STUDIA POHL: SERIES MAIOR

DISSERTATIONES SCIENTIFICAE DE REBUS ORIENTIS ANTIQUt

RICHARD CAPLICE
with the collaboration of

DANIEL SNELL

Fourth edition
(Revised reprint of third edition)

E PONTIFICIO INSTITUTO BIBLICO ROMAE

EDITRICE PONTIFICIO ISTITUTO BIBLICO ROMA 2002

The Pontifical Biblical Institute dedicates this series to the memory of P . Alfred Pohl. founder of its Faculty of Ancient Near Eastern Studies. Studin Pohl reproduces in offset studies on Ancient Near Eastern history and philology. and is intended particularly to benefit younger scholars who wish to present the r e s ~ ~ l tof s their doctoral studies to a wider public . TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents

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Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5l . Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52. Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $3. Geography and Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54. The Writing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 1: Nominal Declension, (I): Status Rectus . . . . . . . . 55. Inflection. Status Rectus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56. Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 . Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $8. Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 . Case Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10. Further Annotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 1. Nouns with Vocalic Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $12. Variations in Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $13. a l p n i and abum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $14. The Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $15. On Learning Cuneiform Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs. Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 2: Nominal Declension. (11): Absolute and Construct State . Pronominal Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516. Nominal States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517. Absolute State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $18. Construct State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $19. Periphrasis with $a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $20. Possessive Suffixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs. Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 3: G-Stem of the Strong Verb (I) . . . . . . . . . . . . $21. The Verb: General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $22. Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $23. 'Tenses' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $24. Verb Types and Vocalic Classes. . . . . . . . . . . . $25. The Preterite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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$26. The Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527. The Imperative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528. The Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $29. The (Active) Participle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530. The Verbal Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $31 . The Nominal Sentence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $32. Word Order in Verbal Sentences . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs, Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 4: G-Stem of Strong Verb (11). Verbal Suffixes. Ventive . Subjunctive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533. The Stative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $34. The Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $35. Pronominal Suffixes of Verb . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536. The Ventive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537. Some Conjunctions (Subordinating) . . . . . . . . . . $38. The Subjunctive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539. summa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $40. Conjunctions (Coordinating) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs. Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 5: Gt-Stem . Modals . Demonstratives and Interrogit'ives . . $41. The Gt-Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $42. Volitional (Modal) Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . $43. The Cohortative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $44. The Precative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545. The Emphatic Particle 16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $46. The Vetitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $47. The Prohibitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548. Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549. Demonstratives and Interrogatives . . . . . . . . . . $50. Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform.Signs, Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 6: D. 9. Dt, St-stems. Independent Pronouns . . . . . . . $51. D and S-Stems and Their t and tn.Stems . . . . . . . . $52. The D-Stem and Dl-Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $53. The 9-Stem and 9t.Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554. The Independent Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs. Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 7: N, tn. SD-Stems. Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . . . . $55 The N-Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556. The Nt-Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26 26 26 27 27 27 27 28 31 31 31 33 33 34 35 35 35 36 39 39 4~ 0 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 45 45 45 46 47 48 51 51 51

557. The tn-Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . $58. The SD-Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . $59. Review of Vocalization in the Strong Verb . $60. Indefinite Pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs Exercise . . . . .

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51 53 53 53 54 56 56 56 57 58 61 61 63 65 68 68 68 69 70 70 70 71 74 74 74 75 75 76 78 81 81 82 83 83 83 84 87 87

Lesson 8: Verbs 111 Weak . i a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561 . Weak Verbal Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $62. Verbs 1 1 1 Weak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $63. Determinative-Relative Pronoun . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary, Cuneiform Signs. Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 9: Verbs I1 Weak . Nominal Typology . . . . . . . . . . $64. Verbs I1 Weak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $65. Nominal Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs, Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 10: Verbs I j. II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $66. Verbs I Aleph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $67. The a.Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568. The Verb a l ; h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $69. The e.Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $70. Verbs I j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $71. Verbs I n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs. Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Lesson 11: Verbs I . Infinitive Constructions . Numbers . . . . . $72. State-Verbs I 111. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $73. Action-Verbs I ir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574. Initial w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $75. Infinitive Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576. Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs, Exercise . . . . . . . . . . .

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Lesson 12: Quadriliteral Verbs . i : u : : u m . Doubly Weak Verbs . . . $77. Quadriliteral Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $78. Irregular N-Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $79. The Irregular Verb i z i a z u m . . . . . . . . . . . . . $80. Doubly Weak Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $81. 'All' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vocabulary. Cuneiform Signs. Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . Appendix I: General Phonetics of Akkadian . . . . . . . . . . 8 2. Akkadian Historical Phonetics . . . . . . . . . . . .

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$83. Patterns of Consonantal Structure. $84. Patterns of Vocalic Structure. . . Appendix 11: Numbers, Dating, Measures $85. Numbers . . . . . . . . . . $86. Year Dales . . . . . . . . . $87. Month Dates , . , . , . , . $88. Weight Measures. . . . . . . $89. Linear Measures . . . . . . . $90. Area' Measures. . . . . . . . $91. Solid Capacity Measures. . . . Index of Akkadian Vocabulary English-Akkadian Glossary. Index of Signs
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ABBREVIATIONS
abs.: absolute ace.: accusative adj.: adjective AHw: (see $2) Akk.: Akkadian Arab.: Arabic Ass.: Assyrian Bab.: Babylonian c.: common gender CAD: (see $2) conj.: conjunction dat.: dative f., fern.: feminine GAG: (see $2) gen.: genitive GN: geographical name Hebr.: Hebrew imp.: imperative indic.: indicative inf.: infinitive intr.: intransitive LB: Late Babylonian m., masc.: masculine MA: Middle Assyrian MB: Middle Babylonian med.: medial n., nom.: nominative NA: Neo-Assyrian OA: Old Assyrian OAkk.: Old Akkadian OB: Old Babylonian obi.: oblique case (gem-acc.) perf.: perfect pi., plur.: plural PN: person's name prep.: preposition pres.: present pret.: preterite ptc.: participle s., sing.: singular SB: Standard Babylonian stat.: stative subj.: subjunctive Sum.: Sumerian tr,: transitive v. adj.: verbal adjective vb.: verb wr.: written

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102 104 107

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Index of Sign-Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Additions.

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Paradigm of Strong Verb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foldout

INTRODUCTORY

$1. PREFACE
The Introduction to Akkadian was first published in 1980, and reissued in slightly revised form in 1983. The present edition is more fully revised, and supplied with indices to the Akkadian vocabularies and sign-lists, an English-Akkadian glossary, and a paradigm of the strong verbs. Revision has profited from suggestions expressed in reviews of the 1980 edition - especially those of J. Huehnergard, D. Snell and S. Dalley - as well as suggestions privately offered, particularly by W. Farber, W. R. Mayer, R. Borger, W. Rollig and W. Sommerfeld; to all who offered suggestions I express gratitude. The present edition also profits from the collaboration of Prof. Daniel Snell, who contributed amplified cuneiform exercises, the Index of Signs, and copies of cuneiform signs throughout the book. As before, the Introduction is intended as a tool in offering a twelve-lesson or one semester course in essential Akkadian grammar. The reading exercises in transliteration and in cuneiform are designed to introduce the student to common vocabulary and basic cuneiform signs. The exercises are chosen from Old Babylonian, but signs are introduced, as is customary, in their Neo-Assyrian form; phonetic values of signs are primarily those in use in Old Babylonian, but prominent values of later periods are also given, in parentheses. In addition to the twelve lessons there are appendices dealing with Akkadian phonetics and metrology, indices, and a paradigm of the strong verb.

The standard grammar is W. von Soden, Grundriss der akkadischen Grammatik [= GAG] (Analecta Orientalia 33, 3rd ed. 1995). The standard dictionaries are W. von Soden, Akkadisches Handworterbuch [= AHw] and Chicago Assyrian Dictionary [= CAD]. A short dictionary. based on AHw, is J. Black - A. George - N. Postgate, A Concise Dictionary of A/</cacUan(1999).

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$3

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For syllabic values of cuneiform signs the classic listing is F. Thureau-Dangin, Le sjjilabaire accadien (1926). Current manuals listing cuneiform signs, their formal evolution, and their logographic and syllabic values are R. Labat, Manuel d'spigraphie ~kkadienne(5th ed., revised by F. Malbran-Labat) and R. Borger, Assyrisch-babylonische Zeichenliste (Alter Orient und Altes Testament 33 and Ergcinzwigshefl, 33A). A listing of logographic values is to be found in A. Deimel, Siimerisches Lexikon, 11. Teil. A full and up-to-date listing of syllabic values is found in W. von Soden- W. Rollig, Das akkadische Syllabar (4th ed. 1991). An introductory bibliography to Akkadian studies is given in R. Borger's Babj~lonisch-ass~lrische Lesestiicke, 2. Aufl., Heft I p. IX-XI. The same scholar's Handbiich der Keilschriftliteratiir, 1-111 gives a bibliography of Akkadian-Sumerian studies up to 1974; its use may be supplemented by the annual Keilschriftbibliographie in the journal Orientalia. General introductions to ancient Near Enstern studies and to Mesopotamian civilization are W. von Soden, Einfilhriit~g in die Altorientalistik and A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia. Portrait of a Dead Civilization, Revised Edition completed by Erica Reiner. , .. .
$3. GEOGRAPHY AND LANGUAGE

a. Akkadian is one of the great cultural languages of world history. For a period of some 2500 years it was the vehicle of a dominant culture in the Ancient Near East. and abundant written records in it - religious, historical, literary, grammatical - were written, and in modem times have been found, in its heartland and in other areas as widespread as Egypt, Syria-Palestine, Anatolia and Persia. The central geographical area of its use is ancient Mesopotamia: this Greek name referred originally to the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. but today is generally used in a broader sense to indicate an area roughly corresponding to modern Iraq. In the second and first millennia B.C. this area was divided between Assyria, to the north, and Babylonia, to the south; still earlier, in the third millennium, its southern part comprised the city-states of Sumer and Akkade. The earliest written records preserved to us from the area are in Sumerian, an agglutinating language that has no provable genetic

relationship with any other known language, but which became part of the cultural heritage of Akkadian-speakers. The Akkadian language (or language of Akkade) is first attested in proper names mentioned in Sum. texts of the Fara period (ca. 2800 B.c.); from ca. 2500 B:C. we find texts fully written in Akkadian. b. Akkadian is a member of the Semitic language family, indeed one of its earliest and overwhelmingly its best attested ancient member. A traditional classification of the Semitic languages is based on their geographical location: Akkadian is the northeastern member of the family; Canaanite (a sub-group which includes Hebrew and Plioenician, and, in the opinion of some scholars, Ugaritic and Eblaite) and the Aramaic dialects form the northwest Semitic branch; while Arabic, ancient South Arabic and Ethiopic form the southern branch. c. From its first attestation in the Fara period, Akkadian is attested down to the first century AD., though in the last centuries of the pre-Christian era it was increasingly replaced as a spoken language by Aramaic, and survived only as a traditional scholarly language. During the long era and wide area of its use, the language naturally underwent changes, and it is customary t o distinguish 'dialects' of Akkadian. The central dialects - the forms of the language found in the Mesopotamian heartland begin with Old Akkadian (OAkk.), the language attested in documents of the third millennium; in the second and first millennia we find dialectical differentiation between southern (Babylonian) and northern (Assyrian) Akkadian, and between different periods (Old, Middle, Neo-, Late) within Babylonian and Assyrian (OB, MB, NB, LB; OA, MA, NA). In addition to these central spoken dialects, we find in use in both Assyria and Babylonia an artificial 'literary' form of the language modelled on the OB dialect; this has been called 'Standard Babylonian' (SB). We may summarize this dialect-history and indicate approximate dates: OAkk. 2500-1950 OB MB NB LB 1950-1530 1530-1000 1000-625 625-0 OA 1950-1750 M A 1500-1000 NA 1000-600

SB 1500-0

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In addition to the central dialects, several 'peripheral dialects' of the second millennium are attested; these are variant written forms of Akkadian, influenced by different local languages (Susa, Boghazkoy, Alalab, Nuzi, Ugarit, and various local types in the Amarna texts). d. The texts preserved in Akkadian are of many types: historical and chronographical texts and census reports; treaties and other political documents; business and administrative records; codes of law; witnessed and sealed contracts of marriage, divorce, purchase and rentals; personal and state letters; narrative poetry recounting myths, epics and humorous fabliaux; love-songs; rituals, prayers, hymns, omens, divination reports; scholarly texts on language, religion, history, technology. These are spread unevenly through the periods and dialects discussed above. Because the Babylonian form of the language remained, even in Assyria, the normal vehicle of literary and religious texts, and because the OB dialect preserves in greater purity many features of the language which later were lost, it is customary to begin the study of Akkadian with OB, and the following pages will be devoted principally to it.
$4. THEWRITING SYSTEM

a. Physical form of signs. Most Akkadian texts were written with a reed stylus on a clay tablet which, after the writing was impressed, was sun-baked or fire-baked to hardness; on a smaller scale other materials (stone, metals, wax tablets) were also used. The system of signs was inherited from the Sumerians, who used it to write their own language. The oldest signs in the system seem to be imitations of clay tokens of diverse forms, used as counters in an accounting procedure throughout the Near East from the 9th millennium B.C. to the 2nd; each type of counter presumably represented an individual type of goods, and therefore an individual word. To the group of signs derived from such tokens were added others which, in many cases at least, were pictographic, i.e. depicted concrete objects. Early Sum. texts (from Uruk, ca. 3000 B.c.) use a battery of signs whose number was gradually reduced to those represented in the classical (Old Babylonian) sign-lists. In form the signs also underwent evolution: early documentable stages are often more recognizably pictographic, and more curvilinear in shape, while in later stages signs are simplified and each stroke assumes a

characteristic wedge-shaped appearance, diverging into two main traditions, Babylonian and Assyrian. h. Value of signs. (1) Functionally, signs in their earliest stage were logographic, i.e. they represented one or more specific words. A purely logographic writing system is per se not bound to any specific language: given a sequence of picture-signs representing GIVE, TEMPLE, a given social context might enable one THREE, SHEEP, to 'read' (adding formal modifications unexpressed in the writing system) in English 'three sheep were given to the temple' or in French 'on a donne trois brebis au temple' as adequately as one could 'read' such a text in Sumerian. Our earliest texts from Mesopotamia are still largely or entirely at this stage, and therefore subject to its disadvantages: the ambiguities it entails and the endless number of signs that would be necessary to express spoken language adequately. (2) Sometime about 3000 B.C. the Sumerian scribes supplemented their logographic system by introducing a phonetic or syllabic use of signs, with no relation to the syllable's wordmeaning. Thus the sign # (AN) was no longer limited to expressing the Sum. word an 'sky', but could also represent the sound /an/, for instance in the verb ba-an-dii 'he built'l. When Akkadian scribes took over this writing system to express their language, they inherited both types of value, and often added new phonetic values based on Akkadian: because AN also had the Sum. value dingir 'god', equivalent to Akk. ilum 'god' in its various declined forms, a new phonetic value /ill came to be used, e.g. to write ilqe 'he took'. (3) The use of signs as determinative or semantic classifier is a specialized kind of logographic value: the determinative is a logogram preceding or following a word and identifying the class to which it belongs (man, god, city, plant etc.); it is not intended to be pronounced in reading the text aloud. Thus a writing AN Assiir refers to the god Assur, whereas URU (city) A S r refers to the homonymous city. (4) A sign with phonetic value may be used as phonetic complement, i.e. added to a logogram to specify its reading. Thus AN
The meaning of accents and nunlerical indices will be explained below, $4~; for Akkadian phonemes and their pronunciation see 582a and b.

