline telemeter. It enables real-time monitoring of a change in groundwater level during the construction work in progress, allowing automatic output of a groundwater level contour chart based on the level inside each observation bore.

The observational construction system was employed for the purposes of such underground water management to implement cut-off grouting and partial water injection from the beginning of construction of the oil cavern to its completion (partial water injection to the tunnel even during the construction work to prevent lowering of the local groundwater level). The careful groundwater level management accompanied this goal. As a result, the groundwater level upon completion of the oil cavern excavation exceeded the critical water level, including the level after oil-in. The seepage volume after oil-in upon completion of the oil cavern excavation declined

Fig. 15. Standard rock support patterns (Kuji Base).

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Fig. 16. Observational construction system for underground water control (Kuji Base).

below the design spring water level, which allowed normal start-up of the operation. 4.3. Conclusions So far, some European and the US experts doubted the feasibility of constructing a large-scale underground storage base with a deep cavern with a large crosssection as seen in Europe or the US, due to higher frequency of earthquakes and volcano eruption in Japan, which belongs to the Pacific rim volcanic zone. In this regard, it has great significance to have proved that construction of a large-scale underground storage base

by implementing location selection, design and construction based on well-planned geological surveys. There is no doubt that this experience would help improve the future construction process of an underground cavern which requires highly hermetic conditions such as construction of an LPG storage base or disposal of radioactive waste inside ground structure (Hoshino, 1993). 5. Takayama Festival Float Art Museum (Tobishima Construction Co. Ltd., 1998) The Takayama Festival Float Art Museum is the first underground museum constructed in a large-scale under-

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Fig. 18. Distribution of discontinuities estimated from in-situ surveys (parallel to the longitudinal axis of the geological survey tunnel). Fig. 17. Takayama Festival Float Art Museum (Gifu Pref.).

ground cavern (Fig. 17). This underground museum represents a product of the underground space technology developed through construction of conventional underground caverns combined with the typical architectural technology. For the construction, expertise of both engineers who have experience in underground cavern construction, and architects who have been involved in design and construction of a museum. The museum to be constructed in an underground cavern for the first time in Japan required permission by the Ministry of Construction under the Building Standard Law, and its accident prevention measures and structure were rated (Nakada et al., 1996; Chikahisa et al., 1999). 5.1. Shape of an underground cavern The idea behind the shape of an underground cavern and its arrangement is quite interesting. The shape of the underground cavern (referred to hereunder as exhibition hall) has a height of 20 m and width of 40.5 m (flatness ratio at 0.5), and the overburden at the location has a very shallow depth at 30 m. This overburden was determined with due consideration to the cost balance between the required rock support to stabilize the exhibition hall and the extension of the access tunnel (referred to hereunder as exhibition tunnel). Considering the access from the ground surface, the access tunnel should be shorter in distance, but a lot of rock supports would be required to ensure stability of the underground cavern as the exhibition hall would be closer to the ground surface. Conversely, to extend the length of the access tunnel would raise the expenses of tunnel excavation higher. 5.2. Geology and rock characteristics The geology surrounding the underground cavern is composed of surface soil, cohesive soil of the colluviums

deposit and the late Cretaceous period, and igneous rock or welded tuffs derived from pyroclastic flow, called as Nohi rhyolite of Paleogene, from top. The Atotsukawa fault extending north-east to south-west strikes at approximately 25 km from the construction site, while the Adera fault extending from north-west to south-east is located 40 km south. Discontinuity analysis was conducted for the support design and as an observational method of the underground cavern based on joint survey results. Distribution of discontinuity surrounding the underground cavern is indicated in Fig. 18, while the characteristics of the discontinuity is indicated in Table 3 (Chikahisa et al., 1997). 5.3. Stability analysis and support design Major characteristics of this underground cavern are the detailed stability study of the underground cavern subjected to the occurrence of earthquakes (Nakada et al., 1996). In case of the underground powerhouse, the caverns are excavated below over 100 m and inside a relatively hard rock, which does not require particular attention to the cavern stability against an earthquake. Design of the underground cavern, as discussed above, needs to ensure fire prevention and structural stability in compliance with the Building Standard Law.
Table 3 Rock discontinuities properties Friction angle (degree) In-situ shear test Laboratory shear test No. 5 boring core Blocks with joint filled clay 56 35 20 Cohesion (MPa) 2.20 0.107 0.015 Condition of discontinuities General Weathered Very weak

M. Tezuka, T. Seoka / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 18 (2003) 127144 Table 4 Design concept to estimate loosened zones Conditions Stationary Design concept

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The underground opening can resist without damage the static working loads after construction. (By allowable stress method). The underground opening can respond, without damage, to an earthquake motion that can occur once or more during the service life of the opening. (By allowable stress method). No fatal damage results even in case of the strongest earthquake motion that has ever occurred near the site. (By the ultimate strength method).

