TITLE

ENERGY UTILIZATION AND SOLAR

ENERGY OPTION FOR MAKERERE
UNIVERSITY HALLS

GROUP MEMBERS:

---------------------------

Applied Energy Technology Project Course, Final

Report

ABSTRACT
Makerere University is faced with several energy challenges ranging from deficiency,
high costs, unreliability and poor quality of energy services. The steadily rising
energy costs amidst reducing remittance to the university from government have
created urgency to reduce expenditure on energy. Therefore, there is need to seek
for measures to reduce the energy consumption through energy efficiency
interventions and to explore the potentiality of solar energy utilisation.

This study was carried out to assess the energy utilisation in Makerere university
halls and to design a supplementary solar energy system; it was limited to Mitchell
hall.

The engineering stock approach was used to obtain the estimated energy
consumption of each hall section; this provided the input to the solar thermal and PV
designs.

i
The annual electricity consumption for Mitchell hall was found to be 125605.4kWh.
Introduction of energy efficiency interventions has brought an electricity consumption
reduction of 4.7% since 2007 but electricity tariffs have doubled since 2005.

• The research shows that substituting 40% of the annual electric energy
consumption with solar energy leads to a saving of …………kWh per year.
• Energy efficiency measures are not studied anywhere not the theory but
implementation is nowhere??????????
• Adopting energy saving stoves can save the hall about …. and the
environment. The payback period of the supplement system at what rates

Key words: energy efficiency, energy management, solar energy, domestic energy
consumption.

ii
ACRONYMS

CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons

kW Kilowatt

kWh kilowatt hour

LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas

MEMD Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development

NEMA National Environmental Management Authority

PV Photo Voltaic

REP Resource Efficiency Program

SWH Solar Water Heater

UShs Uganda Shillings

W Watts

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................i
ACRONYMS ...........................................................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................................................................iv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................5
1.1 Background .....................................................................................................................5
1.2 Problem Statement and Justification................................................................................5
1.3 Main Objectives...............................................................................................................6
1.3.1 Specific Objectives....................................................................................................6
1.4 Scope................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY......................................................................................7
2.0 Introduction......................................................................................................................7
2.1 Problem Identification......................................................................................................7
2.2 Study Visits.......................................................................................................................7
2.3 Literature Review.............................................................................................................7
2.4 Data Collection.................................................................................................................7
2.4.1 Students’ Rooms........................................................................................................8
2.4.2 Businesses.................................................................................................................8
2.4.3 Kitchen Section.........................................................................................................8
2.4.4 Outdoor, Corridor and Toilet Facilities.....................................................................8
2.4.5 Electric Bills..............................................................................................................8
2.5 Estimating Energy Consumption......................................................................................9
2.6 Design of Solar Water Heating System............................................................................9
2.6.2 Sizing the Heat Accumulator for Block B...............................................................10
2.6.4 Calculation of Time for Heating the Water.............................................................13
2.6.5 Sizing the Heat Exchanger for Block B..................................................................14
2.6.6 Circulation Pump and Pipe System.........................................................................14
2.7 Design of Solar PV System for Block B........................................................................16
2.7.1 Electric Energy Demand.........................................................................................16
2.7.2 Module Selection.....................................................................................................16
2.7.3 Battery Sizing..........................................................................................................16
2.8 Economic analysis..........................................................................................................19
2.9 Results Report ...............................................................................................................19
2.10 Constraints ...................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS...............................................................................................20
3.1 Energy Supply and Consumption...................................................................................20
3.1.1 Biomass energy.......................................................................................................20
3.1.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG).............................................................................21
3.1.3 Electricity consumption...........................................................................................22
3.2 Proposed Supplementary Solar System .........................................................................25
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS....................................................................................29
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................31
REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................31
APPENDIX..............................................................................................................................33

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Makerere University is Uganda's premier institution of higher learning and is ranked

among the largest in East and Central Africa. It has a student population of 33,488
registered students (31,826 Undergraduates and 1,626 Postgraduates) as of July
2007. The main campus is located about 5km to the north of the city centre on
Makerere hill; one of the seven hills on which Kampala, the capital city of Uganda is
built. The campus has an area of 300 acres (two square kilometres)
http://www.ugandatourism.org/Makerere%20University.php).

The University is one of the “big” consumers of energy in Uganda and is therefore,
faced with several energy challenges; the energy use is increasing steadily and so
are the energy bills. The university electric needs include from lighting, space
conditioning, maintaining laboratories and machinery, entertainment, and water
heating among others. Also the because of lack of enough electricity to satisfy
demand the utility company does periodic load shedding, to cope with load shedding,
some faculties and administrative offices in the university have back up diesel
thermal generators. However, the fuels cost are also ever increasing.

The government in association with electricity utility company are consistently

increasing the cost of electric energy to encourage energy efficiency so as to be able
to increase the rate of electrification of rural areas and places with the urban poor.

Currently, the university administration is seeking for measures to reduce the

expenditure on energy as the cost of energy is rising yet the university budget is
getting constrained due to reduction in revenues received from the government. The
central government decided to gradually reduce funding of public universities’
activities and/or services to be able to fund basic education as a way of to
decreasing illiteracy.

1.2 Problem Statement and Justification

There is a rising concern over energy consumption in Makerere University students’

hall of residence; this is mainly because of heavy monthly energy bills the university
receives. In an effort to save the situation, in 2007, the university administrators
proposed a plan to limit on the number of appliances used by students in halls of
residence, this move was however futile due to resistance from the students and the
students’ leadership.

There is a need to look at the energy utilization of the University halls to find out the
extent to which energy efficiency interventions can save electricity bills and to
investigate the cost of introducing solar energy as a supplementary energy supply.
This is in line with the government’s plans of reducing power deficits through energy
efficiency and exploitation of renewable energy sources.

It is hoped, that this project will offer valuable options to stakeholders in higher
institutions of learning to consider efficient use of energy use in students’ residences.