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(without such a complement) is usually to he read D I N G I R = Hum 'god'; AN-K (with -it indicating a final long vowel) is to be read as A N = sai17fi 'sky'. Grammatical information is given by the writings E-tw~ (bitm) 'house' (nom.) but E-tiin (biti117)(gen.), c. Alphabetic representation of Akkadian signs. (1) We have seen that the phonetic (syllabic) values of a sign can be represented in alphabetic script: thus A N has the values /an/ and /ill. It is characteristic of the cuneiform writing system (due in part to the nature of the Sumerian language) that a given syllable in Akkadian may be represented by any one of several signs; in order that alphabetic representations might indicate which sign is actually used, modem scholars distinguish homophonous signs by index numbers, following a standard listing compiled by the French scholar Francois Thureau-Dangin (see the sign-lists mentioned in $2). Thus the syllable /tu/ may he written with the signs @ '1i1 one', -fy 'I two', j^p4't11 three', etc.; in alphabetic representation, the first of these is unmarked, the 'two' and 'three' values are indicated by acute and grave accents, and further values by a subscribed number: tu, til, tit, 1 1 1 ~ m5, etc. (A notation in, indicates a value /tu/ assigned to a sign but not yet listed in the modern sign-lists.) Such accents or numbers have no phonetic significance. (2) Logographic values can similarly be indicated in alphabetic form. Conventionally, logograms used in an Akkadian text are indicated by the Sum. word in capitals, with homophones again distinguished by indices: LUGAL 'king', LU 'man', KU(, 'fish'. (3) Determinatives are conveniently represented in raised position, using their Sum. form: URU A m and AN (i.e. D I N G I R , the Sum. reading of the sign A N in the sense 'god') Assiir are represented: "^Afhr, *=lJ.f~tr(* is an abbreviation derived from Latin deus, 'god'). (4) Phonetic complements are normally added to logograms in Sum. form (E-tiim) or written in raised position or parentheses after an Akk. word: bitiim""", bitti~n(timi). ( 5 ) Depending on the purpose to be served, Akkadian texts written in cuneiform signs may he represented alphabetically in different ways: (i) The text may he represented as written, indicating signs one by one and separating them by hyphen (if they belong to the same word) or space (if in different words) or position (determinatives and

sometimes phonetic complements are raised). Thus: LUGAL ~ " I G DOuf or far-ru-um da-a/-tam i-pu-uf (these are two of the many possible sign-sequences that may be used to write the Akkadian sentence farr~im daltam @f 'the king made a door'). A sign-by-sign representation is called a transliteration; it does not give, or gives only incidentally, the precise linguistic form spoken in Akkadian. (ii) The text may be represented as spoken, ignoring the text's written realization and giving the reconstructed linguistic form: farrum daliam Tpus. Such representation is called normalization or transcription. (iii) A mixed representation, using sign-by-sign transliteration to which a transcription of each logogram is added, is often used, e.g.: far-ru-urn ~ ' ~ ~ / a / i aipuf(~u-us). n ~ ( ~ ~ ) Such a system gives full indication of signs used, and partial indication of linguistic forms. d. A principal characteristic of the writing system is that each sign may be polyvalent: it may represent different values, just as a single alphabetic symbol may represent a variety of phonetic realizations in written English. The reader of Akkadian must rely on contextual indications to tell him whether he should read AN as a logogram 'sky' o r 'god' o r as a phonetic sign indicating the sound a n / or /ill. Normally these indications suffice; very rarely, they allow more than one reading, and so leave the text ambiguous. e. Further notes on the reading and transcription of Akkadian. (1) The phonetic values of signs are generally of the type CV (consonant + vowel), VC, o r CVC: ba, ah, bab. The writing ha-ab does not indicate a long vowel or two vowels, but the syllable /bab/. (2) Most signs containing the vowel e or i are indeterminate, and may represent either of these vowels; this is universally true of CVC signs containing e/i (see $15). Choice of the reading is based on grounds extrinsic to the writing itself; thus PI-111-it 'they are open' must, on grammatical grounds, be read pe-tu-it, not *pi-tit-IL (3) In cuneiform writing, a vowel sign repeating the vowel of a preceding CV-sign (I-it may be used to indicate vocalic length; vocalic length is regularly so indicated only in the case of a long accented final vowel resulting from contraction (584e): pe-tu-it = petit < *pali!iG. (4) In normalizations, vocalic length must be indicated; two graphic indications of vowel length are normally used: when the length is (i) morphological (e.g. 5 of the participial form pirisum) or

INTRODUCTORY

INTRODUCTORY

(ii) the result of consonantal loss (Vit'urn > M i m 'sin', 584d) it is indicated by a macron (-); when it is (iii) the result of vowel contraction (rabiiim > r a b h 'great', 584e) it is indicated by a circumflex ("). Syllabic length should be distinguished from vowel length: a syllable is said to be short if it consists of a consonant and a short vowel (1st syllable of baldqum, 2nd of p~risurn); it is said to be long if it contains a long vowel or if it is closed by a consonant (1st and last syllables of parisurn, both syllables of dakum). (5) Doubled consonants are usually, but not always, indicated in OB writing: 'he weighs out' may be written i-ia-gal or i-ia-aq-qal, but in either case is to be normalized iiaqqal. (6) Initial ' (aleph, see 582b) is normally not indicated in the writing, and its non-appearance in the writing system presumably indicates its disappearance in speech; in OB, however, a word-initial writing i-il, a-ad, etc. appears to indicate the historical presence of aleph, and not length: illak ( < *yi'allak), wr. i-il-la-ak; ill ("'ill), wr. li-111. (7) The signs a-a do not indicate /a/, or /a'a/ but /aj(J)v/, where V = any vowel. In general, the signs used to represent /'I, /j/, /w/ form a subsystem with special characteristics; the signs WA,'A, and IA, for instance, are unusual in representing any vowel (WA= /wa/, /we/, /wi/, /wu/ etc.) in being partly reversible (WA= /awl, 'A = /a'/ etc.), and in being partly interchangeable (WA= /ja/, IA = /?a/ etc.). (8) The following norms for word accentuation are reliably derived from indirect evidence: 1. words of two syllables are accented on the first (ibum); 2. words of three or more syllables are accented on the penultimate syllable if this is long (bikitum, abtillum, epistum, cf. 4 above), otherwise 3. on the antepenult (mttpirrisum). Exceptions: word accent falls on a long final vowel resulting from contraction (rubiiiii) and on the root syllable of medially weak verbs i k w i ttkTii). (9) Transliterated Akkadian is usually printed in italics. Roman caps or small caps are used to indicate logograms (Sumerograms) and signs whose reading is uncertain or unspecified. The sign + is used to indicate composition of two simpler signs is composed of IGI + DIB in one complex one: thus sign 0 4-

The multiplication-sign x indicates one sign inscribed within indicates K A with ME written inside it another: thus K A M E *
x
Y =

T+.

an illegible sign, or one of unknown reading. [ ] enclose a broken portion of the text. > enclose something judged to be mistakenly omitted by the ancient scribe. { ] or enclose something judged to be mistakenly added by the ancient scribe.

<Ti-+p.

LESSON 1 NOUN DECLENSION, I: STATUS RECTUS

$5. Nouns are inflected, showing three forms: nominative, genitive and accusative (for their function see $9); the 'oblique case' has a single form, with both genitive and accusative function. Status rectus refers to the normal nominal formations not followed by a genitive; for other 'states' see $16.

$6. Forms. In status rectus the following endings are appended to the noun stem (e.g. the stem *iarr-, giving farriim 'king', farrat11111 'queen'); explanation of forms and terminology follows in g7-10:

'

Sing. nom. gen. acc. Dual nom. obi. Plur. nom. obi.

-inn -im -am -in

-m
-C

-(a)t-urn -(a)t-it?? -(a)[-am -(a)/-in -(a) t-in

(or -ZI?~) -at-iim -i (or -611i) -&-im

The adjective (e.g. the stem *dann-, giving masc. dannum, fern. dannatum 'strong') has the same endings in the sing. and in fern. plur.; in the masc. plur. the adjectival endings are -Slum (nom.), -itit11(oblique case). In OB the adj. has no dual: an adj. modifying a dual noun stands in the plur.

57. Gender. There are two genders, masculine and feminine. In general, the fern. is marked by -t or -at suffixed to the stem, and nouns without this suffix are masc. The shorter form of the suffix

'

By 'root' is meant the fundamental structure common'to cognate words:

* h i ( / is thc root of d i i t i i q ~ ~ n dnnitfiini i, a n d udai~imii/, h i 1 1 of k h m and i k 2 ~ 1 nb , of U / I I I I ~and I ahhu. By 'stem' is meant ( I ) the base form of a L' i v e n noun o r adjcctivc, to which affixes are added: dumq-, damn-, nb-, kin-; (2) a verbal

conjugation, scc $22.

12

LESSON I

$7

LESSON 1

13

( - I )is more commonly used (e.g. I I I ~ I Y ~ I 'son', ~I mart11171 'daughter'). The longer form (-at) is used with geminate roots (i.e. roots whose second and third consonantal radicals are identical, e.g. *dnn in ~ ~ ~ I I I I 'powerful') I I ~ and with the nominal formation p a d (kalb-at-lim 'bitch'; see $65). (Nouns of the form pit's and purs add - I , but the stem takes the secondary shape piris, piirus; cf. t'ikiwim and ~ I ~ / I ~ / J ~ I I $1 I I 2.) I,

58. Number. There are separate forms for singular, plural and dual. The dual is no longer a freely used form in OB, but limited to nouns denoting or connoting parts of the body: inin 'two eyes', $ @ i n 'two feet'; in an extended sense: rFiCn 'top' (from G i i m 'head'), eri~IiqCiz'strength (of arms)'. For adjectives modifying duals, see 56 above.
59. Case functions. The nominative is used as subject of a verb or predicate of a nominal sentence. The genitive is used after a preposition or in relation to another noun (indicating possession, agent, object of action). The accusative is used as object of a verb or in adverbial uses (indicating time, place, specification). $10. Further annotations. I . The masc. plur. endings -a&, -am appear in late OB in a small number of short words (especially ihini 'god' and alum 'city') and become more widespread thereafter. 7. In the fern., -el and -?t are conditioned variants of -a! and -at, when the noun has e < a: see 584f and g. Thus helium 'lady' (Ass. b?lat1t111); so also erretum (stem *ba 7-) has OB plur. bZlFt1i111 'curse' (*'rr), plur. errFtiim: ezsuin 'angry' (* ' z ) fem. , ezzetiin~. 3 . Mimation (the addition of m to case indicators 11. i , a) is characteristic of masc. sing. nouns, all fern. nouns except duals, and all adjectives. Nunation (the addition of 11 to case indicators C , i ) is characteristic of the dual. After the OB period, both mimation and nunation fall into disuse: iarrum > S a m , man > 4. There is no definite or indefinite article; iarnmi may be translated 'a king' or 'the king' as context requires.
, .

5. After the O B period, the case system underwent a simplification analogous to that of late Latin. In this regard, each dialect must be studied in itself. I~I 6. Some feminine nouns lack the -(a)t ending: I ~ I I T I ~ C 'mother'. Some nouns which lack a fern. indicator in the sing. have it in the plur.: abullurn 'city gate' (fern.), plur. abiilldtuin (fern.); eqlum 'field' (rnasc.), plur. eqletum (fern.). 7. Besides the three cases listed above, there are two further adverbial cases which occur with relative rarity, except in O B and SB poetry: the locative, with ending -urn 'in, at', and the terminative, with ending -is 'to, unto': qdtukka < *qiitum-ka 'in your hand', p i ~ k r u f i n u < "pubrum-Sunu 'in their assembly', iepzi'a < i w ' a < *Spurn-ja 'at my feet7(84d) qerbum Bdbilim 'in (the middle of) ~ a b y l o n ' , dZriS umT 'for length of days'. Adjectival stem + -ii has adverbial sense: kmis 'firmly'. After 1300 B.C. noun + -ii comes to have a comparative sense: dbubii 'like a flood', labbii 'like a lion'.

511. Nouns with vocalic stems. With the disappearance of (582j; ' in this context marks a syllable boundary, whether historically or w or j ) in nouns or adjectives such as rabi'um 'great', rubd'um 'prince', siimlu'um 'to fill', contraction usually takes place according to the rules noted in 584e: rabi'-iim > rabium > r a b h , rubi'im > rubdim > rubem, rabi'am remains the normal OB In the fern. sing. the vowel preceding ' is form but later > rab~itn. lengthened (584d): rabitum < *rabi'-lum, Surbzitum < *Surbu'-turn.
s. m. nom. gen. ace. f. nom. pi. m. nom. obi. f. nom.

',.,

*rabi3um *rabi'im rabi'am rabitum *rabi'zitum *rabi'zitim rabi'iitum

> rabiim
> rabim

> rabim
> rabiitum > rabiitim > rabitum

*rubZ'um > rubtitn *ruba'im > r u b h *rubdam > rubam *rubd'C > rubii Xrubd'i > rub2

fwnlian iwnlim siirnlh

512. Typical variations in form between masc. and fern. o r between fern. sing. and plur. are due to such factors as vowel loss, vowel insertion, and consonant assimilation:

of

*spr is the nominal stem Sipr- o r the full

The root *prs is used as a summary indication of forms: thus the pirs form form Siprum; its paris form is E p i r - o r

Sapinim.

'damiq-um > damqum 'good', f. damiqtum, m. pi. da?i~qzitum, f. pi. damqdtum (vocalic elision in m. and f. pi.: 984b)

LESSON 1

512

LESSON 1

*pitlh-tiim > piilul~tiim'fear', pi. pulhatwn; **-ttim > ril~i~fiim 'inundation', pi. ri/gatuin (simplification of triple consonant in sing. by vowel insertion: S83n) "iaii-turn > iatliim 'year', pi. ia115tut11(assimilation of n in sing.: 883e) *libti-turn > lihittiini 'brick', pi. libiiatiim (vowel insertion; assimilation of 11).

Vocabulary cilia (prep.): to armini: sin, crime; punishment airiim: place ai.?ii111 (prep.): because of, concerning; (conj.): because a~~~iliinr: man biturn (m.), pi. bit5t11111 (f.): house dantiii~ti,f. datinatiinr: strong, powerful errelurn, pi. errFnitir. curse, malediction ezzi1111, f. ezzetiim: angry gitin~ilunr.perfect, noble iliitii, pi. ilil or il~i~~fi: god ina (prep.): in, among, from within, with (instrumental) iiatiim (f.), pi. iiafdiiim: fire iilu (prep.): from kahrut~i,f. 1cuhittu111:heavy, honored, important (person) kadrurn: wild, fierce ktina (prep.): as, like; (conj.): as, that, when ma/inii~i:front niarpm, f. m a r u i r i ~ ~~~ ( <^IJIUriistum}: sick, difficult, painful ~iiiil (f. pi.): people piiiqiim: difficulty rabtit~i<*rclhiiim. f. rabTlwn: great ri~niim:wild bull sapljiit~i, f. sapihtum: scattered iamim <*fafiinm, f. ianiimii: second, other iarmm: king 117111h~irum: battle 11i111111im (f.): mother wardsim: slave, servant wui!~im: difficult, hard, fierce zikarum or zikruni (584b): male, man

513. uhiit~z 'brother' and ahiim 'father' form the plural with consonant reduplication: uhkil, ahhfi.
$14. The adjective normally follows the noun it modifies. The adjective may serve as a substantive; in this case it normally retains adjectival declension (with masc. plur. -fittim), but note sibu111 'grey (-haired one), witness' with double plural Sibil 'witnesses' and iibiltiim 'elders'. A noun construction in Akkadian may sometimes be translated with an adjectival phrase: zir f a r ~ ~ i t i(lit. m 'seed of kingship') 'royal offspring'. 515. On learning cuneiform signs. Note that consonants final in a sign-value are indeterminate, the same sign representing voiced (b, g, d, z), voiceless (p, k, f , s) and emphatic consonants (q, (, s) of the same locus of articulation; thus ad, at, and at are all expressed by the same sign AD;its value may be represented most economically in sign-lists as ad, representing the three possibilities acl/t/t. Similarly II as iblp, uz as uz/s/.s etc. the sign 10 may be realized as ig/k/q, F Consonants initial in a sign-value are more clearly distinguished in writing, but in OB distinct signs for the emphatics are not yet in common use; tliese are usually represented by signs which indicate primarily the voiced or voiceless homorganic consonant. Thus initial q is indicated by GA (to be read qh) and K I (read qi), ( by TU (Hi), s by zu (.nil or by su. We have seen (54e, 2) that most signs containing i may also be read with e: thus DI may be read di or de, and similarly LI, 0 1 etc. There are some exceptions: hi and he are different signs, as are ti and re, ni and tie, i i and 5.

Cuneiform signs (The first column gives the sign, in its Neo-Assyrian form; the second gives common phonetic values, with post-OB values in parentheses; the last column gives logographic values.) Signs Phonetic Logographic
AN = AIII~III 'the god AN = ~ f l l l l l ?'Sky' DINGIR = i/liIi~ "god'

w
4

Anum'

CTI

LESSON I

Signs -

Phonetic

= biturn 'house' E.GAL = ekallum 'palace'

ra gal. meS a

NOMINAL DECLENSION, 11: ABSOLUTE AND CONSTRUCT STATE. PRONOMINAL SUFFIXES $16. Nominal states. In addition to the status rectus considered in Lesson 1, the Akkadian noun appears in two other 'states': the absolute state (status absolutus) and construct state (status constructus). The latter is found in all Semitic languages, the former only in Akkadian and (with a different function) in the Aramaic dialects.

(a00

GAL =

rabiiin 'great'

bit, pti, (gid, qid, sir, Sir)

G~D(.DA)= arkiiin 'long'

MES

(sign of plurality)

A(.MES) = mil 'water' (plur.) Exercise

errett~~ dannum, ~t, ezzu~~~,*rt~ba'wn, I. Decline Sarrwn, Sarratti~~i, Sa~iilm. 2. Normalize (cf. 54c.5) and translate: a-wi-lam. wa-ar-dim. ni-Si saf,-ap-~a-ti~n. ar-nam kab-lain, Sar-rn-urn gi-it-ma-lum. p w S - q i wa-as-gi-tik ;-ria jar-ri. Annul ra-bti-~~t~i. aS-sum er-re-tim. ilc , rabt/tti~ii. ~ I I I I I I I I ~ I I I ra-bi-tt~m. i-na ta~~z-/~a-ri-im. ki-ma i-Sa-tim ez-zc-tim. er-re-tam ma-ri/-tiS-tar?~.ri-111tt-ti111ka-ad-rt/-1/171. S a r r w d a - n h . a i - h m zi-ka-ri-im Sa-ni-im. a-na as-ri-im Sa-ni-im. is-tu bitim. i-na ma-ah-ri-im. 3. Translate into Akkadian: powerful kings. great men. the honored god. angry gods. another place. in the fire. from the battle. like a slave. 4. Cuneiform:
,

817. Absolute state. This is formally characterized by loss of case endings: zikar < zikanim, Sarrat < S a r r a t m , sinnif (with loss of f. -1) < si~iiiiitiim.It occurs with relative rarity, and functions chiefly in numerals and measures of length, weight, etc. which accompany them (these will be discussed in $76) and in frozen adverbial and adnominal expressions: iar la fan611'king who cannot be rivalled', aiia dzr 'forever', zikar II sinniS 'male and female', jeher ii rabi 'young and old'.
$18. The construct state is the unaccented form of the noun which immediately precedes another noun in the genitive (bet bitim 'lord of the house') or a verbal clause in the subjunctive (aivzl iqbil 'the word (which) he said', $37); the nominal form preceding a pronominal suffix is similar (be/-Su 'his lord'), and will also be discussed here. In general it may be said that the noun in construct position takes the shortest form which is phonetically possible. Where (according to the norm of $83n) phonetic adaptation is needed to avoid final biconsonance, the specific adaptation used will depend on the origii, of the word: we must distinguish e.g. a formation pars (pirs, purs) such as mahriim (siprum, Suhnuni) from a formation paris such as faknum < Sakiniim (cf. 584b) and from feminines such as Subtinn, formed on a base sub- < *wjb fern. -I-. There follows a schematic overview of the forms normal in OB; for translation see the vocabularies.

