DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT

Authors full name : NURHAFIZAH BINTI ZAKARIA

Date of birth : 8 APRIL 1985
Title : URBAN WASTEWATER DESIGN TOWARDS
EFFECTIVENESS MANAGEMENT
________________________________________________

Academic Session : 2009/2010 - II


I declare that this thesis is classified as :












I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:

1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the purpose of
research only.
3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.



Certified by :




SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR

850408-05-5090 Dr. Muhamad Ali Bin Muhammad Yuzir

(NEW IC NO. /PASSPORT NO.) NAME OF SUPERVISOR

Date : APRIL 2010 Date : APRIL 2010
NOTES : * If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from
the organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA


CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the Official Secret
Act 1972)*



RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by the
organization where research was done)*


OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online open access
(full text)










We hereby declare that we have read this project report and in our
opinion this project report is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the
award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering



Signature :
Name of Supervisor I : Dr. Muhamad Ali Bin Muhammad Yuzir
Date : 19 April 2010


Signature :
Name of Supervisor II : Dr. Mohd Fadhil Bin Md. Din
Date : 19 April 2010






URBAN WASTEWATER DESIGN TOWARDS EFFECTIVENESS MANAGEMENT




NURHAFIZAH BINTI ZAKARIA



A project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering



Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Technology Malaysia



APRIL 2010
ii








I declare that this project report entitled Urban Wastewater Design Towards
Effectiveness Management is the result of my own research except as cited
in the references. The project report has not been accepted for any degree and
is not currently submitted in candidature of any other degree.



Signature :
Name : Nurhafizah Binti Zakaria
Date : 19 April 2010






iii







Special for

To my beloved Father and Mother
En Hj Zakaria bin Hj kalam
Pn. Hjh Asmara Binti Othman

My beloved Sister and Brother,
Nur Baain Binti Hj Zakaria
Mohd Azizul Hakim Bin Hj Zakaria
Nurfarhana Binti Hj Zakaria








iv



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT




In the name of God, the most gracious, the most compassionate
I would like to thank and express my appreciation for the support that I received
throughout my studies from my supervisor, Dr Muhamad Ali Bin Muhammad Yuzir and
Dr. Mohd Fadhil Bin Mohd Din. With all the guidance, supervision and advice, this final
year project was able to complete in time. Thank you very much for the patience,
encouragement and understanding.

I also wish to express my heartfelt thanks to ayah, En Hj Zakaria and mak, Pn Hjh
Asmara for all the advice and full supports.

Finally, I also wish to express my gratitude to my friends, Mior Fazlan Bin Yusof Zaba,
Siti Nurasyikin Binti Abd. Aziz, Hamidah Binti Wahab, Puteri Gadis Iwana Binti Megat
Ab Rahman, and my entire classmate that have contributed through out my studies in
example discussing, commenting on different aspects of this work and always support
me when Im down. I also wish to Miss Fadzlin Md Sairan from Research Management
Centre and all those who have contributed in any way of making this thesis a possible
one.
May Allah bless us with Taufik and Hidayat. May ALLAH reward them for their all
kind and sincere helps.