5
The design of a solar thermal and PV system was chosen due to the high potential
for solar energy which can be harnessed.

1.3 Main Objectives

• To assess the energy utilization in Makerere University Halls and to design a

supplementary solar energy system.

1.3.1 Specific Objectives

• To determine the annual electricity consumption in Mitchell Hall

• To determine the annual energy consumption capita for cooking
• To assess the energy efficient options that can be introduced
• To design a supplementary solar energy system

1.4 Scope

The study was limited to Mitchell hall one of the ten halls of residence at Makerere
University, it was thought that all the halls have similar energy usage patterns and
therefore one would representative of the others.

6
 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY

2.0 Introduction

This chapter presents the methods and materials that were adopted in order to
achieve the objectives of the study. It also details on how and why the different data
collection methods were applied and how the data collected was utilized.

2.1 Problem Identification

The problem was identified from the idea of the course lecture on how to contribute
to the one’s campus energy system, after a background study the group brain
stormed on the several topics and the most appropriate one was chosen through
discussion. It was agreed on that the problem be broken down into tasks and
everyone was given several tasks to accomplish, some tasks were assigned to more
than one person.

2.2 Study Visits

Several study visits were made to obtain information regarding the extent of the
problem and to collect data that would aid in the solving of the problem. All the ten
halls of residence were visited and walk through energy audits were done on two
halls, Mitchell hall and Africa Hall.

The administrative offices were visited to obtain authority to carry out the study and
for the accounts department was visited to obtain information on the energy costs
the university halls incur.

Other places visited included the Umeme Head Offices (Uganda’s electricity utility
company), the Ministry Of Energy And Mineral Development and businesses sell
electrical appliances.

2.3 Literature Review

Literature search was made regarding energy management in institutions in Uganda

and elsewhere. This was done to find out what has been done by earlier studies and
to discover gaps that need to be addressed. Several materials were consulted these
included text books, journals, lecture notes and the internet. The Internet was served
as an important source of information especially on accessing several journals on
energy.

2.4 Data Collection

Data collection was carried out through study visits. Mitchell hall was focused on
during the study to represent all the other halls of residence as it was thought that all
the halls have the same pattern of energy utilisation.

7
Data collection techniques applied depending on the section visited included
observations, interviews, and administering questionnaires to students, business
owners and Hall officials.

2.4.1 Students’ Rooms

All the six blocks of the halls were visited and samples of 3 out of 4 rooms on each
block were taken for the study. The students occupying these rooms were asked
about the appliances they have and their power ratings were checked and recorded.

2.4.2 Businesses

All the business owners were contacted and the same procedure as that of the
students’ rooms was carried out, the businesses include secretarial bureaus, hair
salons, laundry services and canteens.

2.4.3 Kitchen Section

This is the major sole consumer of energy in the hall. A separate questionnaire was
prepared and several kitchen officials were interviewed about the energy situation in
the kitchen. The kitchen energy consumption records were also reviewed and
summarised.

2.4.4 Outdoor, Corridor and Toilet Facilities

In these areas, walk through audits were carried out and the residents who occupy
places near each appliance were asked on how long these appliances are on in a
day.

2.4.5 Electric Bills

The electricity consumption data was collected from the UMEME Head Offices in
Kampala. The records for the different halls of residence were reviewed and
summarised.

8
2.5 Estimating Energy Consumption

The engineering stock approach was used to estimate the energy consumption for
the different section of the hall. Using this approach, the consumption is estimated
based on an aggregation of “predicted” consumption of the electricity by equipment
and the multiple energy consumptions which are then linearly added (Baringanire, P.
2007).

2.6 Design of Solar Water Heating System

The procedure for the design of the solar water system is given below and the
assumptions taken are considered. The
The mean radiation intensity on in Makerere is 5.6kWh/m2/day, and an average of 8
sunshine hours per day throughout the year.

The presented is the Design of Solar water heating System for Block B, this was the
same procedure followed for all the other blocks.

2.6.1 The Solar Collector

Currently, there are 8 electric water heaters on Block B, each with a power rating of
3000W and is in use for about 4 hours daily. Energy consumed by the water heaters
is about 35,040kWh/yr and can be substituted by a solar collector system of
equivalent annual energy output. The solar collector is therefore selected by
considering this energy demand.

Solar Collector Model Selected

Model AE-40
Manufacturer Alternate Energy Technologies, LLC
Glazing type Glass
Absorber material Copper tubes and fins
Gross area 3.7 m2
Rating 420 W
(Source: Florida Solar Energy Centre (FSEC), University of Central Florida)

The solar collector model selected has the absorber material made of copper tubes
fins. A double glass cover was chosen because it increases the collection efficiency
at high temperatures by preventing heat loss by convection and conduction to the
environment. It is mostly applicable for temperatures above 700C because it slightly
more expensive than single glazing. Also the efficiency of the solar collector system
at low temperatures is reduced because of the added absorption and reflection of the
cover.

2.6.1.1 Determining the Number of Modules Required

Module rating = 420 W
Total energy generated per day = Module rating (W) x Sunshine hours/day
= 420 x 8
= 3.360 kWh/day/module
Total energy generated per year = 3.360 kWh/day/module x 365 days/year
= 1226.4 kWh/year/module

9
But the Energy demand is 35,040kWh/year, therefore, the Number of modules
required is = 35,040kWh/year = 28.6 modules
1226.4 kWh/year/module

Therefore 29 modules will be considered

The modules will be connected in parallel because:

• With parallel connection there is a high potential of achieving enhanced
efficiency in tandem solar cells.
• Also, the system can remain in operation when one module fails; this is due to
different current contribution for each module and the voltage is unaltered.

2.6.1.2 Collector Orientation

This angle is mainly dependent on the location, i.e. the latitude angle; this is the
angle at which the collector would be oriented so as to maximize solar energy
absorption. Makerere University is located along Latitude 0° 19' 60N, therefore, the
collector should face south at an angle of 0° 20'. Slight changes in the orientation
may be considered during installation.