^a3T^^an;
H+

H^

^-;

rH

7 ~ < ;
?7^;

^ 7

n^ Ti-^;
)^
;

fl"T tffIT ; W^t-^-;

tf, H-7 Hf Tr<

^^TfflTT^
ilti

o r adjective: thus ~1~~1n.hlE3, DING~R.DINGI~, and ~INGIH.G,%L,GAL all indicate gods' (with rcibutmn 'great added in the last phrase].

' -Plurdlity may also be indicated by reduplication of the logogram for noun

LESSON 2

618

LESSON 2

19

oup with differenit forms before genitive and suffix: i. Before a genitive: a. mimation, nunation, and short case endings are lost: bFl bitim, ana be1 bitim, aKat aivilim; long case endings are retained: belli bitim, bell bitim b. but biconsonantal stems (such as ab- 'father' < *'ab-) generally add -i for all cases: obi bitim, idi awilim c. polysyllabic fern. stems in -I- and monosyllabic stems which end in a reduplicated consonant add -i for all cases (cf. $8311): nidiiui awilim, !uppi aivili~?i,libbi awilim, ummi farrim; by exception, the monosyllabic stem farr- may simplify lo ,fur: iarri or 3v 11iStiin d. bisyllabic masc. stems ending in double consonant simplify it: kunuk awiliin e. stems ending in a vowel may follow rule a above (rabi bitim, kala rnitim), but the final vowel may be lost (rab bitim, kal rnitim), and -a may be replaced by -i (kali]; long -a is usually replaced by the gen. ending -S < -a-i, cf. $84e (ruba'um, constr. rube). ii. Before suffix (other than -i): a. mimation, nunation, and short case endings in sing. nom./acc. are lost: bilfii, massii (< *~?~at-fu, $830, but 1?1ataliisit,
ill&

c. final -I of monosyllabic fern. stems (fiib-t-urn) is usually replaced by -at (iubat awili~ti,Jubassii), but sometimes a helping vowel (l,i,c and l,ii,c above) is employed (qifti awilim, qistaka). 3. The above summarizes the formations found in OB. but it should be noted that in other dialects, and sometimes even in OB, treatment may differ: what remains constant is the avoidance of final double consonance and the tendency to lengthen words that are shorter than usual, but the means taken can change. 4. Survey of forms (cf. $84i on secondary length): (i) Simplest type:
with genitive norn. with suffix gen. bel-Sit bili-Sit

1 ace. 1

b. short case endings are retained (and secondarily lengthened: 584i) in gen. sing. and in fern. plur.: ana belisii, matafiisii, ana t~zaiitii~ c. polysyllabic fem. stems in -t- and stems which end in a reduplicated consonant add -a for nom./acc. sing.: nidi~itafu, tuppaiu, libbaki, kumikkafu, u r n m a h i , farrafii d. biconsonantal stems (abiim, a/nun), stems from roots with a third weak consonant (marum < *mar'iim, bisiim < *bisjiim) and vocalic stems in -a (kalfmi < *kala-tim) generally retain case endings throughout sing.: abiisu, abifu, a b a h , bifiisii, t~~aruSit, kaluSu < *kala-11-fii, r u b h (but the i-stem bt?uiwn forms bitiffit according to a above).

(ii) Special types:

libbum kuniikkum nfahrum Siprum Sitlnium saktii~tfi< 'iakiiwm Subtum qistum nidiiuntii libbi awilim kuniik awilim mabar awilim Sipir awilim iulum awilim inkin niatim iubal aw'ilim qiSli awilim nidimti awilitn mabar-Su iipr-i libb-i libbi-ja

1 maki-sit
1 Sipri-ja

2. Group with single form before genitive and suffix (except -i): a. pars, pirs, purs (mahr-, sipr-, Sulm-) repeat their first vowel: mahar aivilim, fipirsii, iulumkww b. forms such as faknum < *fak/111;1?7resulting from vowel elision ($84b) restore the lost vowel: fakin 11iili171,f a k i n h ~

LESSON 2

518

$20

LESSON 2

21

with genitive
"om.
baGm <*baniu~n

ace.

with suffix gen. nom.

acc.

gen.

binilbiii awiiim binit-i bini~i-ja

520. Possessive pronominal suffixes are used with prepositions (54,2and nouns; with the latter they may indicate possession or other functions of the genitive (objective gen., subjective gen.). The forms are: Singular 1st 2nd 2nd 3rd 3rd person m. f. m. f.
-1, -ma -ka -ki -fll -5a

Plural
-1

<
rubiim < ' r u b i ' i i m rub! alini < *rubS-i gen.

*kaia-i

-kimii -kina
-sullll

rub8 < *rub,?-i ab-i abi-ja

-5ina

For the learner, it is important to recognize the markers distinguishing one form from another in this sub-system, and all forms in it from the case endings of the status rectus: thus abi (bitim) and !lippi (awili~i~) are not necessarily genitive, nor p p p a h necessarily accusative; siibtiiu cannot be nominative o r accusative; ~t~iss cannot u be genitive. $19. In place of the construction construct + genitive (be1 ~~~ita im periphrasis ) may be used: status rectus + f a + genitive ~ , bilim f a malim}. 5a '(the one) o f derives from (bCliiin fa m i l i ~ iana the determinative pronoun iu (663). This periphrasis must be used when the principle noun would be separated by an adjective from the genitive: *.?or dannum mdtim is impossible, and must be replaced either by iarrum dannum f a mitim or by i a r matim danmim 'mighty king of the land'. The 5a construction is also frequently used to avoid ambiguity when the construct state has the same form as the status rectus (e.g. the nom. pi. behi), or to avoid a stylistically heavy construct chain (thus mar iarrim fa mat Haiti 'the prince of Hatti-land' avoids the cumbrous mar far mi! Haiti).

The 1st sing. suffix takes three forms in standard OB: -iafter a noun in nom./acc. sing., -ja after gen. sing./oblique plur., but this is reduced to -a after nom. pl. (transcribed belua 'my lords'. or with explicit notation of the syllable boundary, belu'a). Thus b 'my lord', assdtii'a 'my wives', ana bZlija 'to my l o r d ' ,a i ~ a b G a 'to my lords'. 'his Note (5830 that dentallsibilant + 5 > ss: *111il-i11> ~nassu land'. *re:-fa > ressa 'her head'. Vocabulary abtlm, pi. a6bU: father a h , pi. ahhi: brother ai5atum (stem *'ant-): wife awatiiin, pi. awztum: word *baniurn, banui77: builder, maker bFltuin, pi. belitiim: lady, mistress beliim: lord, master, owner b i h : possession *diriut>~, d 5 n h : (evertlasting dirturn; judgment, legal case ekallum ( < Sum. E.GAL): palace eli: on, upon; elisii 'on it' (584i) eqlum (m.), pi. eqlCtum (f.) (*!lql}: field e r r E m (*/!r(): (tenant-)farmer erjetum: earth
esemtiim, pi. e~metum: bone hulqum: lost object idum: arm, side M :eye itti (prep.): with; ittiiu 'with him' (684i) kaliim: totality, entirety kunukkiim: cylinder seal libbiim: heart, center, middle iMard11k the god Marduk, patron of Babylon mZrum: son ti~atum(f.), pi. matitunr: land miiaruin (*jir): justice nidinlum, nidittiim: gift q a t u ~ (f.): ? ~ hand

LESSON 3

LESSON 2

qiftum: present, gift rF'Ututii: shepherdship "TiibS'iitii, rubiim: prince, noble .?ehrum, f. sehertum: small sibtutii, construct jibat ( * w b ) : interest (on capital) jirwn, f. jirlum: exalted f a h u m (< *fakimim): governor faliistum: one third (f. of the ordinal falsiim 'third') *fama'zi, famil (m. pi.): sky, heavens

farralitin: queen farriiliim: kingship fipnitii: work siibtutti: seat, dwelling fultiiiit?~: wholeness, health siimutii: name, offspring ~ q u r u m f. , .fziqiirtutiz (*Msqr): very costly, precious twptim: (clay-)tablet ir and zZrum: seed sittutti: share (of properly)

Exercise

Signs
i'r, Cr ti, ti'

Cuneiform signs Phonetic

ip. =

Logographic
wardimi 'slave, servant'
= bal@iim 'to live'

1. Normalize and translate: be-el fa-me-e it er-.ye-titii. a-ra-an tfi-trim. i-na qh-at mar a-~vi-lim.of-ia-at a-wi-lim. af-fa-sfi. warad ekullim. far mi-Sa-t%iin. li-ib-bi W a r d i l c . zZriim da-ri-iim fa .far-ni-tim. mar a-wi-lim se-eh-ra-am. fa-111-iis-ti eqlim. .yi-ba-sii. it-ti he-el-ti-fa. be-le-s2. e-li-sii. it-ti-iu-nu. re-ti-si-nu. be-el-ni. esemti warad a-wi-litii. Siirii-fu .yi-ra-am. ;-nu li-ib-bi-3. a-nu be-li-iu. bis-sh (E-.su). :itla-sit. a-nu as-fa-ti-fu. a-wa-ti-ia Su-qC-ra-tim. di-ni. ma-sii. (1-nil 11;-si-iu.er-re-ium. er-re-su. be-el &-ul-qi-im. IJU-lu-uq-fii. 2. Translate into Akkadian: the man's son. with the man's son. his son. with his son. the man's brother. the man's work. the man's gift. the man's wife. the man's dwelling. his tablet. their seal. your heart. our maker. her son. my brother. his father. my possession. their bones. my word. her small queen. with my share. his tenant farmer. 3. Cuneiform:

TI(.LA)

ia, also ie, ii, in (liir) ad ga, qh id, ed ira, we, wi, i111i;pi, pe
TUR =

.$ehrum 'small' mirum 'son' abum 'father'

DUMU =

AD =
GA =

fizbum 'milk'

A = idum 'arm, side'

GESTU = iizmim 'ear'
IGI =
IGI
= =

si. litii

mum 'eye' pamim 'front', pi. 'face' hmutii 'thousand'

LIM

him, (hi',)

$23

LESSON 3

25

LESSON 3 G-STEM OF THE STRONG VERB (I) 521. The verb: general. Akkadian has some purely nominal stems such as ab- 'father', kalb- 'dog', with no adjectival or verbal cognates. Generally, however, words with verbal function lend themselves freely to the formation of cognates with nominal o r adjectival functions, and in the same way nouns or adjectives can cross functional lines. Thus we find the verb ifriq 'he stole', the adjective iarq~im'stolen', the noun farrZqt1177 'thief; from such a group of words we may isolate a root common to all: the consonantal sequence *.+a. which (as both its form and the asterisk indicate) is an abstraction never attested as such. Most such roots in Akkadian are triconsonanlal, but biconsonantal and quadriconsonantal verbs are also found. As in other Semitic languages, we distinguish the 'strong' verb (paradigm: partsiim 'to separate') from the various types of 'weak' verbs which undergo phonetic modification (assimilation of,i'[(j83e], disappearance of [&82j and 84c-f], etc.) and from irregularly formed verbs. 522. Stems. As in Hebrew or Arabic, Akkadian verbs are conjugated in several subsystems called 'stems'; these are distinguished by lack or presence of reduplicated and infixed or prefixed elements. There are four main stems, usually termed G , D , S , N or I, 11, 111, IV (G, from German 'Grundstamm', signifies the basic stem; D refers to the doubled middle radical which characterizes this stem; S and N indicate affixed elements i and n); the four stems correspond to Hebrew Qal, Pixel, Hifil and Nifal. Further stems can be formed from these by infixing -/a- or -tan-. The infixed stems are referred to as G t or 112, Gtn or 113, Dt or 11/2, Dtn or 1113, etc. 523. 'Tenses'. In each stem we find four finite forms, usually called tenses: (1) the 'present' (iparras) expresses a continuing action,

and is normally translated by an English present or future ('he builds, is building, will build'); (2) the 'preterite' (iprus) expresses an action as taking place at a single point in time, and is most often translated by a past narrative tense ('he built'); (3) the 'perfect' (iplaras) represents the verbal action in temporal relation to another action or to the present time, and is usually translated by a past tense ('he built', 'lie has built'); (4) the 'stative' (paris) expresses a state ('he is old') rather than an action or process ('he becomes old'). In addition to the four tenses, each stem has an imperative, a nominal form (the infinitive), and two adjectival forms (participle and verbal adjective). 524. Verb types and vocalic classes. Akkadian verbs divide into two basic groups: those having an originally verbal function of expressing action or process, which we may call action-verbs, and verbs derived from adjectives and expressing the inception o r existence of a state, which we may call state-verbs. Action-verbs are found in four classes characterized by different stem-vowels (the stem-vowel is the vowel preceding the final radical in finite forms); the classes are designated by the stem vowel of the G pres. (iparras) and the G pret. (ipras). a111 class (iparrus ipms 'separate') a class (isabbat isbat 'seize) u class (irappud irpud 'run') i class. (ipaqqid ipqid 'entrust') The relation of these patterns to verbal meaning is not rigid, and a shift from one vowel class to another is not infrequent; nonetheless the following general tendencies are observable: the a/u and a classes contain transitive verbs; the ti class intransitives; the i class transitives whose result is produced by a momentary action, and some intransitive verbs of motion. State-verbs are predominantly of the i type, but the stem vowel a is also found: dati1Eqt1111 'to become good': idammiq, ilimiq; paiabim 'to be at peace, calm down': ipaiiah, &$ah. 525. The preterite (iprus, isbat, etc.) is formed by adding prefixes and suffixes to a base -prus- (-{bat-, -paid-). It normally represents a simple past action (isbat 'he seized') or the inception of a state (idmiq 'he improved'). The forms of parasum follow:

'

' Finite forms are those which express a predication

LESSON 3

$28

LESSON 3

27

Sing. 3c. 2m. 2f. 1c.

iprus taprus laprusi aprus

Plur. 3m. 3f. 2c. 1c.

ipr~~sU iprusa taprusi ~~iprris

(In the other vocalic classes, the proper stem vowel should be 1 : isbat, /asbat, taqbati; irpud, tarpud.) substituted throughout for 1 Note that in OB the 3rd sing. form is common to masc. and fern. ('helshe separated'); other dialects preserve a distinctive fern. form tapriis 'she separated'. A 3rd person dual iprusi is also found, but is generally replaced by the plural.
$26. The present of action-verbs represents continuous: irappud 'he runs, is running, will run'. In the present has an ingressive sense: iboll~i{ 'he comes to health, he will get well'. The present is characterized by reduplication of radical; its conjugation parallels the preterite:

as iebFrum, erFbum see $84f-g). Because of its double character as verbal and nominal form, the infinitive may be used in verbal constructions with accusative object (these will be discussed in $75) o r in nominal constructions such as construct state + genitive; itla is used to express time, ana finality: ina parisika 'when you separate' (lit. 'in your separating') give me a boat ana rakibija 'that I may ride in it' (Tor my riding') aria sakip nakrinz 'in order to overthrow the enemy' ('for the overthrowing of the enemy'). $29. The (active) participle has in the G-stem the form pfirisum, with normal adjectival declension (f. piiristiim, m. pi. pirisutiim, f. pi. pirisiliin~).The ptc. normally functions as a noun, i.e. it governs a genitive rather than an accusative: palib Him 'godfearing (person)'. State-verbs ($24) do not form a ptc. (*dCmiqunz); its place is taken by the corresponding adjective (danzquin). $30. The verbal adjective has in the G-stem the form parsum
(< *parisum), with adjectival declension. The verbal adj. of

action as state-verbs, enjoy good the middle

Sing. 3c. 2m. 2f. 1c.

iparras taparros taparrasi aparras

Plur. 3m. 3f. 2c. 1c.

iparrasU iparrasci laparrasi niparras

with regular substitution of other stem vowels in irappud, ipaqqid.

action-verbs is normally passive in sense: babilum 'to treat unjustly', awilum bablwn 'a wronged man'; compare the verbal adj. from state-verbs damqum 'good', ballum 'living'.

$27. The imperative, expressing positive commands, is formed on the preterite base *priis, *$bat, *rp~id, *pqid. In the masc. sing., an initial biconsonantal cluster is resolved by insertion of a vowel ($8311); this is usually the same as the stem vowel (punis, sabal, riipzid, piqid), but in some a class verbs the vowel i is inserted (limad 'learn!', pilab 'fear!', rikab 'ride!', tikal 'trust!'). When an ending is added, the vowel preceding it is elided. sing. masc. piinis ?abut l i d rupud piqid sing. fem. pursi qabti 1i11zdi r~ipdipiqdi plur. comm. piirsa sabta limdi nip& piqdi (The form taken by negative commands will be seen in 547.) par$28. The infinitive is a declined verbal noun which is patterned in the G-stem (for phonetically conditioned variants such

531. A nominal sentence is one without a Finite verbal form as predicate. It is often characterized by an independent pronoun ($54,4) or the enclitic -ma (40,3)
Adad &rrum-ma 'Adad is king' ill abi olia 'you are not my father' salimatum f a awil Ehunna da@m-ma 'the alliances of the ruler of Eshnunna are treachery'. 532. A verbal sentence normally has the order: Subject - Object Indirect object - Verb: iarrum eqlam ana awTlin~iddin 'the king gave the man a field'. The final position of the verb, which is unusual in Semitic, is probably due to Sumerian influence.