Earthquake (Level 1) Earthquake (Level 2)

Table 5 Maximum velocity on the ground surface in the dynamic stress-deformation analysis Level Level 1 Level 2 Units: cmys. Velocity on the bedrock 10 25 Amplification factor 1.9 Velocity on the ground surface 25 50 Remarks Effects of middle-scale middle-distance earthquake Effects of the Atotsugawa fault

5.3.1. Support design based on the dynamic stressdeformation analysis Stress deformation analysis of the cavern was conducted to review the static stress conditions upon completion of excavation and stress conditions upon occurrence of an earthquake. The analysis conditions

are indicated in Table 4. Level 1 represents an earthquake recurring in 200 years under the assumption of the service life of an underground cavern for 100 years. Level 2 represents the greater in magnitude of the largest earthquake ever occurred at the site or the estimated earthquake to be generated due to the fault activity in the neighborhood. Design ground motion used for stress analysis is indicated in Table 5. The input waveform was subject to the single-dimensional response analysis using four waves as indicated in Fig. 19, El Centro N S wave was adopted to generate maximum acceleration at the depth of the exhibition hall.

Fig. 19. Result of response analysis.

Fig. 20. Loosened zone estimated from dynamic analysis using the level 2 earthquake ground motion.

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Fig. 21. Support members around the exhibition hall.

The results of the dynamic analysis using the Level 2 ground motion are indicated in Fig. 20. The loosened area indicates that it contains the factor with the local safety rate below 1.1. Fig. 21 indicates the design of the support pattern of the exhibition dome used to reinforce the expected loosened area. The primary support member is the prestressed anchor, and the stainless steel fiber reinforced shotcrete and rock bolts were additionally used for supplementary reinforcement. 5.3.2. Prediction and verification based on the discontinuity analysis Discontinuous deformation analysis (DDA), one of the discontinuity analysis methods, was employed to predict the discontinuous behavior of the rock adjacent to the underground cavern (Chikahisa et al., 1997). Fig. 22 indicates the two-dimensional analysis model used for the DDA. The analysis conditions are indicated in Table 6. The analysis was conducted for the following four cases: three cases depending on the level of shear strength at the discontinuity as the initial stress release due to excavation is assumed as load conditions in order to review the normal conditions, and the fourth case was intended for review the conditions during an earthquake by continuously loading the Level 2 seismic
Table 6 Analysis cases and conditions for DDA Case Shear strength of discontinuity Friction angle (8) 1 2 3 4 56 35 20 56 Cohesion (MPa) 2.20 0.107 0.015 2.20

Fig. 22. DDA block model (CH class rock mass).

inertial force. The initial vertical stress was set at the self-weight of the rock equivalent to the overburden (svssH), while the horizontal stress was set at 1 y 2 of the vertical stress (shs0.5sv), based on the test results of the AE method. The results of the analysis (displacement chart) are indicated in Fig. 23. Slippage of a block at the top of sidewalls and pressing a block out of the left sidewall were detected. Opening of the discontinuity developed to the distance of approximately 5.7 m from the excavation surface. Maximum displacement was 54 cm, showing the behavior of significant deformation. The results of the analysis in the case 4 of occurrence of an earthquake, the tension stress was seen at two blocks only at the top of left sidewall with the maximum displacement of 4.0 cm. 5.4. Conclusions Generally, an underground cavern intended for public space has greater flatness and smaller overburden compared with an underground powerhouse or an underground oil storage facility. In the case underground cavern requiring high safety factor due to large flow of

Condition of stress and load Initial stress Initial stress Initial stress Initial stress and inertia force Seismic intensity is 0.65 (horizontal), 0.33 (vertical)

Time step (s)