2.6.1.3 Estimating the Collector Efficiency

The following parameters were assumed to estimate the solar collector efficiency:
• Absorbance ‘a’ = 0.9
• Transmittance ‘t’ = 0.9
• Overall heat loss coefficient ‘Uloss’ = 8 W/m2K
• Temperature Difference between working fluid and surrounding = 40K

Since the Radiation intensity = 5.6kWh/m2/day, then Insolation ‘I’ can be determined.
I= 5600 Wh/m2/day = 700 W/m2
8 h/day

to determine the efficiency of the collector we use

Puse (T pm − Ta )
η= = at −U loss
IA I

η= 35.3%
the solar collector efficiency will be 35.3%

2.6.2 Sizing the Heat Accumulator for Block B

2.6.2.1 Need for energy storage

Energy storage is employed in solar thermal energy systems to shift excess energy
produced during times of high solar availability to times of low solar availability; like
at night when there is no sunlight and/or during periods of low irradiation such as
cloudy days. Therefore, it is always a necessity to store energy using heat
accumulators in solar thermal energy systems. Attributes used to determine a good
energy storage system:
• The storage system should have competitive energy costs

10
 • The system should be safe to work with, and have minimal hazards
• It should be flexible and be used from any location around the world
• It should have limited or no negative environmental impacts like pollution
• The system should also be feasible, basing on the current technology
• The system should store the energy in a form that is readily available and
easily convertible to usable forms when required.

2.6.2.2 Sizing the Hot Water Storage Tank

Assumptions used in sizing the accumulator:
• There are 112 people on block B assuming they with per capita consumption
of 50 litres/day of hot water.
• A scaling factor of 1.1 was assumed to cater for any additional hot water
demand.
• Water temperature in the tank was assumed to be 700C and a minimum
allowable temperature of 300C.
• 50 litres of tank size per square meter of collector area was considered and
this was based on a solar fraction of 50%.
• A cylindrical tank with height of 2m was considered.

Total hot water demand = 1.1 * (112 * 50 litres/day)

= 6160 litres/day
Required collector area = 6160 litres/day
50 litres/m2

= 123 m2
2
Using V = πr h
Where V = Daily hot water demand = 6.16 m3
r = Radius of tank
h = Height of tank = 2 m
r = 0.99m ≈ 1m
Therefore, inside Diameter of the tank = 2 m

11
2.6.2.3 Estimation Heat Insulation Required
The accumulator will be made of stainless steel and insulated with fibre glass on the
outside because fibreglass has the following advantages:
• It is resistant to water absorption
• has low thermal conductivity
• has a high ratio of surface area to weight
• and is non combustible and this limits threats of fire if installed properly

Assumptions used:
• Thermal conductivity (k) = 0.05 W/m/K (from tables)
• Thickness of insulation ∆x = 120 mm
• Almost the whole outside cylindrical surface area of tank to be insulated so as
to minimize losses (neglecting area taken up by pipe inlets and outlets)
• Temperature inside the tank (Ti) to be = 700C and daily ambient temperature
(Ta) to be 250C

Using Fourier’s law of conduction

Q = -k A ∆T/∆x [W]
∆T = Ti – Ta= 70 – 25 = 450C
∆x = 0.12 m
K = 0.05 W/m/K
A = 2πr2 + 2πrh (surface area of the cylindrical tank)
h = 2 m, r = 1 m and hence A = 18.8496 m2
Therefore, Q = 353.43 W

Heat loss for the design is 354W and since it is less than 10% of the demand, it can
be tolerated.

12
2.6.4 Calculation of Time for Heating the Water

Assumptions used
• Water flow rate of 1 litre per m2 solar collector per minute

• Initial water temperature being 300C and final water temperature being 700C;
rise in water temperature, ∆T = 70 - 30 = 40K

Collector area = 123 m2.

Total flow rate = 123 litres/minute = 2.05*10-3 m3/s
Density of water = 1000kg/m3
Mass flow rate = 2.05 kg/s

Using Puse = m cp ∆T
Where m = mass flow rate of water = 2.05 kg/s
cp = specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 kJ/kgK

Puse = 342.76 kW

The following formula was used in estimating the time required to heat the water
from 300C to 700C:
∆t
( mc p ) s [ Puse − Ls − (UA) s ( Ts − Ta ) ]
+
Ts = Ts +

Where
+
T s
= Final water temperature = 70˚C
T s= Initial water temperature = 30˚C
Δt = time for heating the water from 300C to 700C, seconds
m = mass of water in the tank = 1000kg/m3*6.16m3 = 6160kg
Cp = specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 kJ/kgK
Puse = 342.76 kW
Ls = load of the tank (W), assumed to be zero
U = heat loss coefficient assumed to be 8 W/m2K
A = surface area of the tank = 18.8496 m2
Ta = ambient temperature = 25˚C

Therefore ∆t 3011.50s = 50.19 minutes

13
2.6.5 Sizing the Heat Exchanger for Block B

Heat Exchanger Area

Using Q = U A ∆Tln ,
Where Q = Useful heat = 342.76 kW
A = Heat exchanger area (m2)
∆Tln = Logarithmic mean temperature difference assumed to be 50C
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient. U for liquids inside and outside the
tubes is in the range 150-1200W/m2K. U was assumed to be 1000 W/m2K.

Therefore, the heat exchanger area A = 68.552 m2

A counter flow heat exchanger was chosen since it ensures a better heat exchange
between the two liquids.