LESSON 3

LESSON 3

Vocabulary a l S h (pres. illak, pret. illik further forms will be seen in $68): to go daj~iiIIull1: judge iqiini: tree, wood kaspum: silver ka~adum(alii): to reach, arrive at, conquer maljc@um (a): to beat, strike mil (plur. <*ma';): water naddnum (pres. i~~addin, pret, iddin < *iiidin: 583e): to give; (ma kaspim) 11adimun: to sell nakas~ittl (pres. inakkis, pret. ikkis: 583e): to cut down, cut off natllk~ir~im: possession (*mkr, cf. $83~) nag?riiin (pres. inaqur, pret. i w r : 583e): to guard, keep I I ~ ~ Ioath I I : (lit. life); usually in ins Him: (oath) by the life of a i and the like god, t ~ i .farrim III~~~SUIJI: abundance paliihum (a): to fear, reverence paqidum (i): to care for (ace ). to entrust (ace.) to (ana/dat.) parisum (a/n): to cut, divide paiEfiim (i): to erase, efface pinn: mouth (construct state: pi) *pur~issS'~im, piirussilm: decision; purussiim p a r k : to make a decision ~ ~ ~ S I I I (it): I I I Ito I claim, raise a legal claim ritliim (f., *r!~f): wrist, hand ~abSlum (a): to seize iakin11111(alii): to put, place, set faqilum (alii): to weigh (out), Pay sarSkum (alu): to present, give iarSqum (i): to steal iebkim (i, pres. iiebbir, leiebbir, eiebbir; pret. iibir, teibir, eibir; v. adj. iebr11111;cf. $ 8 4 ~ ) to : break siimma (conj,): if zakarum (alii): to speak, say, name JI, ina!~ar(constr. of I I I ~ ~ J I ~ I see lesson I): in front of, before Signs

Cuneiform Signs Phonetic

;u
S. eg
Wl

= idiini 'to know'

:U =

1~111ddum 'to learn'

~ A L= ba51j111 'to be'

z, ez, (gii, gi:)

hi, (qad)

31s =
=

iq1o11'tree, wood' qititln 'hand' *ama(sun-god) peqGn 'white' ^Adad (storm-god)

su ((1, 114, tarn, pir, (par, lab u4

/;/I, / i f f , Ill)
~

= iimum 'day'
T
= U

BABBAR =
~ I ~ K U= R

IM =

[ i t p n 'clay' ,&rum 'wind' ellurn 'pure, holy' kaspum 'silver'

IM =

KU =

KU.BABBAR =

GUSKIN (written ~ 0 . ~ = 1)

/iurSvim 'gold'

Exercise

1. Normalize and translate: is-ru-uk. im-ha-a,?.ik-fii-lid, ip-5-il. mi-ia-ra-am i-sla p i ma-ti111 as-~II-IIII. ium-tiw da-a-a-mi-l1111 pu-rii-si-am ip-ru-1;s. a-wi-lwn namkur Him is-ri-iq. bit(bi's)-sfi if-ba-af. i-Sa-ak-lca-tw. i-nu-?a-or. i-pa-aq-qi-dci. ni-is i-lit11 i-za-kar.

30

LESSON 3

i-ra-ag-p-wn. i-ie-eb-bi-ru. i-.ya-am i-na-ak-ki-su. rilta-sit i-nu-ki-st!. kaspam i-ia-qa-hi. bit-sii a-na kaspim i-no-ad-di-i~i.pa-li-ilj i-li. ia-ki-in me-e nu-rib-sim a-na ni-Si-sii. pa-qi-id bi-~ini.i-nu a-la-ki-fii. a-~ia ka-fa-dim. bi-twn nu-ad-nu-um. 2. Conjugate in pret., pres. and imp. and give ptc. and verbal ~ ~ ~ , ieb~?r~im. adj.: / c a S i d ~ iiar~iqim, 4. Translate into Akkadian: you raised a claim. he reverences the gods. he struck the man. my lord broke his tablet. I entrust my father to the gods. he placed his gift before the god. he is weighing out silver in his father's house. he effaced my words. when you arrive. in order to guard his house. the seized man. 5. Cuneiform:

G-STEM O F STRONG VERB (11). VERBAL SUFFIXES. VENTIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE

$33. The stative is a conjugated form of the verbal adjective parswn ( < *parism). It designates atemporally a state or the lasting effect of an action: damiq 'he is (was, will be) good' (state-verb), paris 'it is (was, will be) decided' (action-verb). In action-verbs it is usually passive in sense (sabit 'he is in captivity'), but occasionally active (biiam Jabit 'he possesses a house'). The stative of action-verbs is formed on a base paris, in which the i is elided when an ending is suffixed. State-verbs also usually have the base paris, but may have the base parus or paras: mar ti^ 'he (a), rapaf 'it is wide' < rapakim (i). The forms is sick' < tiiaras~i~~i of the stative are: Plur. 3m. pars; Sing. 3m. paris 3f. parsat 3f. pars3 2m. pars~it~imi 2m. parscia If. parsati 3f. parsaiiria 1c. parsakti 1c. parsanu
Any noun or adjective may be used with stat. endings and function as a predicate: iarraku ' I am king', iar 'he is king' < iarrum (noun) rabiata, rabita 'you are great' < rabum (adj.) damqi 'they are good' < damqum (adj.) or dar?~aqum (vb.). Non-final -a- of the stative endings > e in accordance with 584f: be/, bilet, bileta, bileti, bileku, be/;, held, biletti~z~i, bil?tina, bFlt%u.
534. The perfect is formed by infixing -((a)after the first radical. Though this tense shares forms with the stems that infix -(a)-, it must be clearly distinguished from them. Like other tenses, the perfect expresses aspect of action, whereas the derived stems have a lexical significance.

LESSON 4

LESSON 4

33

The G perfect has the following forms: Sing. 3c. 2m. 2f. 1c. iptaras taptaras taplarsi aptaras Plur. 3m. 3f. 2c. 1c. @tars: iptarsi taptarsd tiiptaras

3. Note that when an ending is added, the final vowel of the base form is elided: *iptaras-ti > iptarsfi.

m. Pronominal suffixes, accusative and dative, may be added

to all finite forms of the verb, indicative or subjunctive, and to the imperative: i h k u 'they gave', isntkiiii 'they gave himlit', i.fri~kuswn 'they gave to him'. The forms are as follows: Dative Accusative Sing. 1c. 2m. 2f. 3m. 3f. Plur. 1c. 2m. 2f. 3m. 3f. -11i -/<a -hi
i l l

In dependent temporal and conditional (439) clauses, when the main verb is future, imperative or volitional (42) the perf. indicates a futurum exactum (i.e. a future prior to the future of the main clause): they (shall) have dispatched the boats' istu sibii111K iktaidakkiim sibam E t i ana pr ahika girdam 'after those men (shall) have come to you, send those men to your brother' For use of the perfect in conditional clauses see 539. In independent clauses, the perf. has the following uses: (a) in OB we often find a perfect after one or more preterites, and usually connected to them by - i q this sequence, pret. -ma perf. (the so-called sequence of tenses or 'consecutio temporum'), expresses past actions performed in sequence:
~II~~III eleppFti11i CI issakpfi 'when

-am -l<lllll -kill1 -sum

-sim

-5

-nidli -kiinUti -kinati -illllUti -sinat;

-1l~Liiilll -/c~i~iIISim -kinasill1 -.kiiUSim -iinZini

ihliqn~a i~abtfisii 'he fled but they caught him' ana ON astiiqma diam idti aslypma assabal ' I reached GN, and overran and seized that city' (b) the perfect (like the pret.) may be used as an 'epistolary tense', expressing actions from the temporal viewpoint of the letter's recipient, not its sender (this usage is often introduced bv the ~, ---adverbs amimma 'herewith' or ~ I I ~ ~ 'now'); I I I ~ translation is best given in the present:
-

Wppianniam aftaprakkum ' I send this letter of mine to you' anurnma astaprakki~~?~/aip~irakkum 'I herewith write to you' manna agardakkiim 'I now send to you'. 1. For the assimilation of t of the infix to the first- radical in forms like issabat < *istabat, igdamar < *wlamai; see 583h. 2. The stem vewel of the perf. is identical with that of the G pres.: iplaras, isjabat, irtapud, iptaqid.

1. The 1st sing. dat. form -am is used only after endingless verbal forms (isnik, ~asriik, a h i k , niir~ik: e.g. isnik-am 'he gave to me'); after -i of the 2nd fern, sing. verb, it is reduced to -111 (/afruki-m 'you gave to me'), and after , : -a of the 2nd and 3rd plur. verb, it is replaced by -nhi (iir~~kfi-nim 'they gave to me'). 2. Note again that dentallsibilant + i > ss ($830 in ipqissn < "ipqid-iu, i~~i&assii < *;t?i&aj-i~~ and similar forms. 3. Dat. and ace. suffixes may be used together, with dat. preceding; in this case final -111 of the dat. assimilates to a following consonant: iiruk-fii~iiin < *iirnkzX~im-sii 'they gave it to him'. 4. Loss of mimation in the dat. occurs toward the end of OB; this brings about loss of distinction between some forms of dat. and ace. ( I I ~ ki, , ill, si), and is accompanied by increasing confusion between dat. and ace. suffixes in general.
$36. The ventive. A special form of the verb, usually called the ventive, is formally identical with verb + 1st sing. dat. suffix -a~i~/-m/-niiii; choice of form follows the norms given in 35, (iprus-am, taprusi-m, ipri~sfi-nim). The form seems to be a A development from the dat. 'to me', but the original dat. sense of the

34

LESSON 4

0 8

LESSON 4

35

$36

suffix has been lost. With verbs of motion, the ventive ending may 'he came'), and indicate direction 'Ether' (illik 'he went', but illilcaii~ it is from this sense that the name ventive derives; inmany instances, however, the ending appears to have a stylistic rather than a lexical takaiiad 'you will arrive to me' significance; sentences like ana ~Crija '1 I~ will I~ (motion hither, no ventive marker), alla *ilia a l i a i i a d - ~ I ? I arrive to you' (motion thither, ventive marker) are common. With verbs of motion and other verbs, the ventive is especially common before -!?la and pronominal suffixes, dative and accusative, especially 1st sing. ace. (isbat-an-11i 'he seized me') and all dat. suffixes except 1st sing., with which it would be identical (iirlik-ak-ksilil 'he gave to you' but ifrlik-am 'he gave to mex). Final , -111 ofventive - a n ~-HI , and -11iniassimilates to a following consonant: fqbatzi-llii~-ni, tafritki-f-siim. adi allakam 'until I go (there)' alarradakk~ifili~na < *alarrad-a~?l-hm-fii-ma ' I will send him to you' ummaiiadim ipta[ral~i~f~ ana ON i k i ~ d d m m 'the troops left and reached GN' 1. Since dat. suffixes 'to me' and ventive endings are formally identical, it may occasionally be unclear which is intended. Generally, if a verb is found with clear dat. suffixes (i.frliksiim etc.), - ~ I I I / - m / - n imay m be taken as dat.; if it is not (thus *irapplidufum is not found) the endings may be taken as ventive. 2. Loss of mimation occurs toward the end of OB, so that in later periods the ventive endings are -a and -;I;, with no special ventive form in the 2nd fern. sing.

538. The subjunctive. Finite verbal forms (pret., pres., perf., stat.), when they are used in dependent clauses, stand in the subjunctive mood. The negation of dependent clauses is expressed hv -, Id. whereas the negation of independent clauses is usually expressed by ill (see $50). The subi. is formed by adding -u to verbal forms which d o not have an ending (ipriis, taprus, aprlis, iliprus, paris. iparms etc.); verbal forms with an ending (-is- z i -a. -at, and the ventive endings) remain unchanged, and have therefore a common form in indic. and subj.: iprus 'he separated', farrum fa ipr~isli 'the king who separated', iniima iprusu 'when he separated' iprusli 'they separated', farrzi fa ipmszi 'the kings who separated', aifum i p r M 'because they separated' i k h d a m %e arrived', farrum fa la ik511da111 'the king who did not arrive', warki f a r m ilisiida~il'after the king arrived' balil 'he is in good health', iarrlim fa bal(11'the king who is in good health' ballat 'she is in good health', farraflim fa baltat 'the queen who is in good health' eqlum nadin 'the field is given', kima nadmi 'under the conditions of the grant' (lit. 'as it was/is given').

--.

$37. Some conjunctions (subjunctions) which introduce dependent clauses are imima 'when', lama 'before', w a k i 'after', a S u m 'because'. The verbs in such clauses are in the subjunctive mood ($38). Relative clauses also are in the subjunctive; these are mostly introduced by fa 'who. whom. which' (the use of fa will be discussed more fully in $63); in OB the construction noun in s t i i t u s -.~ constructus + verb in subjunctive expresses a relative clause: tern allizadu 'the news which I learned' ($18).

539. Summa 'if introduces a nominal clause or a clause in the indicative; the negative is la. The pres. and stat. in a funima-clause have their normal range of meaning; the pret. indicates temporal priority to the main verb, and the perf. appears to have much the same sense, though some scholars claim for it an additional hypothetical nuance. In lawcodes, to fit usage in European languages, pret. and perf. are sometimes translated as present. a iSriq/isluriq 'if he stole' . <tifui/ bitani inhihla iifariq 'if he broke into a house and stole' (consecutio temporum, 534) i m m a 11aIcr;i111 ana ~Crilca p a a m iftakllam 'if the enemy turns in your direction' (futurum exactum, 534).
640. Other coninnctions are coordinating, and do not necessitate use of the subjunctive. 1. There are two apparently homonymous conjunctions H . u 'and' ( < %a) is a simple coordinating conjunction uniting

36

LESSON 4

LESSON 4

37

sentences, phrases, or single words. H 'or' ( < *an') unites single words (nouns or verbs). The two conjunctions are not graphically distinguished in cuneiform, but must be distinguished by context. 2. lit ... lG 'either ... or' unites phrases and single words; lit kaspam hi hur6~amI7 hi minima siimSu '(if he stole) either silver or gold or anything whatsoever'. 3. The enclitic particle -ma has two main functions besides that of marking nominal sentences ($31). (a) Affixed to a single word, it is a particle of emphasis: aniikuma 'I myself, ilia mzEimma 'on that same night'. (b) Affixed to the verb of one clause and preceding another verbal clause, it has conjunctive force; unlike the simple coordinating conjunction u, however, it implies a temporal o r logical sequence between the two clauses. It may often be translated 'and, and then', but other translations may be required by the context: ik.~itclamma fe'am istariq 'he arrived and stole the barley' (534) @bum a!rzidnw g z t m ul iIciudI7 'I have sent workers, but the beams have not arrived' a111iIiSarutim ta!arradma ipatgarunim 'if you send rich men, they will desert' 5itpiirma bE'iri lisniqG11ikk11117 'write so that they will muster military auxiliaries for you'.

iarrciqwn: thief Sagiirum (alit): to write Siqlm: shekel = ca. 8.3 grams t ~ ~ ~ i l c a merchant r~t~t~: taradurn (alii): to send (a person) ( h u m (v71i): news, report, decision

ii: or ill: not waliidum (pres. rtllad, pret. itlid): to bear, give birth to (ace.) iilarfe!'. after

Cuneiform signs Signs Phonetic

~IJ=

Logographic ill, la 'not'

'lit

ri, re, (dal), tal, lal a1 da, !a ma Sa mi, me, jil

G E ~ =

11117ium'night' siilmum 'health'

= ~almum 'black'

Vocabulary adi (prep.): until, as far as, together with; (conj.): as long as, until m a inkim, ammmi(m): why? atiiiku: I a~iitmma: now, herewith balitum (n): to live, be in health gimilliim: favor &alaqum (i): to be lost, destroyed, perish i~iiima:when krani: thus, as follows orchard, kiuim < *lciri'~t~~i: garden kittum (f. of kmitrtz): truth, justice; pi. kinaturn: justice lama: before 1 1 7 ... In: either ... or -ma: emphatic particle; connective particle miirtitm: daughter tiariHii (< NA~.RU.A): stele rfiwm: beloved 'isin: the moon-god sin~tiStiim: woman fa: who, whom, which (see 437) Sapiirwn (a/ii): send; send (a letter), write ('to' = dat.) di, ti, de, te

SILIM =

sA in s,A..s,A. = kaS?idttm 'to

reach' ki, ke, qi, qd
KI =
KI

ersetuni 'earth'

= U.?~I~III'place' (also as determinative: Babilum'")

DUR = ivaS3bum 'to sit,

dwell'

LESSON 4

Exercise
1. Normalize and translate: a-wi-lum far-ra-aq. siim-ma 111:ru-f~ .w-he-er. si~ini.vlumu-iil as-fa-at. eqhim ki-ma na-ad-11~1-111a na-di-k sin~iifl~i~?! ja m i r i wa-a/-da-at. a-na-ku mar-$a-ku. iz-za-knr, ih-fa-li-iq. if-fa-ra-ad. iwa-ha-at. i.v-$0-ba-as-si. a-flu-urn-ma Ri-Wl*S;II at-tar-da-ak-kum. a-fia Gi-mil-^Marduk as-tap-ra-am. fum-ina m/irum a-ba-& i ~ ~ i - t a - h - a ritta-vii $ i-?la-ak-ki-SI~. . ? I I I ? I - I I I ~ a-~i~i-him marat a-wi-lim im-ha-a$ kaspam i-fa-qal. i f - t u r - h . am-mi-nim if-pii-ra-am. ki-a-am is-pii-ru-nim. til-ur-da-ni-if-sii-nu-ti. kasap E-qi-/!t. h a p tamkirfim if-qfi-ln. a-~va-atiz-hi-rti. ajar il-li-ku. a-di ba-al-{a-at. fe^-ein k i r k Sn-up-ra-am, a-iva-at sni-&-ri-wi fa i-na narim as-[ti-ru. ^Samaf ki-na-tim i s - r u - u k - h . 2. Conjugate in the stative: iJalaqum, da1~iql4111, belum. 3. Conjugate ill the perfect: fa(:r1;1?1, faradam, iJalaqum, bal:{um. 4 Translate into Akkadian: He is a thief. Marduk and Anum are angry. it is lost. I have spoken. they have spoken. he sent you. he sent the man to you. he gave to them. he gave them. he went. she came. after he struck the man he wrote to me. if he struck either a king o r a slave he will perish. he cut the wood and then broke (it). 5. Cuneiform: 5 LESSON

Gt-STEM. MODALS. DEMONSTRATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES

$41. The Gt-stem is formed by infixation of -((a)- in the G-stem. The G t is used mainly to express (a) reciprocal (sometimes reflexive) action:
m a l j h n 'to face, encounter', m i t ~ r u m 'to face one another' magarum 'to please, agree', mitgurli~?~ 'to agree with one another' f:h 'to ask', iittilum 'to deliberate',
(b) in verbs of motion, motion away from (separative sense):

alakiim 'to go', atltikum 'to go away' e l h 'to go u p ' e t l ~ h 'to go up from, to lose'. Forms: Pres. Pret. Perf. Ptc. f. Imp. Inf. V . Adj. Stat. iptarras iptaqqid iptaras iptaqid iptatras iptatqid imiptarsum muptaqdufti mitptaristummuptaqittm pitras pitqid pitrusum pitqzidit111 *pitrustim *pitqudum pitrus pitqud irtaggum irtagiim irtatgum murtag~?i~i~?i murtagi111tti111 ritgiim ritgumum *ritgunwm ritgum

1. Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen in the G. Thus pres. iptarras, taptarras, etc.; pret. (identical in form with G perf.: $34 with note 3) iptaras, pi. iptarsti < *iptaras-u\ imp. pitras, fem. pilrasi, plur. pitrasi; stat. pilrits, pitrusal. 2. Pres., pret., perf. and imp. have the stem vowel of the G pres.; in the remaining forms, all verbs have the same vocalization. 3. Note that in all derived stems (stems other than G) of the regular verb, the infinitive, verbal adj., and stative have the same base form.