Number of step 500 500 500 500

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.05

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Okamoto (Japan Underground Oil Storage Co., LTD), Professor N. Shimizu (Yamaguchi University), Mr A. Fukuhara (Electric Power Development Co., Ltd), Mr H. Chikahisa and Mr K. Kobayashi (Tobishima Corporation), Mr Y. Tateno (Oya Stone Museum), Japan Society of Civil Engineers and other persons for providing invaluable material for this paper. References
Chikahisa, H., Kobayashi, K., Matsumoto, K., Tsutsui, M., Ohnishi, Y., 1997. In: Ohnishi, Y. (Ed.), Proceedings of ICADD-2. The Second International Conference on Analysis of Discontinuous Deformation, Kyoto, Japan. Chikahisa, H., Kobayashi, K., Nakahara, H., Matsumoto, K., Tsutsui, M., Sakurai, S., 1999. Estimation of measurement results concerning deformation behavior of large-scale rock cavern used as underground museum in excavation. Proceedings of the International Congress on rock Mechanics, Paris. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 353356. Fukuhara, A., Hasegawa, M., 1995. An observational method for the excavation control of Kushikino underground crude oil storage caverns. International Workshop on Observational Method of Construction of Large Underground Caverns in Difficult Ground Conditions, International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Tokyo. pp. 8797. Goodman, R.E., Shi, G.H., 1985. Block Theory and its Application to Rock Engineering. Prentice-Hall. Horii, H., et al., 1999. Comparison of computational models for jointed rock mass through analysis of large-scale cavern excavation. Proceedings of the International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Paris. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 389393. Hoshino, K., 1993. Construction of underground caverns for petroleum storage in orogenic areas: geological study. Engineering Geol 35, 199205. Japan Society of Civil Engineers, 1996. Observational Construction Method for Large Scale Underground Cavern (in Japanese). Koyama, T., Nambu, S., 1998. Rock behavior of the Kazunogawa power cavern. Tunnels Tunnelling Int. October, 2224. Koyama, T., Nambu, S., Komatsuzaki, Y., 1997. Large hollow excavation at 500 m depth undergroundKazunogawa Underground Power House of Tokyo Electric Power (in Japanese). Tunnels Underground 28(1), 3745. Koyama, T., Kudoh, K., Nambu, S., Komatsuzaki, Y., 1999. Observational construction management for large underground cavern excavation. Proceedings of the International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Paris. Balkemapp, Rotterdam, pp. 403406. Kudoh, K., Koyama, T., Komatsuzaki, Y., 1999. Study for application of computerized construction management system technique to large underground cavern excavation (in Japanese). J. Jpn Soc. Civil Eng. 623(Division 6-43), 6983. Kudoh, K., Koyama, T., Nambu, S., Suzuki, Y., Ishibashi, K., 1999. Support design of a large underground cavern considering strainsoftening of rock. Proceedings of the International Congress on Rock Mechanics, Paris. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 407410. Londe, P., Vigier, G., Vormeringer, R., 1969. Stability of slopes graphical method. J. Soil Mech. Foundation Div. ASCE 95, 235262. Nakada, K., Chikahisa, H., Tsutsui, M., Sakurai, S., 1996. Structural design of underground art museum using a rock cavern with a shallow overburden in an active seismic area. ISRM News J. Fall, 1723.

Fig. 23. Results of DDA (displacement and deformation of the block in CH class).

indefinite number of people is excavated under unfavorable conditions, a highly advanced level of technology, as adopted in this cavern, is required. 6. Concluding remarks Construction of an underground cavern is comprised of five major factors: geological investigation, stability analysis, support design, excavation method, and redesign of rock support based on observational construction methods. These components should be integrated into the total system for the design and construction of underground caverns rather than being evaluated individually. Some major projects, including large-scale rock underground caverns in Japan were discussed above focussing on the observational construction method, respectively. The author is eager to mention that scholars and engineers in Japan have studied many unique and practical numerical models for cavern stability analysis, especially for jointed rock mass. These results have been reported in the international conference so far. A typical reference showing the status of study in Japan, Comparison of computational models for jointed rock mass through analysis of large-scale cavern excavation by Horii et al. presented at the ISRM congress in Paris, 1999 (Horii et al., 1999), should be recommended to help the readers to understand the outline of advanced numerical models for practical use. Acknowledgments The author is grateful to Mr H. Yoshikoshi and Mr Y. Hibino (Tokyo Electric Power Co., Inc.), Mr A.

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Sakurai, S., Shimizu, N., Fukuhara, A., Okamaoto, A., 1998. Application of back analysis for the observational construction of underground oil storage caverns (in Japanese). Soils and Foundations, 46-6(485). The Japanese Geotechnical Society, pp. 58. Seoka, T., Ohnishi, Y., Tezuka, M., Nishimura, T., 1997. New concept for observational construction of hard rock cavern. Proceedings of