2.6.6 Circulation Pump and Pipe System

Assumptions used
• Smooth Copper pipes with inside diameter di =35.9 mm and outside diameter
do = 42.4 mm from the available standard sizes on market, overall pipe length
to be 100 m
• 8 valves and 16 bends of 90º were considered
• Considering screwed pipe fittings and gate valves to be used then loss
coefficients are 0.19 and 1.2 for the valve and bend respectively (from table)
• Density of water = 1000kg/m3
• Kinematic Viscosity of water ϑ = 5.9*10-7 m2/s
• Volumetric flow rate of the pump V = 1 m3/h
d ⋅ν
Using Re = i and ν = V A
ϑ
Where A = Cross sectional area of the pipe, A = πd i 4
2
= 0.001m2
Therefore, velocity v = 0.28 m/s and Re = 17037.2881
Since Re > 2300, the flow is turbulent.

Using Blasius’s equation for smooth pipes and turbulent flow;

f = 0.3164 ⋅ Re −0.25 = 0.0277
 ρc 2  +  Σξ * ρc 2 
Using ∆Ploss =  λ * L D * 2   2 

Where: λ = friction factor = f
L = Overall length of piping system (m)
D = Inner diameter of pipe (m)
ρ = density of water (kg/m3)
c = velocity of water in the pipe = v
ξ = loss coefficient as a result of a bend and a valve
Therefore, ∆Ploss = 3836.8480 N/m2
Pump power, P = ∆Ploss x V

14
= 1.0658 W

15
2.7 Design of Solar PV System for Block B

2.7.1 Electric Energy Demand

Solar PV system was designed to power the following equipment in the table below.

Table Electricity consuming components in Block B of Mitchell Hall

Component Quantity Power Demand Length of use Energy use per
(W) (h/day) day (kWh/day)
Flat iron 49 1000 0.4 19.6
Computer 15 100 7 10.5
Subwoofers 7 2500 5 87.5
Radio 46 40 7 12.88
Bulb 42 60 6 15.12
Energy saver bulb 10 20 6 1.2
Coloured TV 25 150 5 18.75
Fluorescent tubes 21 40 12 10.08
DVD player 18 25 4 1.8
Fan 26 60 3 4.68
Laptop 7 100 4 2.8
Fridge 11 150 6 9.9
Speakers 3 2200 4 26.4
phone charger 87 12 0.2 0.2088
Photocopier 1 4500 10 45
10957 266.4188

2.7.2 Module Selection

• The energy requirement per day = 266418.8Wh/day

• It was assumed that 20% of the energy is lost through the battery and inverter

• Total energy requirement per day (losses inclusive) is 120% of the demand.

= 319702.56 Wh/day

• Total solar power needed, there is 8 hours of sunshine a day

= 319702.56 /8 = 39962.82 W
The selected module is manufactured by Brightwatts, power rating of 200W.
Total number of modules needed = 39962.82 /200 = 199.8141
Therefore, 200 modules will be needed.

2.7.3 Battery Sizing

Assumptions:
• 12 V inverter input voltage

16
 • 5 days of storage for the battery

• 50% discharge limit

• Coolest temperature for the battery to be 250C (room temperature)

• Multiplier effect of 1.00

• Battery of 400 Ah storage capacity and 12 V

• Lead-Acid batteries (Trojan deep cycle batteries) considered

Total energy requirement per day (20% loss inclusive) = 319702.56 Wh/day
Total amp hours per day = 319702.56 /12 = 26641.88 Ah/day
Considering 5 days of storage = 26641.88 *5 = 133209.4 Ah
Considering the discharge limit of 50% = 133209.4 /0.5 = 266418.8 Ah
Therefore, the total battery storage capacity needed is 266418.8 Ah
Number of batteries = 266418.8 /400 = 666
Batteries required will be 666 and should be connected in parallel.

INVERTER SIZING
Total power when all the components are in use = 10957W
Total power with 20% loss inclusive = 1.2 x10957 = 13148.4 W.
Therefore the inverter rating can be considered to be 13149 W

Investment cost
The costs were based on world market survey for the month of April
(www.solarbuzz.com). The cost of batteries was specific for a certain voltage and
Amp hour (Ah) rating. An average cost per Ah was estimated for 12 V Trojan deep
cycle batteries of different Ah rating. The other costs apart from the modules,
batteries and inverter are small and were assumed to be 5%.

Component Quantity Total capacity Unit cost Total cost ($)

Solar Module 200 200x200 W 4.81 US$/W 192,400
Battery (12 V) 666 666x400 Ah 2 US$/Ah 532,800
Inverter 1 13149 W 0.72 US$/W 9,467.28
Sub total 734,667.28
Others (5%) 36,733.364
Grand total 771,400.644

Therefore the total initial investment is US$ 771,400.644

Annual energy requirement is 266.4188 x 365 = 97242.862kWh/year.
Assuming the operation and maintenance costs are minimal and the life time for
system to be 20 years, the cost per kWh will be
= US$ 771,400.644 = 0.3966 US$/kWh
20 x 97242.862 kWh/yr
Comparing with the current domestic tariff for grid power (0.22US$/kWh), this unit
cost for solar PV electricity is high.

17
Circuit diagram for the system

18
2.8 Economic analysis

An economic analysis was carried out in order to determine the feasibility of the new
system. Also the Investment costs and operating were estimated in order to
estimate the payback period of the system if the proposed system is to be installed.

2.9 Results Report

A report of the project was prepared detailing the proceeding of events and findings.
A presentation of findings was made before a panel of faculties.

2.10 Constraints

The data collected from the Hall was raw data and required being processed. The
challenges encountered are that the hall does not have a culture of record keeping;
very little is recorded.

Although everything was done to avoid suspicions, a few respondents were unwilling
to disclose the total number of running hours for their electrical appliances, and it
required a lot of time and explanation before they could release any information. This
was especially common with the small business owners at the hall of residence. In
addition, there was a time constraint.

19
 CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS

3.1 Energy Supply and Consumption

The main energy consuming activities in include: lighting, domestic hot water supply,
catering, laundry, students’ electric appliances such as radios, computers,
refrigerators, kettles, percolators, television.

There are 3 major sources of energy electricity, biomass and liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG). The main source of energy is electricity. It is used for a range of applications
including especially lighting all the sections in general. In students’ rooms it is used
for entertainment, water heating, ironing clothes and air conditioning. In the kitchen it
is used for refrigeration, preparing food and heating water.