v



ABSTRAK




Air sisa kumbahan bandar boleh dikenalpasti sebagai campuran dari air sisa domestik,
air sisa perindustrian dan air larian hujan. Kandungan organik yang terdapat di dalam air
sisa tersebut akan menghasilkan eutrofikasi dan memberi impak yang besar kepada
rantaian tropikal. Loji air sisa kumbahan bandar dibina bagi mengurangkan kandungan
dan kepekatan bahan organik tersebut dan juga fecal bacteria. Kajian ini adalah
berkaitan merekabentuk loji rawatan kumbahan yang baru dan keberkesanan sistem
rawatan kumbahan yang dicadangkan bagi kawasan Melana. Ini kerana, kemajuan
pembangunan dan pertambahan populasi di kawasan tadahan dijangka sebanyak 2.6%
berdasarkan kepada populasi dan kadar pertumbuhan yang semakin meningkat,
pembandaran dan perindustrian di kawasan Melana. Ini akan memberikan kesan kepada
sistem rawatan yang sedia ada di kawasan Melana. Sesetengah rawatan yang sedia ada
telah mencapai kapasiti rekabentuk dan melebihi populasi rekabentuk yang maksimum.
Terdapat beberapa Loji Rawatan Air sisa di kawasan Melana yang telah dikenalpasti
sebagai masalah besar yang mungkin disebabkan oleh kelemahan rekabentuk dan
kegagalan operasi yang kerap. Berdasarkan kepada jangkaan masa depan bagi 30 tahun
akan datang, tiada loji rawatan yang boleh menampung jumlah kadar influen loji-loji
tersebut yang semakin meningkat. Oleh itu, kualiti efluen yang dihasilkan dari loji
rawatan air sisa yang dicadangkan akan memenuhi kehendak Piawai A. Rekabentuk
yang dicadangkan ini adalah untuk memastikan kualiti air sisa kumbahan pada masa
akan datang mencapai standard yang ditetapkan. Jika tiada pembaharuan atau
penambahbaikan dalam sistem rawatan air sisa ini, loji rawatan air sisa yang sedia ada
tidak dapat memberikan prestasi yang dikehendaki dan ini boleh membawa kepada
pencemaran air di Sungai Melana.


vi



ABSTRACT




Urban wastewater can be described as a mixture of domestic, industrial wastewater and
run-off rain water. Increasing organic loads frequently overcome oxygen availability
generated eutrophication and strongly impacted the tropic chain. Urban wastewater
treatment plant have been built to reduce those loads and the concentrations of organic
matter and fecal bacteria and in some cases the concentration of the tropic activity
limiting nutrient (nutrient or nitrogen). This paper presents the designs of new treatment
plants and the effectiveness of the proposed treatment system in Melana catchment.
Melana catchment area will cause higher impact in population growth based on rapid
development. The predicted population in Johor State is accumulated at a growth rate of
2.6% due to increasing the population and growth rate, urbanization and industrialization
within Melana Cathment. Some of the existing treatments are have reach the design
capacity and exceeding the maximum design population equivalent. There are several
Sewerage Treatment Plants (STPs) that have been identified in the Melana catchment
which currently contributed to as a major problem probably due to design weaknesses
and frequent operational failures. Based on future prediction for next 30 years, no
existing treatment plants can accommodate the increasing value of influent rates that
enter the plants. Therefore, the quality of effluent discharge from the proposed treatment
plant must comply with Standard A. If there is no upgrading or improvement in the
treatment system, it is anticipate the existing STPs will not comply the existing standard
thus pollution may happened in future.




vii



TABLE OF CONTENT




CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION ii
DECICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRAK v
ABSTRACT vi
TABLE OF CONTENT vii
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF EQUATIONS xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xiv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvii

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem statements 2
1.3 Objectives 4
1.4 Scope of the study 5
1.5 Significance of the study 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Background of the Study 7
viii

2.3 Site Selection of new treatment plant 9
2.3.1 Location or Land use 9
2.3.2 Area requirements 9
2.3.3 Elevation and Topography 10
2.3.4 Transportation and Site Access 10
2.3.5 Utility Services 11
2.4 Basic Design Consideration for Treatment Plant 11
2.4.1 Design Population 12
2.4.2 Estimating future Service Demand 12
2.5 Upgrading Existing Sewage Treatment Plant 13
2.6 Existing Sewage Treatment Plant 14
2.7 Proposed New Treatment Plants 17
2.7.1 Contact Stabilization with Pho-Strip 17
2.7.2 Orbal

system 18
2.7.3 Membrane Bioreactor 20
2.3.4 Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic 22
2.3.5 Sequencing Batch Reactor 23


3 METHODOLOGY 27
3.1 Research design and Procedure 27
3.2 Methodology Review 28
3.3 Data Collection 29
3.3.1 Preliminary Investigation 29
3.3.2 Secondary Data 29
3.4 Location of STP 29
3.5 Method of Analysis 30
3.5.1 Mass Balance Method. 30
3.5.2 Design Calculation 32
3.5.2.1 Population Equivalent 32
3.5.2.2 Contact Stabilization with PhoStrip 32
3.5.2.3 Orbal System 35
ix