40

LESSON 5

5-11

545

LESSON 5

41

4. For metathesis of initial d / ! / s / ~ /with z infixed t in G t forms without prefix (e.g. tisbata < Qitbati 'grasp one another!', tidkusat < *ditk~tiat'is severed'), see 683i. For assimilation of t to first radical in forms with prefix (e.g. igdapui < *igtapui 'he has grown mighty'), see 583h. 5. In each simple stem, the forms of the perfect are identical with the t-stem preterite. One must determine whether such a form is (for example) a G perf. or a G t pret. on the basis of lexical attestation and context. Thus i m M s 6 in a military chronicle will normally be taken as G t pret. 'they fought' in view of the i m ,ihtabal will be taken as G perf. 'he well-attested G t m i l ~ t ~ ~but has wronged', since a Gt *hitbulum is not attested.

545. The particle lii has a further sense which must he clearly distinguished from the precative: preposed to a verb without crasis, it serves as a particle of emphasis: 16 alchd 'I indeed reached, I did reach' (emphatic) compare luksiid 'may I reach, I want to reach!' (precative).
$46. The vetitive expresses a negative wish, and is found in all persons. When addressed to or said of other persons, it has the character, not of a command (noli facere!) but of a strong request (ne facias, ne facial) to superiors or equals. It is expressed by the particle aj (before a vowel) or Z (before a consonant) and the preterite: aj i~?~&ur 'may he not receive!' aj amras 'may I not fall ill!' 2 tapxclaEi 'may you not send her!', 'don't send her!'
547. The prohibitive, or negative command, is formed by preposing the negative 15 to the present, and is found normally in the 2nd or 3rd person. A negative imperative is expressed by this form: the imperative form (527) may not occur after a negative. la tapallah 'don't be afraid!' libbaka Id imarra~ 'let your heart not be grieved!' (compare ti/ tapallah 'you are not afraid', libbaka ill imarras 'your heart is not grieved').
548. Questions may be indicated by an interrogative pronoun

842. Volitional (modal) constructions. There are two forms which express positive volition: the cohortative and the precative. Two forms express negative volition: the vetitive and the prohibitive.
543. The cohortative expresses exhortation in the 1st person plural; it is formed by preposing the particle i to the preterite:

i ninigiir 'let us agree'.

544. The precative expresses a wish (may ...!); it is formed by preposing the particle lS to the stative or the preterite.

hi + stative expresses a desired state, and is found with all persons:

hi baltita 'may you be in good health!' 1 6 dari 'may it be lasting!'. IS + preterite expresses a desired action, and is found in OB only with the 1st person sing. and 3rd person sing. and plur. The particle IS unites with the initial vowel of the verbal form; in Babylonian the resulting vowel is always 111- in 1st person sing., li- in 3rd person sing. and plur.: luksud 'may I attain!' lit11ha.y 'may he strike!' lipqid6 'may they entrust!'
Note that the 1st sing. precative is often best translated 'I wish 'I want to strike, I to', 'I must', or by an emphatic future: 1111f1has will strike'.

(who?, what?), adjective (which?), or adverb (why?, etc.). When these are not present. the interrogative character of the sentence may be indicated in writing by lengthening the last syllable of the most important word: eqlelim i-$a-ab-ba-lu-ti fi-111 i-sa-ab-ba-hi-fi (in place of declarative i-$a-ab-ba-111) 'can they take possession of the fields or not?'. Often, however, a question is not graphically distinguished from a declaration; depending on context, iarri k i may mean 'he is my king' or 'is he my king?'.

549. Demonstratives and interrogatives. The demonstrative pronouns are a n n h @nnium), fern. an~zittim 'this' and iillfim @illiimi),fern. ullitum 'that'. with normal adjectival declension. They may be used independently (airnilam liqbi 'let him say this') or 7 king'). 'That (person or thing modify a noun (iarnim 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 ~ 'that

42

LESSON 5

LESSON 5
549

43

already mentioned)' is expressed by the anaphoric 3rd person pronoun E (m. s. nom.), siiati (m. s. obl.), Sicti (f. s. obi.), h i G t i (m. pi. obi.); these may be used independently or modify a noun. (Full declension of fil will be presented in 554). The interrogative pronouns are manmim 'who?' (gen. inamiirn, ace. mannam} and m h r n 'what? (gen. minim, ace. I I I ~ ~ I ~ fnannum I~I): ikfudam 'who arrived?, ~~ifiiam isba[ 'what did he seize?'. Note also ~ I I ~ I I I ~ I 'why?; ~III missii 'what of that? (< *1izG1-si1 'its ana IIIUIII?~, what?). There is also a secondary form of 11iimm with shift of stress and length: mi~~zim. The interrogative adjective ajjum 'which?, what?' is normally used as a modifier (ina aj~itim niitim 'in what land?), but may also be used independently (ajJU177 ikfudam 'which one arrived?).

lahirum: old 111agir11m (aju): to agree to (ace.), welcome; Gt agree with (i~ti) someone about (am) I I I ~ I I I I who? I~I~: 111i1111112, miniiin: what? 111~jtilum (*.fsO: prudent qaqqadum: head (also serves as reflexive pronoun: qaqqadr = 'myself); qaqqadum kabtum: 'honored self, honor'

r e ' h (G ptc. of *r'i): shepherd yibtum, construct jibit (*sbt): agricultural holding, property faldmum (0:be whole, healthy E, *ti, fiati: that; fit~lziti:those ($49) 11111i1n:that watar (status absolutus used as adv.): further, excessively dZarpanitiim ( d ~ a r p a ~ ~ i t u ~ i ~ ) : goddess, spouse of Marduk

Cuneiform siens Signs Phonetic

.A =

Logographic prim 'mouth' q a h h 'to say' awfitiim 'word. affair' .fasum t o cry'

550. Negation. There are two main words which express negation in OB, ill and la. ill is used to negate declarative sentences and interrogative sentences which d o not contain an interrogative pronoun, adjective, or adverb. la is used to negate subordinate clauses (537), conditions (39) commands (547), interrogative sentences which contain an interrogative pronoun, adjective, o r adverb, and individual words or phrases: ul amljur 'I did not receive' or 'did I not receive?, nl tapallah 'you are not afraid' or 'are you not afraid? 15 tapallah 'don't be afraid!' ul izkur 'he did not say', awilwn f a 18 i-kurit 'the man who did not say' an111zinim 15 tatrudassii 'why have you not sent him to me? a~i~iltit~z 18 iniistili~m 'an imprudent man'.
Vocabulary aj~zim: which, what? a n n h : this arhi? quickly baq~irmii(a/ii): to claim (legally) dahabum (u): to speak ha!!inn (usually fern.), pi. ha[!itum: staff, scepter karibiim (alii) to bless, greet, pray (for = dat.) 15: not ($50) l a b a h (a): to put on, wear; G t to clothe oneself, put on (+ ace.); D to clothe someone (ace.) with (ace.); S to clothe (metaphorical use)

IUG~ =

iu

NIM =

:u
la li, Ie
ru, (sub}

= fi~i~iilm 'tooth'

SUB =
SUB =

nadiim 'to throw' maqitum 'to fall'

ab ta, la U, Sam
TA =

isfu 'from'

0 = iammiim 'plant'
KUS = ammatiim 'cubit'

111, (dib, dab)

UDU =
DAB =
DIB =

immerum 'sheep' sabZfum 'to seize' eteqiim 'to pass'

LESSON 5

Exercise 1. Normalize and translate: ?um-ma r 2 " h it-ti be-el eqliin la im-la-sir. farrlim 1711i-1if-ta-lli111. ki-ma a h - k a SU-ma-ain ra-bi-am ii-ta-ak-nn. il-ta-ab-h. i-)la ma-bar d Z a r - p a - ~ l i - t ~ li-ik-ru-ba-am. i~~~ p~i-rzi-$6-if-nali-ip-rli-[is. M a - i u 1;-if-bi-ir. ~i-bi-is-sli-1111 la-bi-ra-am ki-ma $a-ab-tu-ma 111 $a-ab-fli. ^Mard~i/c qi-qi-dain ka-ab-ta171 hi-zi fa-al-ma-ta. la wa-lar i-ba-aq-qa-ar. la il-la-ak. e li-it-ku-I~II-ka. ta-up-la-ah. la la-pa-al-la-ah. a-wi-Ium fu-1;. a-ra-an di-nim iu-a-1;. wardam iu-a-ti. Sam iu-mi-ti. sinniitam 5-a-ti. a11-11i-tamar-&-if iu-zip-ra-~III. a-na ma-11;-im 11;-lid-b~i-lib, a-na m a - ~ I I - I I ; - ~ I I I a-ia-ap-pa-ar. 2. Give the paradigm of the G t stem of ma&rum, following the outline of 541,b above. Conjugate ~>~abGrum in G t pres. and perf. 3. Translate into Akkadian: he clothed himself. he clothes himself. he has clothed himself (perf.). clothe yourself! don't clothe yourself! may he clothe himself! let us clothe ourselves! they did not agree with the thieves. we did agree. that slave is not honored. is this man not a king? what did those shepherds steal? why did you not write to me? did you not write to me? 4. Cuneiform: D,

LESSON 6

S, Dt, ,?!k-STEMS. INDEPENDENT PRONOUNS

$51. D and S-stems and their t and tn-stems have a uniform vocalic pattern in all strong verbs, unlike the G and N-stems, which distinguish verbs by vocalic class.
$52. The D-stem is characterized by reduplication of the middle

radical, and by the prefix-vowel 11- in pres., pret. and perf. The D-stem has two basic senses: (I) in both state-verbs and action-verbs it may indicate the factitive, i.e. the causative of the state denoted by the G stative: damiq 'he is good', d111?111i1lqum 'to make good' salim 'he is friendly', sullwmim 'to make friendly, conclude peace with' lamid 'he has learned', I I ~ I ~ I I ~ I 'to ~ ~ Iteach'; II?~
(2) with transitive action-verbs the D may express multiplicity of object (the so-called Poebel Piel), sometimes of subject: iibir 'he broke (one object)', iiiebbir 'he broke (many)' igpija iiiiq 'he kissed my feet', iFpija unaiiiqti 'they kissed my Feet'.

Ww=-^ri=^r^m. ~^fffv^SSfWfSS ^^: tSTfuK; N-Tfiff;

^~TH-F < -W < ( = ~ ' @ T F ~ - < T < ' ; ^^^r^; ^ir^*rim; ^ff^fss; i-^a-^^i-^nr; ^i-cr
fl
fflP ^-K < W A T T ;

The Dt-stem has the basic sense of passive to the D-stem: ialiimum 'to be whole', i i i l l u ~ m 'to make whole', iula1lum111~1 'to be made whole'. ~orms: D Pres. Pret. Perf. Ptc. Imp. Inf. V. Adj. Stat.
iiparras iiparris uplarris muparrisiim ptirris purruslim plirrusum purrus

Tirr barw

Dt upfarras iiptarris uplatarris muptarrisum pularris pl~~arrusum *pularruswn 'pularrus

46

LESSON 6

652

$53

LESSON 6

47

Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen: thus D pres. uparras, tuparras, tuparrasi, uparras; uparraszi, uparras6 luparrasa, miparras; precative 1st sing. luparris, 3rd sing. liparris,
$53. The 5-stem is characterized by the prefix i ( a ) and the prefix-vowel 11-. Its vocalic pattern is parallel to that of the D. The basic sense of the 5-stem is causative, i.e. the subject causes a second person or thing to perform the action or process specified by the verb's G-stem:

Forms:

Pres. Pret. Perf. Ptc. Imp. Inf. V. Adj, Stat.

uiapras iiiapris iiitapris miiSapriswn iupris suprusum fuprusum siiprus

ilcittdam 'be arrived', u5akJidasSu 'I caused him to arrive' arpiid 'I ran', tuiarpida~i~ii 'you caused me to run' In state-verbs, the $-stem may also express the factitive, like the D: a m m j 'I fell ill', 1iSa111ri~a111ii 'he caused me to fall ill' The St-stem has two uses, corresponding to two different forms of the present; all other forms are the same for both uses. (1) the 5 t may serve as a passive to the $-stem ($ti). In this use the present appears in the short form usiapras, without gemination of the middle radical; since the 5 verbal adjective and stative are already passive in sense, the passive s t has no verbal adjective or stative: ustalpit 'was destroyed' (cf. hlpiitwn 'to destroy'); (2) more common is the so-called lexical St (St2), a general term for those cases in which the &-stem stands in various non-passive relations (or in no clear relation) to the corresponding G and other stems. In the present appears the geminated form ustaparras:

Conjugation of these forms follows the pattern already seen: thus $ pres. uiapras, luiapras, tiiiaprasi, zifapras; uiapras:, ~iiaprasi, tiisaprasi, misapras. (For the change of OB list- to lilt- in later Babylonian, see $83,1.)

$54. The independent pronouns have three forms:

m a n siprim ustasbit ' I have gathered messengers' (causative to reciprocal Gt of jabaturn 'to grasp one another, be joined') jibam itli j6bi111 i i i t m i d 'have the troops join the (other) troops!' (causative to reciprocal N of emedum 'to be joined, come together') naram iiitesiram 'I kept the canal in good order' (adds extension in time to eieriim $ 'to put in order') ill zGtamarras 'he will not trouble himself (mar&m 'to be ill').

1. It is clear from the paradigm that masc. and fern. forms often coalesced; introduction of endings -a, -11 in some text groups is a secondary development resulting in new distinctive forms of the masc. Mimation in the dative is sometimes lost in OB, and regularly thereafter; with its loss, the semantic distinction between dative and accusative forms is increasingly lost. 2. Use with prepositions. Some prepositions are used with pronominal suffixes (ittika; cf. $849, others with independent pronouns in the genitive (knna jali). ana is exceptional: it is normally used pleonastically with an independent pronoun in the dative (ana j i f i m taddinain 'you gave to me').

m;

48

LESSON 6

554

3. Use with verbs. An unemphatic pronominal subject is expressed by the verbal form itself; an unemphatic pronominal object is expressed by suffixes ($35). An independent pronoun'added to these indicates emphasis: atta bE'irianniki'am siniq 'you yourself muster troops here!' jdli gi111Ia1irii'do me a favor!' alta mar$Eta 'you yourself are ill'.

Cuneiform signs Signs

I

Phonetic

Logographic

I
[IJ

= .?witiim 'name' =
=

4. Use in nominal sentences. Predication of the type 'you are a (good) king' takes two forms, the stative ($33) and the nominal sentence with -ma or independent pronoun ($31). The stative can only be used when the predicate is unqualified (farraku 'I am king'); the nominal sentence with independent pronoun can only be used when the predicate is qualified: Sam alia 'you are my king', far matim atta 'you are king o f the land'.
5. We have seen (549) that the forms of the 3rd person may also be used adjectivally in nominative, genitive, and accusative (bit awilim fuEti 'the house of that man').