In bathrooms electricity is used for water heating however, most of the bathrooms
water heaters are no longer functional. Some students prepare hot water for bathing
from their rooms using small heaters.

Biomass and LPG are used for cooking purposes and are only utilised in the Kitchen
section. In case of electricity load shedding, these sources of energy are used solely
for the kitchen energy applications since none of the 10 halls of residence have
diesel generators to provide electricity during load shedding.

3.1.1 Biomass energy

Biomass is used in form firewood for cooking, this is however poorly utilised as it is
converted to energy using the traditional three stone stoves which have low energy
efficiencies of about 15% (JEEP, 2008). The pictures 2.1 below show logs of
firewood ready to be used on the three stone stoves shown in picture 2.2 below.
JEEP, 2008. Analysis of the Stove Efficiency

Figure2.1: Biomass used for cooking at Mitchell Hall

20
 Figure 2.2: The cooking stoves at Mitchell Hall; traditional three stone stoves
(foreground) and a defunct modern stove (left centre)

Besides the losses incurred when using the three stone stove, due to inefficient
wood combustion a lot of smoke is emitted leading pollution of the surrounding, this
put the life of the people cooking in danger as they are likely to get respiratory
diseases. Therefore there is a need to replace these stoves with more efficient one.

The hall uses one Lorry of firewood per week this amounts to approximately 6
tonnes of wood. Each lorry of fire wood costs about 350,000U - 400,000 UShs
transport costs inclusive.

3.1.2 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

This fuel is used for cooking purposes only (i.e. for preparing maize flour, meat, fish,
greens, and beans) and is the most expensive fuel per energy provided; it is supplied
by Shell Uganda Limited which provided the storage container of 850 litres (figure
2.3).

The hall is supplied with an average of 700liters of gas every 21 to 25 days (normal
use: 21 days; economical use i.e. substituting LPG with other sources of energy like
biomass: 25 days).

Figure 2.3: LPG storage tank at Mitchell Hall

21
3.1.3 Electricity consumption

Grid electricity is used for lighting, domestic water heating and running electrical
equipment possessed by students, small business owners, catering department and
offices.

Table 3.3 shows the Monthly electricity consumption for Mitchell Hall for years from
2006 to 2009 in kWh; this information was summarised from the electric bills obtains
from Umeme offices.

Table 3.1 Showing Monthly Electric Consumption for Mitchell Hall

Energy (kWh)
Month 2006 2007 2008 2009
8085.65436
January 7963.715346 4498.769157 3 8348.073403
5538.04513
February 8363.919759 11504.19694 5 4358.671705
8488.15551
March 5363.994584 8457.317101 7 9862.767739
9627.16183
April 6878.342126 13313.37643 6 11169.76775
May 7396.726881 14051.41961 9832.355115
10638.2025
June 8365.864895 14558.1829 1
8361.37216
July 4165.098245 11844.42703 6
8583.27181
August 3239.791575 3456.71324 5
Septembe 7676.26093
r 6994.515647 8429.299749 3
10629.2746
October 8270.014544 11781.6152 2
November 9935.661133 12534.03922 11459.68381
December 7692.593079 11483.39057 11317.44322
Average 7052.50 10492.67 9186.33 8434.82

Estimating Electricity Consumption on Each Block

The table below shows electricity consumption on different blocks of Mitchell hall..
Table3.1 shows electricity usage for block B. Block C has a total of 45 rooms with a
total of 99 students.

Students’ Population
Block No. of rooms No. of students
B 52 112
C 45 99
D 52 106
F 62 120

22
Table 3.1: Electricity use for blocks B, C, D and F
Block B C D F
Equipment R(W) No. H No. H No. H No. H
Flat iron 1000 49 0.4 46 0.4 26 0.2 31 0.2
Computer 100 15 7 7 7 20 8.5 30 8
Subwoofers 2500 7 5 6 8 12 6 8 5
Radio 40 46 7 29 6 24 4.5 21 4.3
Percolator 2200 50 1 37 1 28 0.5 27 0.5
Bulb 60 42 6 42 6 27 6.0 30 5.5
Energy saver bulb 20 10 6 3 6 5 6.0 6 6
Coloured TV 150 25 5 16 5 20 6.0 23 6.3
Fluorescent tubes 40 21 12 17 12 15 12 31 12
Water Heaters 3000 8 4 6 4
DVD player 25 18 4 9 4 14 6.2 17 5.3
Fan 60 26 3 38 4 10 1.5 13 1.5
Laptop 100 7 4 2 4 3 6.0 2 5
Fridge 150 11 6 12 18 3 12 8 12
Speakers 2200 3 4 5 4 7 5.5 12 6
Phone charger 12 87 0.2 73 0.5 60 0.5 68 0.5
Photocopier 4500 1 10 3 10 1 8.0 5 10
Salon machine 65 2 7 1 7 1 7
Blender 120 6 1 3 1 2 1
Kettle 2200 1 0.2 2 0.3 2 0.3 4 0.3
Printer 4 6 3 0.1 2 3 14 5

R (W) - power rating in Watts

H: - Hours per Day
No.: - Number of appliances

Estimating Electricity Consumption in the Kitchen Section

a) Electric Heaters
The electric heaters is are used for boiling water for drinking or for preparing water
for cooking purposes using other energy sources.

The boiler has a capacity of 120 litres; it is used to prepare water four times a day on
average, this approximates to 480 litres a day. This is equivalent to 480/1000 cubic
metres. Density of water 1000m3/kg, assuming it is initially at 20oC and is the boiler is
switched off when it is at 100oC. Specific heat capacity of water is 4.2kJ/oC.