3.4.2.3 A
2
/O (Aerobic, Anoxic, Anaerobic) 37
3.4.2.4 Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) 39

4 ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Development of New Wastewater Treatment Plant 42
Scheme for Each Zone
4.2.1 Zone 1 (Contact Stabilization with Phostrip) 42
4.2.2 Zone 2 (Orbal

system) 49
4.2.3 Zone 3 (Orbal

System) 54
4.2.4 Zone 4 (Membrane Bioreactor) 57
4.2.5 Zone 5 (Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic) 63
4.2.6 Zone 6 (Sequencing Batch Reactor) 66
4.3 Effectiveness of the Proposed Treatment Plant 69

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 70
5.1 Introduction 70
5.2 Recommendation 71

6 RERERENCES 72
7 APPENDICES 74






x


LIST OF FIGURES




NO. TITLE PAGE

1.1 Melana catchment 4
2.1 Residential Area within Melana catchment 8
2.2 Distribution of existing wastewater treatment plants 16
randomly at Melana catchment
2.3 Flow diagram for combination of Contact Stabilization 18
and PhoStrip processes
2.4 Flow diagram of Orbal system for nitrogen removal 19
2.5 Example of an Orbal system. 20
2.6 Flow diagram of CAS and MBR 21
2.7 Flow diagram of A
2
/O process 23
2.8 Flow diagram of the processes in SBR system 25
3.1 Flow chart of methodology review 28
3.2 Distribution of existing Treatment Plants randomly 31
at Melana Catchment
4.1 Proposed new STP and sewerage system for Zone 1 45
4.2 Proposed new STP and sewerage system for Zone 2 51
and Zone 3
4.3 Proposed new STP and sewerage system for Zone 4 57
4.4 Proposed new STP and sewerage system for Zone 5 63
4.5 Proposed new STP and sewerage system for Zone 6 67




xi


LIST OF TABLES




NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Capacity factor 12
2.2 Factor resulting in wastewater upgrades 13
2.3 Existing Treatment Plants within Melana Catchment. 14
2.4 Phase of SBR. 26
3.1 Proposed new STP 30
4.1 Location of new treatment plant based on zone 43
4.2 Location Based on PE for existing and future prediction 44
4.3 Population Equivalent (PE) and flow rate of STPs 46
in Zone1
4.4 Population Equivalent (PE) and flow rate of STPs 50
in Zone 2
4.5 Population Equivalent (PE) and flow rate of STPs 55
in Zone 3
4.6 Population Equivalent (PE) and flow rate of STPs 58
in Zone 4
4.7 Population Equivalent (PE) and flow rate of STPs 64
in Zone 5
4.8 Population Equivalent (PE) and flow rate of STPs 67
in Zone 6
4.9 Prediction effluent analysis after the implement the 69
proposed treatment



xii



LIST OF EQUATIONS




EQUATION TITLE PAGE

1 Mass balance method 30
2 Volume 33
3 Detention time 33
4 Volumetric Organic loading 33
5 Oxygen requirement for contact stabilization 33
6 Oxygen transfer rate 34
7 Air flow rate 34
8 Number of diffuser 34
9 Surface flow rate 34
10 Recycle ratio 34
11 Solid loading rate 34
12 Growth rate nitrifying 34
13 Substrate utilization factor 35
14 Detention time for nitrification 35
15 Detention time for denitrification 35
16 Orbal size 36
17 Rotor power 36
18 Dimension tank for Orbal system 36
19 Final settling tank 37
20 Return sludge 37
21 Excess sludge holding tank 37
22 Reactor volume 38
23 Quality of waste activated sludge 38
24 Hydraulic retention time 38
xiii