[IJ

d a m 'to
-ii4, -'as 'my'

speak'

j / q
v i

ij, lllil ,
II;,

bi, pi, p i , (ha.?, his, gas)

Vocabulary abbuttum: slave-lock (a hair-style characteristic of slaves) Aja: a goddess, spouse of Shamash alut~l:city bul/u&m (D): to heal, give life to gig& < *gigu115'ii111:'terracetemple' guII7ibiim (D): to shave, shave off ~lliiqum (D): to destroy iidum: foundation (often dual) ka~fiErii~?i (alii) G and D: to pile UP, heap up K f t a city 1a111cidum (a): to learn; D to teach, inform m?reflum (*!irt): cultivation; field Aleslam: name of a temple (Sum.) mimma h s u ' . anything whatsoever, everything (lit. 'whatever its name') rapciium (i): be broad; D make broad, abundant sanciqui~l (i): to come close; G and D to check, control sarrum: false, lying pibcitiim: garment, mantle iadilum (I}: be wide; D widen 'fe'um barley fiikhilum (S): to perfect, complete iuriudum (S): to found firmly t6rtu111, pi. teretum (*iv'r): command; (extispicy) omen m a : thus (says) warqiim: green, yellow-green

& ar 116, i, li, zal, ($a0 qqq eS, (sin)

<4'

xxx '30' dxxx = Sh (moon god)

ME =

plural determinative (short form of ME$, signlist, Lesson 1) 'woman'

~ i MUNUS , = simiift~im

i
I

Exercise
1. Normalize and translate: a-wi-lam tib-ta-al-li-i!. ab-bii-ti wardim iig-da-a/-li-ib (cf. $83h). ki-a-am U-Ia~~~-m;-da-an-~ii. mu-ham-me-er riii-Uh-ii-im. mu-ra-ap-pi-ii mi-im-ma &-sit a-!la Mes-lam. a-a/-& U-ha-a/-la-aq. a * m Se-e-em fa iis-si-an-na-qii. mu-far-fi-id &-ba-at "^uKI.s;l". far-rii-lam da-ri-lam f a ki-ma fa-111~-(3

50

LESSON 6

I ; er-je-lim ii-da-ia iu-iir-fu-da. mu-Sa-al-bi-if wa-ar-qi-itti gi-gil-ne-e dA-a. mu-ia-ad-di-il me-re-ei-tim ti~i~-ia-alc-li-i! re-re-tim, ill-itla i-il-la-ak. urn-ma Su-I/-ii~a. sa-ar-ni-titn in-till-ti. Ici-nia ia-ti. a-na ka-ii-im. 2. Give the paradigm of the D, Dt, 5 and St-stems of fapCnitt~. Conjugate the same verb in D pret. and 5 perf. 3. Translate into Akkadian: he healed them. they were healed. he broadened the foundation farmers perfect the earth. who is like you? we are judges. we are your judges. he clothed me with a garment. they clothed me with a garment. he perished. he destroyed the city. it was I (see 654,3) who destroyed it. it was I to whom they gave the silver. 4. Cuneiform:

LESSON 7 N, tn, SD-STEMS. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

655. The N-stem is marked by na- prefixed to the verbal root in the imperative, infinitive, verbal adjective and stative, and in the other forms by infixed -n- which is assimilated to the following consonant. The basic function of the N-stem of action-verbs is passive to the G-stem (ihabbal 'he wrongs', ihhabbal 'he is wronged'); rarely reflexive (imlilc 'he advised', imtilalik 'he deliberated') or reciprocal (ijbat11 'they seized, tiajbuf11 'they were quarreling [grasping one another]'). The N-stem of state-verbs usually expresses an ingressive (nadr11 'they rage', ii~nadrii 'they went on a rampage'). A deponent N also occurs with the sense of the normal G-stem (napliisiiti~'to see', transitive). The vocalic system of the N-stem is mixed: verbs of the a/n class, the a class and generally also the u class show stem-vowel a in pres. and perf., i in pret. and imp. Verbs of the i class retain their characteristic vowel throughout. The final vowel of the pret. is elided before an ending: ipparis + 11 > ipparsii. i a{ii a

ipparras Pres. ipparis Pret. ittapras Perf. imiPparsiim Ptc. Imp. napris Inf. naprilsiim V. Adj. napriisiim Stat. napnis

< *inparras < "inparis < *intapras

imti~ahhaj ippaqqid iti~ti~a/jij ippaqid ittapqid ittatillja~ < *inunparisiit~~ t t ~ u m m a h ~ mtt11ipp~qdlltiJ napqid namhi~ nati~hiijilii~ napqiidilm n a t i i ~ ~ t n napqitdiim tiapqiid nati~hilj

$56. An Nt-stem, if it existed, is rare: cf. GAG Erg. 595d.

$57. The tn-stems. All four basic stems can be augmented by an infix -tan- (Gtn = 113, Dtn = 1113, 5tn = 11113, Ntn = IV/3). The infix is most easily recognized in the present, whereas in other forms

52

LESSON 7

557

558

LESSON 7

53

-12- of the infix is either assimilated to the following consonant or suppressed completely to avoid the succession of three consonants (683n). . . The vowel system of Dtn and Stn is the same in all verbs, and is analogous to that of D and 5. The stem-vowel of pres., pret., perf. and imp. in Gtn is the same as that of the G pres., in Ntn the same as that of the N pres. The tn-stems are iterative-habitative in meaning, i.e. they indicate action as repeated or habitual. This connotation may be rendered by an auxiliary verb or by an adverb 'again and again, continually', etc.

$58. The SD (III/II) is a relatively rare form, found mainly in poetry. It is characterized by the insertion of -iof stem 111 between the conjugational preformative and the verbal root of stem I1 (ti-i-parras, it-i-parris, etc.). 559. Review of vocalization in the strong verb.

afappar '1 write', aitanappar 'I write again and again' irappud 'he runs', irtanappud 'he keeps running'

Gtn (a/u, a) Pres. iptanarras Pret. iptarras < "ip-tan-ras Perf. &atarras < *ip-la-tan-ras Ptc. nmptarriswn < *mnp-tan-risum Imp. pitarras < "pi-tan-ras Inf. pitarrusum < *pi-ia~~-riisnin V. Adj. pitarritsum Stat. pitarrtis Ntn (a/u, a) Pres. itta?~apras Pret. ittapras Perf. *ittatapras < *in-la-tail-pras Ptc. muttaprisiim < *IIII~IJ-tan-prisiim Imp. itapras < *IJ~-tan-pras Inf. ilapr~isum < *ni-tan-przis~iin V. Adj. *itapr~is~im Stat. itaprits

Dtn uptanarras uptarris uptatarris muptarrissum putarris piitarriisum piitarriisum piilarrus Stn ustanapras iiitapris ~titatapris miiitaprisum iutapris futapriis~~tn ~tuprusiiin &taprits

I. G perf. and all finite forms of Gt and Gtn have the stem-vowel of G pres. 2. Verbs of the vocalic class i normally retain their characteristic vowel throughout the N and Ntn-stems, but those of classes alii and a, and generally u, form an ablaut variation in N (different final vowels in ipparras and ipparis etc.); the Ntn is formed with the vowel of the N pres. 3. The D and stems and their t and tn-stems have a uniform vocalization for verbs of all vocalic classes. 4. Forms with vowels subject to elision when an ending is added (cf. 684b) are iptaras (G perf. and Gt pret.), ipparis (N pret.), purus (G imp.), paris (G stat.).

$60. Indefinite pronouns are formed from the interrogatives *man and *min by reduplication or the addition of -ma. The basic m a m m a anyone' and independent pronouns are m a ~ ~ ~ ~ ? ~ a ~ t /'someone, minima 'something, anything', both indeclinable. The adjectival ~~ pi. ~a aj~hlumma) , pronoun ajjwnma (f. a j j i t m a , m. pi. a j y i t ~ i ~ f if. 'some' may also be used as a substantive 'someone, something'. < *mimnw-lt (gen. From iniinma there developed the form n7i1111172 n i i d l i , ace. minn?~i/u\ used with genitive or pronominal suffixes: 1ni111t110fu 'something of his. his property'.
mamman ?zirda??~ 'send me someone' mimma fa i w u 'whatever he touched' mammon ul/l~i 'no one', inin11170ullli 'nothing' mini~no(adverbial, reinforces negation) 'in any way, at all': mimma la tapalla& 'do not fear at all'

Note that Gtn pret. is formally identical with Gt pres.; Dtn and Stn differ from Dt and St formally only in the pres. When a form common to two stems is found, the stem to which it belongs must be determined by sense and context and by grammatical criteria; thus liptarras must (because it is precative, see $44) be Gtn pret., not Gt pres.

The indefinite relative pronoun is mala 'as much as, all that': kaspum maid isbatu 'all the silver that he seized'.

54

LESSON 7

LESSON 7

55

Vocabulary

Exercise 1. Normalize and translate: ma-la in-na-ad-mi. in-!fa-ad-di-~II. i~~-na-ad-di-if-kim ($83e). 2-111 if-fa-alc-ka-~II. it-la-as-bat. li-iz-za-mir. Satliikki ~III-la-nu-ha-ru. li-i~?f-la-!ja-ru. la-hub-^Da-gan a-ria I-ma-ar^ ka-a-ia-ni-if if-la-na-ap-pa-ar. a-na dii-ul-li biti-sii is-sh-na-ah-!~-ur.a-na a-hi-ia as-ta-nu-ap-pa-ar. a-na ba-la-ti-ka mu-fa-W?I 11 nr-ra-am ak-ta-na-ra-ab. a-na mi-nim li-ib-ba-ki im-ta-nu-ar-ra-as. Amun U ^Ellil a-na aMardiik ip-pa-a/-su-Sum.mi-im-IIJ~ Sa iS-@-lx mi-im-ma bi-Sa-am. sitm-ma a-wi-lum Sa mi-iin-mu-Su ha/-q2 mi-im-ma-Su ha/-qh-am i-na qh-ti a-wi-li~n is-$a-ba-at. mi-im-ma awili fa-ru-tim la la-@-ar-ra-ad. !?fa-la iz-kfi-rn. mi-im-ma ma-la iz-kii-rfi. mi-im-ma li-ib-ha-ka la i-?la-ak-kt-ud. ka-ab-turn 11 ru-bu-ti-lim ma-a1?1-ma-a11Sa qh-qh-di la U-/<a-ab-bi-lu 2-111 i-ba-as-fi. 2 , Give the paradigm in N and tn-stems of $abitiim (see $839; paqidwn',; /cafidum. 3. Translate into Akkadian: his name was erased, my name was continually erased. he himself was struck. no one keeps striking him. he learned nothing. day and night he was always concerned ~ihnnt --. his silver, he constantly destroys cities. they continually taught me. they looked upon me (with favor). 4. Cuneiform:

aj~2mma: some Dagan': an Amorite and West Semitic deity ditllum: work, ritual E?7: a god ibafii: there is (other forms of b& will be seen in Lesson 8) Imar (or, more commonly, Einar): a city in northern Mesopotamia Jasiib: (Amorite name-element from 2kvb 'return') kabiliim (I): to be heavy; D to make heavy, to honor kajjcini? constantly I J T ~ ! ! ~ ~ I I I(alu): JI to receive mala: as much as mammon: someone, anyone

mar@ii~n (a):to be sick, difficult, grieved minima: something, anything IJI~IIIJJIG-.niimmi-. minima- + possessive suffix: see $60 1 1 1 ~ night : nakddum (it): to beat (of heart), be disturbed naplusum (N; a/u): t o look at (favorably) sa&rum (it): to turn, turn to, seek, concern oneself about (ana) Sattukkum (< Sum.): ration (Man); regular offering SarUm <*fariiim: rich, wealthy urrum: light, day zamaritm (u, also a/[():to sing

Signs

Cuneiform signs Phonetic

K U ~=

Logographic

erebum 'to enter*

hi, he

MUSEN= igzlriim 'bird' UGULA = waklum 'overseer' GIDRI = batwm 'scepter' DUG = tabinn 'good, sweet' HI.A = plural determinative

iir, lig, taf, (1;s) $a

walfidittn 'to give birth to, bear' UR = kalbwn 'dog'

U.TU = KUc =

nil~fftm 'fish'

$62

57

LESSON 8

VERBS llI WEAK. &4

$61. Weak verbal forms are generally phonetic modifications of regular formations. One's reading and interpretation of such forms will be facilitated by a rapprochement to the corresponding forms of the strong verb: iklii < ikla'ii (cf. iprusi) b i m h < *banijum (cf. piris11n1) iittakkar < *iintak/car (cf. uptarras) tisaki1 < *iiia'lcil (cf. iiiapris), etc.
662. Verbs third weak (i.e. with a weak third radical) are by far the largest class of weak verbs. They include all verbs which in related languages have as third root consonant the appropriate ; . / ; . , ' g, 1t1, j. In Akkadian these representatives of Proto-Semitic ', / 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 'he fall into four classes with endings -i, -11, -a. -e: ibm 'he built', i counted', ikla 'he withheld', i h e 'he heard'. Etymological grounds would lead us to expect a long final vowel (iima' > isine, cf. but in Akkadian this vowel remains long only before pronominal but is shortened when final (iime) suffixes and -ma (iimFma, cf. 84i) and before vocalic endings. When vocalic endings are added contraction usually takes place save in the sequences ia and ea, which frequently remain uncontracted in OB: iime + ii > iimfi. zaku + ikil > zakaku, iqbi + am > iqbiam, later i q b h (&Me). Of the four vocalic classes, that in -i is the most numerous, and there is a tendency for verbs of other classes to be assimilated to it. The G stative, except often in the -u class, has final -i. The G participle has the form paris with the usual contractions, but in the status constructus bani is sometimes replaced in OB and regularly For the shift a > e in verbs of the -e thereafter by ban (18,1,i,e) class, see 684f. In D and $-stems, the etymologically expected final vowel gives way to -a in the present, -i in the preterite, analogous to uparras, uparris in the strong verb. In the N-stem, the present and perfect retain the characteristic vowel (pres. ibbanni, ippette, *immaimii, ikkalla), but the preterite has -i universally.

Pres. Pret. 2m. 2f. 1c. 3m. 3f. 2c. 1c. Perf. Ptc. Imp. f.

PI.
Inf. V.Adj. stat.

ibaimi ibni tabui tabni abni ib~n't ibnidfa tab~iiE/& nibni ibtani bcimim bin; him biniE/G ba11ii111 ba11iin1 bani

ikalla ikla takla takli akla ikll? ik16 takla nilcia iktala kalulll Iiila kill kili kalh kaliim kali

Pret. Subj.: ibriii, tab112,tabni, abnU, ibnfi, ib11iif6, tabniaf6, (archaizing ibnilt, tab~~ili, abniv, ibniii, nibniir; 584e). 11ib1111 Pres. Pret. Perf. Pic. Imp. Inf. VAclj. Stat. ibbaimi A ibbani ittabni imibbam'im nabni nabnUm *nabfium nab~ii

w),

$63. Determinative-relative pronoun. Old Akkadian possessed a determinative pronoun with the sense 'he o f 'she of', etc. It could be followed by a noun in the genitive, or by the latter's functional equivalent, a verbal form in the subjunctive. It receives case endings only in masc. sing., all forms being in the construct state:

masc. fern. masc. fern.

sing. .fit (nom.) sing. sat plur. K t plur. Sit

Si (gen.)

ia (ace.)

LESSON 8

563

LESSON 8

59

This survives in OB in various functions:

1. There are remnants of the declined i u serving as a determinative pronoun in personal names and a few frozen 'She of Aja', f a rEim, plur. expressions: Su-Sin 'He of Sin', S a t - ~ j a silt reSim 'royal official(s)' (lit. 'the onelthose of the head'). 2. Indeclinable f a serves as a determinative pronoun in periphrases for the construct chain: awat11111f a farrim 'the word, that of the king' = 'the king's word' (519). f a may also be used without a nominal antecedent: Sapalarinz 'ransom money' (lit. 'that of releasing'). 3. Indeclinable f a functions also as a relative pronoun (537). This Sa is in origin the accusative of relation ('in regard to whichlwhom') and may functionally stand for nom., ace., gen., or dat. In the latter two functions (sometimes also as ace.) it is specified by a pronominal suffix: 'in regard to whom ... his/to himlhim' correspond in translation to 'whose/to whom/whom':
farrum Sa illikii 'the king who went' maturn Sa tiballi{~i(ia)'the land which he healed' farrum f a ana t~?itiSu Frubzi 'the king into whose land I entered' awihim f a tatakkalusi~n~ 'a man in whom you have confidence'.

s a l m (i): to be reconciled with. be friendly, .. be in good relations 5aIit111 f-i1: \ , to nlunpe . - (into the river[-god] = "Id [ace.]) Semi'im (-e): to hear furq11171:stolen object
~

lazzimtum (*itzm): complaint (tazzinitak/~a complaint bylabout you) tebt??n(4): to rise up; S to raise U P [cibum: good, sweet, pleasant; eli PN tab: it is pleasing to PN

Cuneiform signs Signs

Phonetic

Logographic :nu 'in' (pseudo-logogram)

NUMUN =

I -

1 as, rum, rfi, (dil, tit)

sir, kill, q111, gill)
i. se, si, s i , ji, $6

serum 'seed'

ZI = napisturn 'life'
31 =
51

q a m h 'reed'

= IC%UITI 'to return'

Um, tin? Vocabulary b a n h (-i): to make, create, build baZin (4): to be; 3 to cause to exist; N to come to be, appear, grow (ingressive) daj~dntitum: judgeship epislum: deed ga~~~cilum (i): to spare, show mercy b a d h (-u), stat. hadi: to rejoice; D make happy Id: the god 'River, Canal' Istar: a goddess (also a common noun 'goddess') istu (conj.): since, after k a l h (-a): to retain, hold back, withhold kuss7i1~1 < *knssium: throne, seat l e q k (-e): to take n1a11it171 (-11): to count, reckon, consider, recite Mera: an archaic name for the city Man p e t h (-e): to open r a b h (-I]: to become great, grow; D to raise (children); S to make great ra% (-I]: to acquire redum (-ile): to lead, bring
71

SN =

bFlu~n'lord' "in (moon god)

'EN.ZU =

iar, tar ir
?