Energy consumed = Mcp∆T

= 0.48*1000 X 4.2 (100-20) =161280 kJ
= 161280/3600 kWh
= 44.8kWh
The boiler consumes an average of 44.8kWh of electricity per day.

b) Lighting

23
The catering section consists of 12 fluorescent tubes of 40Watts which are on for 12
hours a day.

Energy consumed = 12 X 40 X 12
= 5.76kWh

c) Cold Room
For storage, a cold room is used for food storage at a temperature as low as 3oc.

d) Dining Hall has 8 fluorescent tubes 40Watts that are on for 24 hours in a day.

e) Quadrangle security lights; this has six security lights that are on for 12 hours
at day.

24
3.2 Proposed Supplementary Solar System

Design of Solar Collector system for Block C

6 water heaters of power rating of 3000W each in use for about 4hours daily. Energy
produced by the water heaters is 26,280kWh/yr and can be substituted by a solar
collector system of equivalent annual energy output.

Solar Collector Model Selected

Model: AE-40
Manufacturer: Alternate Energy Technologies, LLC
Glazing type: Glass
Absorber material: Copper tubes and fins
Gross area: 3.7 m2
Rating: 420 W
(Source: Florida Solar Energy Centre (FSEC), a research institute of the
University of Central Florida)

Estimated number of modules: 22 modules, connected in parallel.

Collector tilt: 0o 20’

Cover glass: A double glazing cover was chosen. It is also used in applications
involving temperatures above 700C.
Absorber: The absorber material will be made of copper tubes fins.
Efficiency of the system 35.3%

SIZING OF THE ACCUMULATOR

Assumptions used in sizing:
• The solar heating plant was designed for Block C of 99 people with per capita
consumption of 50 litres/day of hot water.
• A scaling factor of 1.1 was assumed to cater for any additional hot water
demand.
• 50 litres of tank size per square meter of collector area was considered and
this was based on a solar fraction of 50%.
Total hot water demand = 5445 litres/day
Required collector area = 108.9 m2
Daily hot water demand = 5.445 m3
25
Cylindrical tank, Height = 2 m, inside diameter =2m

HEAT INSULATION
The accumulator will be made of stainless steel and insulated with fiber glass on the
outside.
• Thickness of insulation ∆x = 150 mm
• Heat loss considered for the design is 283W, it is less than 10% of the
demand, it can be tolerated.

HEAT EXCHANGER AREA

Therefore, the heat exchanger area A = 60.6936 m2

A counter flow heat exchanger

CIRCULATION PUMP AND PIPE SYSTEM

Assumptions used
• Smooth Copper pipes, length to be 100 m, Inside pipe diameter d i of 35.9 mm
was chosen (outside diameter = 42.4 mm)
• 8 valves and 16 bends of 90º were considered
• Considering screwed pipe fittings and gate valves to be used then loss
coefficients are 0.19 and 1.2 for the valve and bend respectively (from table)
Pump power P = 1.0658 W

Solar PV System for Block C

Solar PV system excludes 37 percolators of 2200W and 6 water heaters of 3000W
which can be catered for under solar thermal system.
Electricity consuming components in Block B of Mitchell Hall

Module selection
Assumptions used:
• 8 sunshine hours per day

• 20% of the energy is lost through the battery and inverter

The energy requirement of the components per day= 291088Wh/day

Total energy requirement per day (20% loss inclusive)= 349305.6Wh/day
Total array power needed = 349305.6/8 = 43663.2 W
The chosen module is manufactured by Brightwatts, and has a rating of 200W.
The total number of modules needed = 43663.2/200 = 218.316
Therefore, 219 modules will be needed.

BATTERY SIZING
Assumptions used:
• 12 V inverter input voltage

• 5 days of storage for the battery

• 50% discharge limit

26
 • Coolest temperature for the battery to be 250C (room temperature)

• Multiplier effect of 1.00

• Battery of 400 Ah storage capacity and 12 V

• Lead-Acid batteries (Trojan deep cycle batteries) considered

Total energy requirement per day (20% loss inclusive) = 349305.6Wh/day

Total amp hours per day = 349305.6/12 = 29108.8 Ah/day
Considering 5 days of storage = 29108.8 *5 = 145544 Ah
Considering the discharge limit of 50% = 145544/0.5 = 291088Ah
Therefore, the total battery storage capacity needed is 291088Ah
Number of batteries = 291088/400 = 727.72
Batteries required will be 728 and they will be connected in parallel.

INVERTER SIZING
Total power when all the components are in use = 8,667W
Total power with 20% loss inclusive = 1.2*8,667= 10400.4 W.
Therefore the inverter rating can be considered to be 10,401 W

Investment cost
The costs were based on world market survey for the month of April
(www.solarbuzz.com). The cost of batteries was specific for a certain voltage and
Amp hour (Ah) rating. An average cost per Ah was estimated for 12 V Trojan deep
cycle batteries of different Ah rating. The other costs apart from the modules,
batteries and inverter are small and were assumed to be 5%.

Component Quantity Total capacity Unit cost Total cost ($)

Solar Module 219 219*200 W 4.81 US$/W 210,678
Battery (12 V) 728 728*400 Ah 2 US$/Ah 582,400
Inverter 1 10401 W 0.72 US$/W 7,488.72
Sub total 800,566.72
Others (5%) 40,028.336
Grand total 840,595.056

Therefore the total initial investment is US$ 840,595.056

Annual energy requirement is 291.088*365 = 106,247.12kWh/year.
Assuming the operation and maintenance costs are minimal and the life time for
system to be 20 years, the cost per kWh will be
= 840,595.056 = 0.3956 US$/kWh
20 x 106,247.12
Comparing with the current domestic tariff for grid power (0.22US$/kWh), this unit
cost for solar PV electricity is high.
Circuit diagram for the system

27
28
 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS

In the halls of residence, the students own old electrical equipment that have low
energy efficiencies. This contributes to the increase in the electric consumption.