25 Food to microorganism ratio (F/M) 38
26 Organic loading 38
27 Oxygen requirement for A
2
O 39
28 Daily accumulation of VSS 39
29 Duration of storage for accumulated sludge 40
30 Storage for accumulated sludge 40
31 Total volume of tank required excluding freeboard 40
32 Diameter of tank 40
33 Volume of tank required including freeboard 40
34 Total of recycle time 40
35 Oxygen required for SBR 40
















xiv




LIST OF SYMBOLS




A
2
O Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic System
AOTR Actual Oxygen Transfer Rate
BOD
5
Biological Oxygen Demand
C Concentration
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
C
sth
Oxygen saturation concentration
D Depth
D
dn
Detention for denitrification
DO Dissolved Oxygen
D
tn
Detention for nitrification
D
tn+dn
Detention for nitrification and denitrification
F/M Food to Microorganism ratio
HLR Hydraulic Loading Rate
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
IT Imhoff Tank
ITPS Imhoff Tank with pump system
K Substrate concentration
xv

K
d
Endogenous decay rate constant
L
org
Volumetric organic loading
MBR Membrane Bioreactor
MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
MLVSS Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids
NH
3
-N Ammonia Nitrogen
NO
3
-N Nitrate nitrogen
O
2
Oxygen
ODPS Oxidation Ditch with pump station
OP Oxidation Pond
OPPS Oxidation Pond with pump station
OR
design
Surface overflow rate
Org-N Organic Nitrogen
P Phosphorus
P
d
Pressure at depth
PE Population Equivalent
P
x
Biomass production rate
Q Flow rate
R, Recycle ratio
RAS Return Activated Sludge
R
dnt
Overall denitrification rate
xvi

SBR Sequencing Batch Reactor
SF Safety Factor
SLR Solid Loading Rate
S
o
,S Soluble food concentration in the influent and reactor,
respectively kg/m
3

SOTR Standard Oxygen Transfer Rate
SRT Solid Retention Time
STP Sewerage Treatment Plant
T Temperature
TSS Total Suspended Solid
u Substrate utilization factor
V Volume
X Mixed liquor volatile suspended solid
X
u
Underflow concentration
Y
obs
Observed Yield
Salinity surface tension correction factor
Hydraulic detention time
c Mean cell residence time

c
, Sludge age or mean cell residence time



xvii



LIST OF APPENDICES




APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Predicted of Population Equivalent in 2037 74
B Calculation for Decay Rate (kCV) 75
C Predicted of Effluent Concentration Discharge from 77
Existing STP in 2039
D Estimation of Result after implementation of proposed 79
treatment plant













1



CHAPTER 1




INTRODUCTION




1.1 Introduction


Water is used in urban areas mostly as a means for transporting solid and dissolved
waste from all the anthropogenic activities with special emphasis for domestic and
industrial sources. Organic matter and fecal bacteria are major components of urban
wastewater although the specific composition depends on the relatives domestic and
industrial contributions (Neves, 2008). Urban wastewater can be described as a mixture
of domestic and industrial wastewater and run-off rain water. The level of treatment
wastewaters depends on the size of population served.

Managing urban wastewater was synonymous of managing the sewer system and
deciding on the location of the point where sewage was discharges in the receiving
water. Urban wastewater also means managing the loads discharges in the receiving
water. The increasing organic loads frequently overcome oxygen availability generated
eutrophication and strongly impacted the tropic chain. Urban wastewater treatment plant
have been built for reducing those loads and the concentrations of organic matter and
fecal bacteria and in some cases the concentration of the tropic activity limiting nutrient
(nutrient or nitrogen).

In Johor, Melana River is one of the rivers that is expected to face environmental
problem in the future especially in water quality aspect. Melana catchment consist of

2

three main tributaries; Skudai River, Kempas River and Danga River. Melana
catchment lies approximately between 1 30 N to 1 35N and 103 35 E to 103 45E
and the catchment covers an area of 21.12 km
2
. The length of the Melana River is 13.5
km which starts from the foothill of Gunung Pulai in the North until reaching to Skudai
River at Bandar Uda Utama residential area. About 18.3 % of Melana catchment
consists of residential area such as Taman Mutiara Rini, Taman Universiti, Taman Pulai
Flora, Taman Pulai Jaya, Taman Teratai, Taman Ungku Tun Aminah (TUTA), Bandar
Uda Utama and some of the area between Melana catchment.