OR

= siinum 'lap, busom'

far, (sar) fir), bir is, (in dIS8-tir) Se ib, eb

SAR =

Sa@rum 'to write'

KESDA = rak&itn 'to bind'

SE = "ie'u~n'barley'

LESSON 8

Exercise 1. Normalize and translate: z?r .far-ru-tim fa *Sf11ib-~ii-12-Su. Sa t (archaic for i a ) ig-mi-hi ni-ii h-ir-qa-am i-ria qa-ti& im-hit-ru. k Me-raM. Sa ep-Se-tu-sii e-li Iim-lar (a-ba. ~e-eh-re-kid-12. is-li-mil-ii. il-qi. i-le-qi. il-le-qi. il-qli-I;. ip-te. it-te-ep-le. inarT-fa i-ra-ab-ba.iS-tit t115ri-SaCr-la-ab-bwi. i-ba-as-h-i. ui-tah-si. ib-ha-as-h-fi. it-tab-ii. i h ii-hr-hi-C-.fu. mu-ha-ad-di li-ib-bi I&-tar. ^Da-gan ba-ni-.fit. ^Id i-Sa-a/-li-am. i-ria kussi da-a-a-nil-I;-Su zi-Se-et-bii-i-sii. i-iia bi-~i-$11 ik-la-la-iu. ir-de-am. ir-te-de. ir-ta-fi. i-117a-an-nii-Si. eK-te-rie-me-e fa-zi-in?-ta-ka. ta-zi-im-fa-ka la e ~ r t e - ~ i e - ~ ~ i e . 2. Give the paradigms of basfim and pelurn. 3. Translate into Akkadian: he takes. they take. he took. take! he was taken. he makes my heart happy. make them happy! the man who withheld his silver. the lying woman who raised my sons. he recites. did he not open? 4. Cuneiform:

9 LESSON VERBS I1 WEAK. NOMINAL TYPOLOGY

564. Verbs with a second weak radical or 'medially weak verbs' include both hollow verbs (medial its//) and verbs with medial ',.5 (cf. 682j). 1. Hollow verbs correspond to * / C I I ~ *@ I I , etc. in the traditional analysis of Semitic languages, and the forms of such verbs have traditionally been analyzed as variations, due in part to phonetic changes and in part to analogy, from the par&um type: thus inf. *kawEnum > 1~~15num (Ass.) > lc61mm (Bab.); pres. *i/cawwan > ilcian (Ass.) > i k h (Bab.); pret. *ikwun > ikun. Most recent scholars however prefer to analyze such roots as biconsonantal with medial long vowel zi or i or 6: *kzili 'be firm', *qiS 'present', * b E 'be ashamed'; this interpretation is thought to be more accurate on a synchronic level, and it better accounts for such 'irregular' forms as takinim(cf. icipcirrasi) and d d i k (cf. usapris). The notation of vocalic length in general use today is based on interpretation as a vocalic root.
2. Verbs with medial radical aleph. A small number retain a strong consonantal 'and are conjugated like other strong verbs, e.g. da'ipiim 'to knock down', pres. ida"ip (SB). Most verbs of this type however regularly lose ' and are conjugated on the pattern of the hollowverbs. Since original has the usual reflex of a to e, they fall into two classes which may be described as having roots with ? V a l 'ask', *be1 'rule'. medial a and i 3. In the D and 9-stems of medial weak verbs the final root consonant is doubled before a vocalic ending (e.g. pret. u1ii11, plur. ~1ki1111i). In the G-stem and N-stem such gemination (combined with insertion of a in endingless forms: iqi-a-i, *i/czi-a-I; > ik&) is characteristic of the present, but not the preterite or perfect (thus G pres. ikan, pi. iku1111C, but pret. ikzin, pi. ikzi~~zi), (Note that there is doubling of final root consonant in these verbs in the same forms where the strong verb doubles the middle radical.)

62

LESSON 9

66-1

664

LESSON 9

4. AHw lists these verbs in their OR form: uncontnicted qiaitim, hut contracted knmim. b i i ~ mbebim. , CAD lists all four in the contracted form.

Pies. Pret.

iddik, pi. iddiikki, iqqiasjiqqkf, i i S l *iddik, iqqii, i E l , ibbel

Pres.

Pret.

Perf.

665. Nominal typology. There are several nominal-adjectival formations in Akkadian, which correspond generally to semantic categories.

The most important are: 1. the adjectival formations:

Gt D

Pres. *iktnn pret. ikfiin, ptc. muktII1111i1, inf. kiiwnim Pres. ukan, pi. ~ i k a t ~ ~ ~ t i Pret. tikin, pi. ukiimu Perf. iiktin, pi. uktinnti Ptc. ~1111k~11~111171 (construct state 1111ikj,l) Imp. kin, pi. kinna Inf. ~IIIII~III V. Adj. kiinniim Stat. k f i , pi. k i i u ~ ~ i Pres. tiid&, pi. iiidakku, *~isbel Pret. lit&, pi. usdikki, *~ifbel Perf. ustadik Ptc. nnisdikkum (construct state imisdik) Imp. iiidik, pi. f ~ d i k k a Inf. hidukum V.Adj. Stat. iiid~ilc, pi. fiid~ikki

paris, fern. parist: normal form of adj. and verbal adj.: "damiqwn > damqum, fern. damiqt1i171 'good' *ka'imnn (cf. 64,4 > k i m m , fern. kitturn 'firm, just' *patiiim > pet21~1, fem. petitu111'open(ed)' paras, fern. parast: rapiinn, fem. rapasturn 'broad' ~ehriim (Ass. d r u m } , fern. $ehert111iz 'small' parus, fern. parlist: ~ ~ I I I I I I ~ (OA III lammm~), fern. lemul~uttut~~ 'bad' mar~um, fern. maruslum 'sick' piirr1is, fern. purrtist: verbal adj. of D-stem, adj. denoting corporal defects: kubbutum 'heavy' mkkukum 'deaf' iiipr~is,fern. suprust: verbal adj. to $-stem and elative (i.e. a heightening in the meaning of the simple form): f u r b h < *siirbu'nm 'very big', cf. rabium 'big' iiit~~r~i$iiin 'very sick', cf. marsum 'sick' 2. the nominal formations: purs, fern. parsat: primary and some deverhal nouns: kalbum 'dog', kalbatiim 'bitch' mar'inn > ~ n i r u m 'son', ~ i ~ i r t u 'daughter' m ' a n p u m > appum 'nose'

64

LESSON 9

$65

LESSON 9

pi;? fern. pirist: expresses the action itself. o r its result:

r i h i m , ribisturn 'inundation' gimrwn 'totality' Yirk-tiim > .firilctwn 'gift' purs, fern. purust: abstracts from adjectives: dumqum 'good' piiliibtum 'fear' paras: G infinitive: *!iadatiim > edisiim 'to be new' *laqci!iii??z > l e q h 'to take' Paris, fern. panst: substantivized verbal adjectives: kamkiim 'sealed document' samidum 'fine flour' Pilras. fcm. plircisf animals, diminutives, other nouns: pii/Icidiir~z 'lamb' rub&, riibIt111 'prince' $ii&irum 'servant' m i a l u m 'mirror' pawcis, fern. parrEst: habitual activity, profession: qarrcidum 'hero' iiapp&m 'smith' kass@inn, fern. kassiip~wn 'sorcerer, sorceress' piirrus, fern. piirriist: infinitive D and fern. action-noun: bussurtiim 'message' ma]JrUS, fern. maprast: place or instrument: *markabtum > narkabt~i~!~ (583~) 'chariot' > neebiim 'entry' *~>iaiabum *mai~liabian> niziiabiim 'dwelling' (584a) laprcis, fern. taprcist: reciprocal action: tamljciriim 'battle' tcihazwn 'battle' ~-. tapris, fem. taprist: D-stem action-noun (infinitive): tamllim 'filline' ~'z tedlslum 'renewal'

-a:afformative of abstract nouns:

ic~rrfifii~t~ 'kingship', cf. Sarria~i 'king' Ebuliim 'testimony', cf. iibum 'witness' -? relational affomiative Cnisbc') including gentilic: *1iiahrEi111, ma&?m 'first', cf. I I I U ~ ~ I ~'front' III *asxifrnim. a f i r t h 'Assyrian1, cf. the city-name ASSiir *Siibariii~n, S u b h ^Subaraean3, cf. the country ~iibartiit?~, Vocabulary simfwn (*smi): fate abItbim: flood ft'rii~i: flesh; 5ram tubbiim: to Barsipa: the city Borsippa give joy to ('make pleasant diikum (med. fi): to kill; the flesh of') N passive; 5 causative sii171rii.yin: sick, very ill Ellili'itum: 'Ellil-ship' 3: to return; D f i r i i ~ (med. ~ i Eridum: the city Eridu to make return, m a a.fri.?ii I c h m (med. 2): to be firm; D to turrunr: to restore (to its make firm, fast, to prove to place). ana X izirru~ti: kifiatiim: entirety, universe turn s.th. into s.tli. else miiliim (med. S): to die; S to tilliim: tell, remains of a city; tilli cause the death of, murder abi'ibim: old tell, tell from the niittiim: husband flood riEbinn, 12bum (med. 7): to licibum, tibum (med. 7): to be replace, substitute, make good, pleasant, sweet; D to restitution make pleasant ricii~im.riiiiim (med. Tf: to wa'cinan, w~iruin(med. ', i rejoice; D to make rejoice class): to go off, D to send, Sipparum: the city Sippar command, instruct id111ii111 A (med. a): to buy z6zum (med. S): to divide, ~ K ~ ~ T I ia17iii111 I ~ I ~ I , B (med. 7): to receive a share of (an fix, determine inheritance) z z r m (med. Z): to hate

3. the affixes: -air. nominal/adjectival afformative in which some scholars see an individualizing force: naditiaimm 'tile seller in question', cf. ~icidinum 'seller' .farrciqcinum 'the thief in question', cf. iarr-m 'thief r a b i h m 'mayor', cf. rabium 'great'

LESSON 9

LESSON 1

Cuneiform signs Sign; Phonetic Logographic

BAD =
IDIM =

be, bad, (bid, pid, mid) lil, us, (sun, ziz)

petiim 'to open' kabtum 'heavy' labfirurn 'to

'profit'. teptitiiin 'opening', Simiiim 'fate'. 3, Translate into Akkadian: he kills, they kill. he killed. they killed. he has killed. they have killed. he causes to die. they cause to die. he caused to die. they caused to die. he restores, they restore. he restored, they restored. after she made his life pleasant, she divided

SUN, SUMUN =

become old'
TIL =

qathn 'to be ended'

'-tg

1z is, us, (itid) r, er ',id, kid, qid, lit, sib, sob, sub4) :ur, qtir, mad, Sad, (nad, lad, gin,kin)
L~L ('Lord Storm') = the god Ellil
KUR =
NITA =

zik(a)riim 'male'

m~itum 'land'

K U R (+ vowel) = fadfin

'mountain'
= btirum 'calf

\MAR

Exercise 1. Normalize and translate: id-da-ak. mu-(i-ib li-ib-bi ^Marduk. mu-ki-in iSdi S@parim. Si-ir !ti-fi h-ti-ib. i-ri-a-ab. a-Sa-am. is-ta-am. i-fa-ar a-tta be-li-Su. ma-sii a-tta lilli a-bu-bi-i111li-te-er. mu-te-er Eridim a-na aS-ri-fu. i-zu-ttz-21;. i-zu-zu. ti-ul i-za-a: i-du-uk-kti. fiim-ma simiiSttim mu-sk i-ze-er. mii-sk US-di-ik Us-la-mi-it. IIIII-ri-if Bar-si-~$1. h-wa-e-ra-an-ni. ia-i-im Si-ma-at mitim. a-na Wardiik Ellilu-ut kifSat ni-Si i-Si-mii-it~m. zikramm" h sitt~iiStafn'"" ma-am-ma-an la i-fa-a-am.

667

LESSON 10

69

LESSON 10

VERBS I ' , J, N

666. Verbs with initial radical aleph are affected by the loss or transmutation of the aleph. They fall into two groups: an a-group in which the vowel a remains unchanged, and a n e-group in which the loss of ',.5 (582j) is accompanied by a change of a to e (584f). 567. The a-group. 1. Initial ' usually disappears without trace in the writing ('akfilum > akalwn), but initial *'i- or *'ii- becomes a- in G imp. and GtjGtn imp. and inf. (*'nlcul > akiil, *'itkai > atkai, *'it!iii:iim > at/;iiziim). In OB the G pres. and D pres. and pret. are usually marked by double writing of the initial vowel (i-ik-ka-a1 = ikkal, fi-zip-pi-ii = iippi.5 cf. 4e,6) 2. Between vowels (pres. G; pres., pret. and ptc. D) ' and the vowel following it are elided: *i'akkal > ikkal, *u'ahha: > iihha:. 3. Before a consonant, initial v' (short vowel aleph) > C (long vowel): *i'kul > ilctil, *ii'tahha: > $ahha:, *itfa'kil > ii&ilcil, but 5 , St,Ntn pres. and all forms of Stn have vCC: *ufa'kal > u.wkkal, *it^tana'kal > iistanakkal, *ittana'kal > ittanakkal. 4. I n the N-stem, *?I' > mi (*in'aNaz > innaMaz); by analogy, *na'hiz > n a ~ ~ hand i z *ittahaz > itia~i&a:. The following paradigm follows the usual order pres., pret., perf., ptc., imp., inf., verbal adj., stat.

568. The verb alikrim (*hlk) belongs to the above class of verbs. but is abnormal in that ', when final in a syllable, is assimilated to a following consonant in the G, G t and Gin-stems (*i'lik > i7/i/c, compare *i'ktil > ikul):

Pres. G Gt Gtn
illak ittallak ittanallalc

Pret.
illik ittalak ittallak

G (ahi) iklial, takkal ihil, takul itakal Skilili71 akul akalum akliim akil

Gt

itappal itapal 'Itatpal miitaphim alpal atpiiliii?~ *fltpll/llili "fitpill

Gtn

itatiakkal itakkal itatakkal *inutakkilum atakkal atakkulum *atakkiiluin *atakkitl

Perf. illala/c ittatlak ittatallalc

Imp. alik atlak

70

LESSON 10

$69

671

LESSON 10

71

$69. The e-group is parallel in formation to the a-group, but with the vowel shift a > e ($84f). Due to systematic levelling, e replaces a even in verbal forms without * u ' ~ .or ~ *'3.5a; thus iitappii (*dtappis) > iiteppii on the analogy of *ta!~appai > teppei. Examples from e p f i m 'to do' (afu, later u ) and erebwn 'to enter' ()

and Gtn forms without conjugation-prefix (*nitgiirwn > itqurum, *nitaqqar > itaqqar). (Where n is augment to an original biradical root, as *ndn. Ass. retains the original root in the imp. din.) From n a q b 'to destroy': inaqqar iqqur ittaqar ndqirtim uqur naqirum naqrum naqer iltaqqar ittaqar itlatqar muttaqrum itqar itqurum 'itqurum *itqur iinaqqar unaqqer uttaqqer munaqqirum nuqqer ~~uqqurum miqqurum nuqqur Vocabulary a & z i i (a/ii): ~ ~ ~ to take, seize, take in marriage akdlum (afu):to eat alikum (pres. illak, pret. illik): to go; ana simtim aldkum to die; G t to go away; Gtn t o walk about a m m m (afu): to see apahini (a/u): to answer, satisfy, Pay E-abzii: a temple E-babbar: a temple ebibum (i): to be pure, holy; D t o purify; D t passive e d W (i): to be new; D to renew epSium (*a/u or u: ippesjippuf, @us',OB N-stem i~~rleppei, innepif, ittenpei alongside OB, SB, NB inneppuf, imepui, ittenpus): to do, make erebum (u): to enter; S causative erFfum A (i): to ask for erFium B (3:to cultivate (a field) eiFriim (9:to be straight, in order, be a success; 9 to put in order; St to keep in order, lead aright ezFbum (i): to leave, leave behind; kunukkam kizubum': to cause to leave a sealed document kiipti (pi.): sorcery 11adCm (-9: to throw, cast; 'to throw murder on' = accuse of murder ~~aicdrum (1): to be foreign, be in enmity, be estranged from (ill!) na@/um (alu): to look at, see nert1im: murder (< SU.LUH): ritual siil~ih/!u~n cleansing, hand washing, ritual iuttuin, pi. ~ U I I ~ I I I I ? dream ~: ivarka (conj.): after i~rnaqqar Usaqqar innaqer uiaqqer ittanqar uitaqqer 1?;u1111aqrum ~t~uiaqqiru~n iuqqer *?ianqer iuqqurum nanqiirum naiiqurum fuqqurum nanqur siiqqur

Gt iterrub iterub *itetriib

Gtn

iteneppei iteppei *iteteppei ~~iiiteppihm etrub "eteppei *etrtibnm iteppiisiim

-

*elrub

*eteppiii

Tense conjugation: Pres. imib territb terrtibi errlib irrubii irrubi ternibi nirrub Pret. irub tFrub tFrubi erub Trubit irtibd tFr1ib5 11irlib Perf. iterub teter~ib teterbi Ftentb iterbii iterba tFterbd niter~ib Compare: ikiil tdknl ii/1;1ili akul ikul~i ilktild tak111a 1lik111

$70. Verbs with initial radical j inflect like the e-group of verbs I (i class). Thus in the G-stem e112q1im 'to suck' (*janaquni) has pres. iimiq, tenniq, enniq, i ~ ~ ~ ~pret. i q i i ,iniq, perf. ileiliq, imp. e~iiq,stat. eniq; eiFrum 'to be straight, prosperous' has pres. ufeiier, pret. iiiiier (cf. l)84h), perf. usteser, N pres. iiweEer, pret. inneier.
'

$71. Verbs with initial radical 11 follow the pattern of parasiim, but with assimilation of the first radical to a following consonant (*indin > iddin; note however that assimilation does not take place in some forms of the N-stem), and with loss of initial 11 in the G > idin, i d ~ ~*nuqw i; > iiq~ir) and in the G t imperative (*nidin, *nid~!i

LESSON 10

LESSON 10

73

Cuneiform signs Signs Phonetic

ABZU =

Logographic

a p s h 'subterranean water'; E-abzu: name of temple iEtiim 'fire'

3. Translate into Akkadian: he saw a dream and left his country. who brought the liar into the king's palace? the king's daughter purified the temple. Samas, you lead the people aright. he renewed the foundations of the house, if that man accused me of murder, he will be slain. after lie had taken the woman as wife, he was estranged from her. why was the temple not purified? 4. Cuneiform:

in ne, bil, pil, bi, (ti) mar qar, gar, !air

HZ

IZI =

sa, (lib)
kam, (gain), q h dam, tarn

SA

libbum 'heart'

A.SA = eqhim 'field'

DAM.GAR = ~all~kL?r~llll 'merchant'

Exercise
1. Normalize and translate: a-na i-fa-ti111in-na-ad-di. si1n1-ma ne-er-tam e-li-fu id-di. fa e-li-.% ki-if-pi id-dii-ii. i-na-ad-du-ii-fi. it-la-di-in. i-na-ad-di-in. id-di-in. it-la-an-di-in. i-pia-di-iSi. eqlFti171 id-na-k-nu-fi-im. i-di-in. i-di-is-sum. sit-ut-tam it-ti-111. it-ta-ki-ir. :amkaram i-ip-pa-al. i-la-mar. i-b-u:. i-ib-ha-az. a-na i-il-la-ak. a-na fi-im-ti111 it-fa-la-ak. it-ta-al-la-ak. wa-ar-ka a-bu-UIIJa-fia fi-in1-tim it-ta-al-ku. film-ma hi-mi-iik-kam i-fe-zi-ib. i-ir-ri-if. i-te-ru-ub. u-5e-er-re-eb-fi. i-pu-uf. a-wa-a-tim fi-na-ti ep-fa. mil-lib-bi-ib fu-luh E-abzii. mu-ud-di-if E-babbar. a-na h-te-sii-ur ni-fi. 2. Give the paradigm and G pret, conjugation of e^ebuni and nadL?mim.