According to the available data that was collected at UMEME, electric energy
consumption increased by about 10.9% in 2006 from that of 2005 while 48.8% in
2007 from that of 2006. In 2008, the electric consumption reduced by 12.4% from
that of 2007 while the electric consumption for 2009 has been projected to reduce by
about 4.5% from that of 2008. This is partly attributed to the government’s
intervention to promote energy saving bulbs; some students have embarked on
using the energy saving bulbs for lighting thus saving energy.

Average monthly electricity consumption (Kwh) for year from 2006 to 2009

Flat iron
Energy Consumption Block B Computer
Subwoofers
140 Radio
Percolator
120
Bulb
100
Energy saver bulb
Total 80 Coloured TV
kwh/day 60 Fluorescent tubes
Water Heaters
40
DVD player
20
Fan
0 Laptop
1
Fridge
Electrical Appliance Phone charger
Photocopier

29
Figure4.1: Energy Consumption by Appliance on Block B

30
 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
it is important that the hall of residence is provided with improved energy
saving stoves so as to improve on the energy conversion efficiency and to
reduce the associated environmental impacts.

This is partly attributed to the government’s intervention to promote energy saving

bulbs; some students have embarked on using the energy saving bulbs for lighting
thus saving energy.

The largest and longest term energy impact on any campus will come from a
comprehensive strategy that examines all campus energy use, the associated costs
(both financial and environmental), and comes up with strategies that reduce energy
use across the board. Such strategies should look at all sectors of energy use and
be both innovative and comprehensive.

The University needs to appoint a full time Energy Manager. The energy manager
would be responsible for managing the electricity, gas, biomass and water use. The
manager would monitor how much energy and water is being used in each of the
Halls, and analyses the data to identify areas where further improvements can be
made.

Makerere University can set an example for other Institutions and the nation by
implementing renewable energy projects like solar, energy efficiency and
environmental sustainability projects on campus to demonstrate their feasibility and
cost effectiveness. Makerere University is a centre of intellectual power, capable of
leading experiments on new technologies, and using these projects as teaching tools
and research opportunities to better the education of the next generation of voters,
consumers, politicians, and business leaders; people who will be making energy
decisions for years to come. Academia has traditionally been at the forefront of
cultural and technological change, and campuses once again can be the catalyst
that drives this country into sustainable energy independence.

While achieving energy independence may at first seem daunting, the research aims
to make it a reality by highlighting the incredible number of ways to begin. As David
Orr says, “No institutions in modern society are better equipped to catalyze the
necessary transition to a sustainable world than universities. They have access to
the leaders of tomorrow and the leaders of today. They have buying and investment
power. Consequently what they do matters to the wider public.

REFERENCES
1. David Orr.” The Last Refuge: Patriotism, Politics, and the
Environment in an Age of Terror.”
2. Department of Energy. Office of Energy Efficiency and Green Power. “Energy
Solutions for your Building: University Buildings.”
www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/info/university/index.html

31
3. Department of Energy. Office of Energy Efficiency and Green Power. “Energy
Solutions for your Building: University Buildings.”
www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/info/university/index.html
4. Department of Energy. Office of Energy Efficiency and Green Power. “Solar
Technologies Program: Residential and Commercial Water Heating.”
www.eere.energy.gov/solar/sh_use_water.html
5. University of Colorado Environmental Center. “Energy Conservation:
Renewable Energy at CU.” 2005.
www.ecenter.colorado.edu/energy/cu/renewables.html
6. Department of Energy. Office of Energy Efficiency and Green Power. “Energy
Solutions for your Building: University Buildings.”
www.eere.energy.gov/buildings/info/university/index.html
7. Ugandan Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development, save energy and save
money brochure
8. http://www.ugandatourism.org/Makerere%20University.php
9. Diane Brown. “U-M Earns Award for Energy Efficiency”. The University
Record Online. 2004. www.umich.edu/~urecord/0304/Mar08_04/01.shtml
10. Harvard Green Campus Initiative & FAS Resource Efficiency Program.
“Harvard Green Cup 2005.” www.greencampus.harvard.edu/greencup/
11. Baringanire, P. (2007), Electricity Consumption Estimation for Rural
Households in Uganda, M. Eng. Unpublished Thesis, Makerere University,
Kampala.

32
APPENDIX
A) Mitchell Hall 1/2(MUK) Electricity Consumption Data

kWh
PERIOD 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005
Dec 10421.4 8934.145 4996.933 4413.039
Nov 11205.69 9465.472 7597.19 5285.278
Oct 9457.494 12430.66 6324.75 4683.204
Sept 8556.082 12786.06 6428.683 4412.661
Aug 5421.538 10599.03 6940.337 3755.857
Jul 3877.652 11923.96 7069.516 4882.03
Jun 8615.92 12139.86 5511.055 7167.561
May 8741.825 11606.76 5735.523 5408.297
Apr 9485.632 8717.126 13058.89 5029.615 4206.557
Mar 10377.51 7025.852 9134.565 4133.444 1750.659
Feb 7588.691 2312.232 8963.156 748.7263
Jan 8179.064 4852.086 370.264 2910.052
TOTAL 89772.2 121980.1 63993.13 46429.3

B) Mitchell Hall 2/2(MUK) Electricity Consumption Data

PERIOD 2008 2008 2007 2007 2006 2006
Ushs kWh Ushs kWh Ushs kWh
Dec 9739959.72 20259.79 9147474 19000.51 5653517 11707.75
Nov 10429684.4 21699.61 9297476 19323.6 7360518 15289.35
Oct 9293083 19314.34 10927393 22756.77 6467906 13418.89
Sep 7803142 16225.91 10665568 22228.22 6772567 14048.2
Aug 6473932 13406.37 8089908 16871.9 6980338 14489.52
Jul 4496825 9298.522 10690845 22256.41 7247472 15042.36
Jun 8869051 18419.25 10877069 22645.27 5721188 11861.07
May 8730276 18137.38 10510857 21877.58 5615146 11649.22
Apr 8453090 17566.76 11416471 23779.72 4937814 10237.04
Mar 7252731 15051.97 7701307 16032.48 4127779 8546.757
Feb 3081996 6346.217 8961969 18619.88 1961942 4000.071
Jan- 5683993 11766.42 1808053 3673.211 3399665 7015.887
6624585
TOTAL 90307763.12 188109.5 110094390 229682.5 2 137923.1