Skudai River is used purposely as water intake for raw water supply by Singapore Public
Utilities Board (PUB). About 60% of treated water from Skudai River is being supplied
for Johor Bahru residential areas and 40% is used by Singapore (Fadzlin et.al, 2005).

Nowadays, urban land use in upper part and lower part of the Melana catchment are
expanding rapidly due to the fast development. According to the Report Population and
Housing Census 2000, total population equivalent around the Melana River is recorded
as 235,530 and will increase to 510,745 in next 30 years. Based on Johor Bahru Tengah
Municipal Council (MPJBT) expectation, more than 60% of the area is to be developed
mainly for residential area by 2010. Only on the North West and South of the Melana
River catchment is still forested to preserve as the water catchment.




1.2 Problem statements


Based on literature from previous report, the Melana River catchment area will cause the
higher impact of population growth based on rapid development. The predicted
population in Johor State is accumulated at a growth rate of 2.6 % due to increasing the
population and growth rate, urbanization and industrialization within Melana Cathment.
3

According to the demographic development plan for Melana catchment, the area is
expected to be an intensive development residential, industrial and commercial area
(Johor Bahru Tengah Municipal Council, MPJBT). It will also increase the pollution
load to the Melana River.

Based on IWRM case study report Malaysia, the existing water quality of Melana River
can be categorized as moderate pollution, within class III to IV. There are several
Sewerage Treatment Plant (STPs) identified in the Melana catchment which currently
determine as a major problem probably due to design weaknesses and frequent
operational failures. The effluents of STPs are discharge either directly or indirectly to
Melana catchment and the effluent discharge currently did not comply with the standard
limit, which is standard B (EQA 1974).

Meanwhile, some of the existing sewer network and treatment are already reach the
design capacity and exceeding the maximum design population equivalent. Based on
future prediction for next 30 years, no existing treatment plants can accommodate the
increasing value of influent rates that enter the plants. This will affect the quality
standard of effluent that will discharge to Melana River (Nor, 2009). The impact was
huge and critical for further development. If there is no improvement of existing sewage
treatment system, the possibility of Melana River to achieve Class IV is possible and
will affect the quality standard of effluent that will discharges to Melana River.





4













1.3 Objectives


Objective of the study:
The objectives of the study are:
a) To obtain the data for existing STP such as location, population
equivalent, and water quality from IWK, MPJBT and local authority.

b) To propose the suitable design for future sewage treatment plants towards
standard equivalent to sewerage treatment plant and river water quality in
the Melana catchment.

c) To determine the effectiveness of design for wastewater treatment plant
in the predicted population equivalent in the area.



Figure 1.1 : Melana catchment.
Melana Catchment
Area
5

1.4 Scope of the study


The study will focus on technical advisor for the proposed new treatment plant in
Melana catchment based on suitable design for future sewage treatment plants towards
standard equivalent to sewerage treatment plant and river water quality in the Melana
catchment. The observation consist of design and typical physical of wastewater
treatment plants including the equipment such as pump, blower (aerator), filter and
others. The design of the treatment plant will refer to the various factors such as
consumer demand, technology expertise, accessibility to each treatment plant and
location of treatment plant.




1.5 Significance of the study


There are several STPs identified in the Melana catchment which currently determine as
a major problem probably due to design weaknesses and frequent operational failures.
There is an urgent need to improve the STPs in Melana catchment prior to discharge at
Melana River. A design must be employed since major contribution of river water
pollutant comes from STPs. The design will consider the population in the study area
and possibility of upgrading the existing wastewater treatment plant using advance
nutrient removal for water quality improvement.








6



CHAPTER II




LITERATURE REVIEW




2.1 Introduction


Urban wastewater management is based on domestic or municipal wastewater. Urban
wastewater treatment is designed to ensure that sewage collection systems are
established for domestic and industrial wastewater and that this wastewater receives
appropriate treatment to reduce its environment impact before being released into the
river.