33
PERIOD 2005 2005 2009 2009
Ushs kWh Ushs kWh
Dec-05 4328379 8966.936
Nov-05 4111314 8544.673
Oct-05 3990294 8279.228
Sep-05 3771461 7821.809
Aug-05 3231571 6693.587
Jul-05 4470556 9272.212
Jun-05 5531242 11516.2
May-05 4589902 9532.124 14002132.88 29888
Apr-05 3609577 7483.263 14019127.82 29032.66
Mar-05 1856627 3811.162 12731398.66 26409.48
Feb 6386908 13287.21
Jan 9823900.66 20370.53
total 39490923 82425.98 56963468.02 118326.5

34
PERIOD AMOUNT(Ushs) kWh
7-May-
09 9413078.54 20236
Apr-09 9508727.92 20441.62
Mar-09 7799207.4 16766.54
Feb-09 2773622.33 5962.663
Jan-09 5931411.65 12751.2
TOTAL 35426047.84 76158.03
Dec-08 4787009.08 10290.99
Nov-08 5105824.95 10976.37
Oct-08 4795990 10310.3
Sep-08 3732351 8023.714
1-Aug 3885551 8353.06
Jul-08 2638589 5672.372
Jun-08 4769961 10254.34
May-08 4571642 9828.001
Apr-08 4306137 9257.225
Mar-08 3905627 8396.219
Feb-08 1964089 4222.349
Jan-08 3364921 7233.822
TOTAL 47827692.03 102818.8
Dec-07 4897887 10529.35
Nov-07 4796610 10311.63
Oct-07 5024212 10800.92
Sep-07 4594309 9876.73
Aug-07 3052954 6563.164
Jul-07 5027293 10807.55
Jun-07 5111412 10988.38
May-07 4997319 10743.11
Apr-07 5216181 11213.61
Mar-07 3356936 7216.656
Feb-07 4698662 10101.07
Jan-07 1608555 3458.031
TOTAL 52382330 112610.2
Dec-06 3265943 7021.042
Nov-06 3743213 8047.065
Oct-06 3452372 7421.822
Sep-06 3707880 7971.107
Aug-06 3673676 7897.576
Jul-06 3879718 8340.52
Jun-06 3090472 6643.819
May-06 2878273 6187.639
Apr-06 2534784 5449.215
Mar-06 2148572 4618.946
Feb-06 1583459 3404.08
Jan-06 1999033 4297.471
TOTAL 35957395 77300.3

35
 Dec-05 2216944 4765.93
Nov-05 1587374 3412.497
Oct-05 1751091 3764.451
Sep-05 1660205 3569.067
Aug-05 1430935 3076.188
Jul-05 2137323 4594.763
Jun-05 2117120 4551.331
May-05 2007783 4316.281
Apr-05 1595793 3430.596
Mar-05 1004303 2159.025
TOTAL 17508871 37640.13

C) Total Electricity Consumption Data for Mitchell

36
 Dec-05
4328379
9206.83
9

Nov-05
4111314
8721.01
3

Oct-05
3990294
8474.09

Sep-05
3771461
8009.59
9

Aug-05
3231571
6863.40
4

Jul-05
4470556
9502.17
2

Jun-05
5531242
11732.14

May-05
4589902
9747.16
4

Apr-05
3609577
7666.118

Mar-05
1856627
3951.68
9

TOTAL
3949092
3
83874.2
37
 QUESTIONAIRRE
STUDENTS’ ROOMS
1. How many do you sleep in this room?
2. What electrical gadgets do you posses and for how long do you run them?

Electrical Power No. of running No. of running

Equipment rating hrs during day hrs during night
(KW)
Bulb
Fan
Radio
TV
Water heater
Percolator
Kettle
Fridge
Computer
Flat iron
Blender
Speakers
Printer
Rice cooker
Phones
3. Do you have access to warm water?
4. If yes, how long do you utilize the warm water during…..
a) Morning
b) Afternoon
c) Evening
CORRIDORS
Electrical No. Power rating No. of running No. of running
Equipment (KW) hrs during day hrs during
night
Flourescent
tubes
Water Heaters

38
 SECRETARIAL BUREAUS
Electrical No. Power rating No. of running No. of running
Equipment (KW) hrs during day hrs during
night

KITCHEN
1. How many students do you feed during
a) break fast
b) lunch
c) Evening tea
d) Supper
2. What type of fuel do you use for cooking different meals? Tick where
appropriate.

Type of fuel Breakfast Lunch Evening tea Supper

Biomass
LPG
Electricity

3. Why do you utilize fuel in such a manner as indicated above?

39
 4. What is the fuel consumption for each type?

Type of fuel Breakfast Lunch Evening tea Supper

Biomass (tons)
LPG (litres/m3)
Electricity (Kw)

6. What are the delivery costs for each of the following fuels?
Type of fuel Cost (UShs)
Biomass
LPG

7. What are the rental costs of LPG storage tank per month?
8. What electrical equipments do you posses? Tick where appropriate
Electrical No. of Power No. of running No. of running
Equipment equipments rating hrs during hrs during night
(KW) day
Bulbs
a) Fluorescent
tubes
b) Energy
savers
c) 100Watts
d) 75Watts
e) Others
specify

Fan
Radio
TV
Water heater
Percolator
Kettle
Fridge
Computer
Flat iron
Blender
Speakers
Printer
Boilers
Cookers
9. How many workers are employed in the catering section?
5. How many hours do you run on each type of fuel?

40
Type of fuel Breakfast Lunch Evening tea Supper
Biomass(Hrs)
LPG(Hrs)
Electricity (Hrs)

41