Along the Melana catchment, most industrial activities is plastic manufacturing as a
major industries followed by food production, and iron and steel manufacturing. Most of
them were disposing off their wastewater directly to the Melana River. The wastewater
is mainly discharged into Melana River without treatment resulting in polluted of the
river. The wastewater from the sources contain the hazardous and pathogens that can
contribute hazardous diseases to human and living creatures.

According to the Population Distribution and Basic Demographic Characteristic Report
Population and Housing Census 2000, the total population equivalent around Melana
River is recorded as 235,530 and will increase to 510,745 in next 30 years. The
population and housing census carried out in Johor State in 2000 analyzed the predicted
population is accumulated at a growth rate of 2.6 %. As the residential settlement
increase, the pollution load to the Melana River also will increase. As the expanding of
population growth, management for sanitation and point source effluent should be

7

tackled aggressively. An effective management of both industry and domestic
wastewater are recommended to be implementing in order to reduce the levels of
pollution in Melana River.




2.2 Background of the Study


This under study project is located within Melana River catchment area and focus on the
improvement of existing wastewater treatment plants within the Melana catchment. It is
because all the effluent discharge from existing treatment plants will channel out to
Melana River. If there is no improvement were made on the existing treatment system,
pollution may occur.

The biggest challenge in Melana catchment will be the increasing population growth due
to the rapid development in this area. Increasing population growth will make the
influent rate to enter the treatment plants thus can exceed the design limits and
effectiveness of the existing treatment plant to produced expected standard of effluent.
In order to improve the water quality in Melana catchment, the installation of proposed
new treatment plants can reduce the level of pollution in Melana catchment. Therefore,
the proposed new treatment plants are based on the context of design and effectiveness
of the design in the predicted population equivalent in the area.




8
















Figure 2.1: Residential Area within Melana catchment.
Legend:

Catchment
boundary

Melana
River
8


9

2.3 Site Selection of new treatment plant


A new site for a wastewater treatment plant is one that can develop economically
without unnecessarily stressing the environment. Although numerous considerations,
such as social and environmental factors, cost effectiveness, design and construction
requirements can be quantified when choosing among potential sites. (Vesilind, 1999)




2.3.1 Location or Land use


A determination of the effects of a wastewater treatment plant on the surrounding land in
the area should consider zoning regulations, impacts on adjacent property values, and
compatibility with activities on neighbouring properties. Generally, constructing a plant
in a residence neighbourhood, measures should be taken to ensure the plant is a good
neighbour during both construction and operation. Such measures include minimizing
noise, odors, aerosols, air particulates, chemical hazards, insects, and intrusive lighting.
Attractive architecture and landscaping and proper consideration of prevailing winds
help make wastewater treatment plants more acceptable neighbours.




2.3.2 Area requirements


A site should accommodate present and anticipated future requirements. As
growth occurs in the service area and treatment requirements increase, the plant will
likely require additional space. The potential for such demands should be considered
when selecting a site.



10

The area required for a plant of a particular capacity depends on the following
consideration; degree of treatment required, processes to be used, and space required for
access, circulation, and maintenance. Space requirement for maintenance,
administration, storage, and staff services influence total space requirements.




2.3.3 Elevation and Topography


A low lying site eases the flow of wastewater from the service area by gravity
and minimizes the number of pumping stations in the collection system. However, such
a site may also require flood protection. Constructing the tops of process tanks, buildings
and pipe gallery entrance and building finished floor elevations above the expected high
water levels also provided flood protection. This method can be costly and may actually
negate the advantages of selecting a low lying site (Qasim, 1999).




2.3.4 Transportation and Site Access


It is important that a wastewater treatment plant site be accessible to personnel
and delivery persons at all times. Access roads that have the same degree of flood
protection as the treatment plant ensure the safe ingress of operating personnel. Plants
located close to all weather highways facilitate the delivery of equipment and chemicals
and off-site disposal of grit, screening, and sludge. Access to fire and other emergency
vehicles must be available.