573

LESSON I I

75

VERBS I ir. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS. NUMBERS

$72. A small number of verbs with first radical )I! are i class state-verbs with a triradical root: thus waqLirum 'to be costly', v a s h u m 'to be fitting'. These are generally conjugated in the G-stem like verbs I j ($70): pres. iqqer, pret. iqer, stat. waqar/u'asini (but perf. itaqer varies from I j iteniq). In the derived stems they are conjugated like I IW action verbs ($73). $73. The majority of verbs I w are action-verbs formed by prefixing w(a)- to an original biconsonantal root: thus for wabilum 'to carry', waiibum 'to sit, dwell' the original root appears in the imperative (bil, sib) and in nominal derivatives (biltum, Subtit171 < *sibttim). The formation of secondary verbs with a variant augment takibum). is typical of the class (tabil~l??~, In the G-stem, there is ablaut alternation between pres. (nbbat) and pret. (ubil); the latter forms the plur. iiblii, ventive iiblam, but there are also forms without elision of the i (see $84b):iibilu,itbilam The precative follows the norm seen in 944: Kbil 'may I carry!", llbil 'may he carry!'. The perf. is normally formed on a triradical base (ittabat), analogous to I ti verbs, but occasionally OB has itbal, formed on the biconsonantal root. The D-stem normally retains strong forms uwaiiar, u~i>u.fier, titaiier. Outside of OB, however, contraction sometimes takes place, giving rise to forms partly indistinguishable from G: u5ar pres., iifier pret. 3-forms without prefix appear with iti- (inf. subitlttm). In the forms with prefixes, tiiiibil appears only in poetry; the prose forms are assimilated to those of verbs I ' a-group (uiaiiab, i t i z i b ) or I ' e-group (uieiieb, Usesib). In the N-stem, n + w becomes w ~ v in OB (" in SB): *inwalid > iwwalid.

Paradigmatic forms below are from ;vabLiliim 'to bear', vufirtmi (D) 'to release', wasdbiit?~'to dwell', walidum 'to give birth to'. G Gin D ittanabbal ubbal ittabbal ubil *ittatabbal ittabal (itbal) muttabbilit~~i ~~~ibi/um itabbal bit itabbitlum wabZ~itm
-

waiib

G pres.: itbbal, tubbal, tttbbali, ubbal: itbbalii, ubbal~i,tubbala, 11iibba1. G pret.: iibil, tiibil, tubili/tiibli, itbil; ~tbilU/ublU,~ibila/iiblLi, titbila/lubit, nubil.
574. Initial it! sometimes disappears in OB, and regularly after OB ($84~). CAD lists such words in their SB form (abilii, a&), AHw in their OB form (wabihnn, warditm).

$75. Infinitive constructions. (1) We have seen that the infinitive, introduced by a preposition, often serves as a temporal or final clause ($28). The infinitive may be construed as a noun, with a following genitive or pronominal suffix representing the logical object or subject: aim e p 5 bilim 'in order to build a temple' itla kaiZdiju 'when 1 arrive'.

76

LESSON I I

$75

$76

LESSON 11

77

Alternatively, it may be construed as a verb; in this case, when the order is Object - Preposition - Infinitive, the object is put in the accusative: !uppianniam ina ieinim 'when (you) hear this tablet of mine' raggam u ~ F I I ~ Iana I I ~illilqim 'to destroy the evil and wicked' but when the order is changed to Preposition - Object - Infinitive, the object is attracted into the genitive: ana kigitim ahizim 'to marry a iugitmn-woman' ana eb~irim kamisim 'to gather the harvest'. The logical subject appears as a nominative in a verbal construction, whether it precedes or follows the preposition: {uppiim kinia kafidim 'when the tablet arrives' kmia awilil iunn la uaparkiin 'so that those men may not defect', but mixed verbal and nominal constructions with accusative object and genitive suffix indicating logical subject are frequent: !iippam ina iemika 'when you hear the tablet'. (2) Infinitive absolute. A finite verbal form is given emphasis by the infinitive of the same root with locative(?) ending -urn, and usually with the enclitic -ma: iapirumma aipur 'I certainly sent'. (3) l e ' h 'to be able' and verbs meaning 'to say, command', such as q a b h , may take an infinitive in the accusative as complement: halaq aliiii light 'let him command the destruction of his city' kullasimu aqbi 'I told (you) to hold them' pihassu apalam ill He"! 'he cannot fulfil his feudatory duty'.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

st. rect. m. hamsitm S&m sebih *samimim lisi'im eirum

f. hamistiini iedistum sebettum

st. abs. m. hamif

-

sebe ' S ~ I I I ~ I I I ~ ~ I I Isamaiie t iie li/esftwn esertum eier

f. hamSat ieSSn sebet samCnat t isit ekret

The numerals 1 and 2 are adjectives which usually precede and agree in gender with the noun they qualify. 3-10 are nouns which usually have the chiastic concord common in Semitic: feminine forms are used with masculine nouns and vice-versa. 20-50: eiri, ialasd, erba, ha117iE. Various constructions are found in the different dialects; thus, to express 'five lords': hamiat belu/bFlum (apposition, abs. state + pl./sing.): the normal OB construction is h a ~ ~ ~belli iat belli !~a~nistiim (apposition, pi. + status rectus) belil ha111iat(apposition, pi. + abs. state) gen. sing./pl.) hamiat bFli/bFlim (construct state of numeral belli h a ~ ~ ~ i i r ~ ~ / h a m(construct istim state of thing + gen. of numeral).

Since numerals are not usually phonetically written in Akkadian texts (see 85) it is frequently impossible to specify which construction is intended. With measures, the normal construction is: numeral in absolute state + measure in absolute state + thing measured in apposition, case being determined by function in the sentence: Salai silt q h u m (or qFmhn, qimam) '3 seahs of flour'. The ordinal numerals from 3 on are adjectives in parus form, and usually precede the noun they modify:

576. Numerals. The cardinal numerals from 1 to 10 are:

1. 2. 3. 4. st. rect. m. iilSnum Sitla ialdium e r b h , arba'w~~ f. iit~tum fit t i ialGturn erbettum st. abs. m. f. isliat, iiiet Sitti SalEat erbet

istni
Sitti ialii erbe

78

LESSON 11

$76

LESSON 11

Both ordinals and cardinals are often expressed in writing by the Sumerian phrase 'number + KAM (or KAM)': M U J.KAM 'third year' or 'year three', 'three years'. Multiplicatives are expressed by the cardinal with adverbial the preposition adi may precede: suffix -i- and pronominal suffix -iu; (adi) fi~iiiu 'twice' Fractions are expressed by the fern. forms of the ordinal: fal~istiim = 113. In writing, the Sumerian phrase IGI.S.GAL is = 118. Note also the dual employed to express fractions: IGI.S.GAL i i t t k , oblique fittm '213'. Signs

Cuneiform signs Phonetic Logographic

SI = qarriiim 'horn'

si.sA = ef.Frum 'to be prosperous' tab [jar) du,

LUGAL =
GIN = GUB = TUM =

farrum 'king'

Hi, (sub, qnb)

alZkum 'to go' izuzzum 'to stand' \vabZI~irti 'to bring'

dan, kal, lab, (Kb, rib) Vocabulary arba'um'. four ($76) faltiini, pi. .fanittl~?!: year e11iiim: weak fittan: 213 wabdhim (nbbal, iibil) to carry erbiifJi, f. erbettiim: four (676) walad~im(iilllaci, iilid): to hear, e h : ten give birth to; N passive habZhim (a/u, also i): to oppress, iisafZbum ( G a b , uiib): to sit, wrong iflFn, f. istiat, iflet: one, first dwell it~atdr11111 (ittir, itir): to be kibrZtiim (pi.): world regions 'rnami'um, manUm (wr. MA.NA): excessive; $ to make excessive, multiply mina (cf. $88) nawCrum (i): to be bright; D to W u r i i m (D): to release, let go zu'irurn: hostile (used as noun: enlighten, shed light on (-f): to say, speak q{./hII/n enemy) rebum'. fourth

KALAG =

daniiwm, dannum '(to he) strong' a1vi/u1?7'man'

LU =

GEME =

canturn 'woman servant'

(Ill)

G ~ N=

fiqlum 'shekel'

Exercise 1. Normalize and translate: :a-e-ri-fu ii-wa-af-fa-ar. ha-as-.far. amat-szi fa mCri ul-du-km. it-ta-la-ad. him-ma marl la zi-li-id. h - m a miry 6-li-siim. ub-lam. uh-ha-Iu. lif-fa-ab. u-Sa-te-ru&. dan-nu-urn en-ia-am a-na la ha-ba-li-im. a-na ma-ti~?~ nu-wu-ri-im. a-ria fi-ir ni-fi gi-lib-bi-iin. pii-ru-sk-e ma-tim a-na pa-ra-si-im. ki-ib-ra-at er-bk-tim. kir ki-ib-ra-ti111 ar-ba-im. a-di 3 0 - 5 i-na-ad-di-in. IGIJ.GAL. i-ria re-bu-tim .fa-at-tim. M U . ~ . K A M . fa fa-at-tim if-ti-a-at, ii-it-ti-in i-na-ad-di-in fa-hi-us-tam i-le-qk. 4 sCt fe'am. 2 qa fe'am. 1 MA.NA kaspam. Vs MA.NA kaspa~?~. 10 fiqil kaspum. e-ef-ri-fu a5-tap-pa-ra-ak-ki-im.

80

LESSON 11

2 Give the paradigm of. wa1Crhi111in G and N-stems. 3. Translate into Akkadian: he dwells in the land of Hatti. they carried me to heaven. since he was born he has said nothing. he made me carry his throne and his scepter. he increased the regular offerings. 4 . ~ r a n s l a t einto Akkadian, using both nominal and verbal infinitive constructions: to destroy his enemies. when the king arrives. as you rise up. in order to construct the house. 5. Cuneiform:

QUADRILITERAL VERBS. IZUZZUM. DOUBLY WEAK VERBS

$77. Quadriliteral verbs in Akkadian are generally taken to fall into two classes:
1. The 5-group: the first radical is f, and a liquid (1, r) or nasal (171, 1 1 ) is in fourth or third and fourth position: fiiqalluhmi 'to hang', 3djarrurum 'to fall into a numbed silence, be silent', iuqammuinum 'to be still', iuparrunim 'to spread out' (tr.). These are usually conjugated in one stem, similar to D, and its -la- and -tanderivatives:

Note the weak verbs Siipt?him 'to exchange', fuk2mim 'to bow down' (OA fupa"ulum, fuka"wiiim). These undergo the usual alterations of medial weak verbs: Pres. Pret. Perf. Ptc. iifpt?l, pi. iiipell~i uspel, pi. iisp?lU tislep81, pi. liflepilfi mllike/I?1u111.

2. The N-stem group: the second radical is always 1 or r, and forms are found in two stems, N (with ingressive sense) and 5 (causative), with their iterative -tan- stems. They normally indicate motion: nabalkiilum (*blkl) 'to cross over, transgress, revolt', napalsiihum 'to prostrate oneself, napariudum 'to flee', naparkurn (-u class) 'to stop, to cease work', neqelpCm (-ti class) 'to drift,

82

LESSON 12

577

679

LESSON 12

83

float)', napalkum (usually -i class) 'to be open(ed) wide'. Their forms are: N Pres. ibbalaIckat/it Pret. ibbalkit Perf. ittabalkatlit Ptc. tiiitbballcit~itii Imp. *nabalkit Inf. nabalkututii V.Adj. tiabalkutiim Stat. tiabalktit Ntn itia~iablakkat ittabalakkat illatablakkat tiiiittablakkitiit?~

$79. The irregular verb i:u::iim

(post-OB uz~izzuni)'to stand':

itablalclcutu~ii

All forms double the final consonant before an ending: izzazzii, ufzazzii, etc.
$80. Doubly weak verbs combine the characteristics of two of the types of weak verb discussed above. Thus idGm 'to know' (*jada'iim) forms the preterite ide, with the modifications of I j (iniq) and I11 e ( i h e ) . (Note that when two normally weak features occur as successive radicals, one of them. usually the middle radical, is most often treated as a strong consonant, e.g. e'Zlii177, naw6ruti1, l a ~ ~ ~Iict '~ I~ i ,. Some ) of the more commonly found verbs are:

Stn iiitanablakka~ ~Stablalckit

S
Pres. Pret. Perf. Ptc. Imp. Inf. V. Adj. Stat. iiSbalaIckat ufballcit ustaballcit iii~i~balkitut~i hibalkit .fiibal/ciitum siibal1citfii111 i~ibalkiit

sittablakktttiiti~

$78. Irregular N-stem. A small group of geminate verbs (i.e. with identical 2nd and 3rd radical) have an irregular N and Ntn-stem. They are probably not to be considered quadriliteral, and are listed by the modern dictionaries under the corresponding G-stem, when that is extant (thus ~io!~ailliilut~~ 'to slink' is given under l~alahmi).They are characterized by doubling of the second radical in N infinitive and stative, and doubling of the final radical before endings in other forms. Thus t~aialliiliit~i 'to crawl off (most forms not attested, but restored from similar verbs; plural morphemes added in parentheses):

N
Pres. Pret. Perf. Ptc. Inf. Stat. ifiallaI(1ti) iSSalil(1U) ittas!al(lti) t~iuEalilliit~i tiaialhilw~i tiaSaill~il(~i)

Ntn itlat~aslal(li)

el2117 'to go up' (I ', 111 1): pres. ill;, pret. ili, perf. iteli, imp. eli, Gt pres. itelli, pret. iteli, G t n pres. itet~elli,pret. ite//i, D pies. iilla, pret. nlli, S pres. iiselle, pret.,%&t perf. d e l i ; 1t~ai.yit117 'to go out' (I iv, 111 i): pres. w i , pret. ti.yi, perf. iltasi, imp. ji, S pres. iise$:e,pret. *i, perf. iisl@i; w a h 'to lead' (I iv, 111 H): pret. G n i . 3 pres. &ra, pret. iifari; id& 'to know' (I j, 111 e): this verb and the following one have only one tense, pret. in form and stative in meaning (compare Latin cognovi, German ich weiss): ide, tide, ide, (idea etc., irregular ptc. nitidi'nn (^intide-, form 117itpras); iSGm 'to have' (I j, 111 id: pret. ifii; le'iirn 'to be able' (I1 ', 111 eli): pres. ile"ilil2, pret. il'e, H e fe'iiln 'to seek': like I e ' k ; q~i"li~ 'to i ~ await' (D): pres. uqa"a, uqd (plur. uqa8'it), pret. u q a i , iiqi.
$81. 'All' is expressed, not by an adjective, but by gimrurn, kalfan, kii.+a/iim o r other nouns meaning 'totality'. These may precede in construct relation to the noun to which they refer (gittiir t1iG1it11 'all the land'), or follow it in apposition, usually with .a I" isa 'to pronominal suffix (t11atum IcalGa 'all the land', ana t116lim Ithe entire land').

iltataSlal(1U) t~i~i~taSlillu~~~ itashillurn

LESSON 12

LESSON 12

Vocabulary alpum: ox bfrum: divination elzim (-i): to go up; G t + ina: to forfeit (41,b em'tin (4): to change (tr.) gi1?1rnnr:totality idzim (-e): to know Hum (-ti): to have ~:H:;uHI: to stand; + dat.: to stand before, come before; + aiia/i~ia pin(i): to stand in the service of, to serve le'zim (-el;): to be able nabalkiitii~~~: to cross over, transgress, revolt iiapalsi~tim:to prostrate oneself 11aizin1(-i): to raise, bear, carry; 'raise the eye to' = covet i ('raising 11ifum'. lifting; ~ i i qati111 of the hand'): prayer ~iiimatum: household goods nitriim: light qii"zim'. to await sarratwn (f. pi.): lies, deception sob^^^ (collective): soldiers, workmen EbCtum: testimony i e ' h (-el;): to seek -iu: its, his; when used with expressions of time, has a demonstrative o r distributive force: iris timiSu 'at that time, at the proper time'; timiiu (throughout) his days, all his life' vaptini (-i): to become visible; 5 to make visible, glorify wartim (-ti): to lead wapim (-i): to go out; 3 causative

Exercise
1. Normalize and translate: g~-bii-iimka-lu-iu. gi-mi-ir ma-ti-im. gi-mi-ir .7a-bi-i111i a ma-a-tim ka-li-ia. rii-bu-m i a ni-if qb-ti-iu W a d i-du-h. mu-ie-ji mi-ri-it11 a-na ma-at 51-me-ri-im 11 Ak-ka-di-iin. sum-ma lie-er-ta~ne-1;-Sn id-di-ma la vk-ti-in-Su. hm-ma da-a-a-nu-um di-in-fu i-le-ni. i-te-el-1;. a-ria wa-je-em. d a m Ge-ej-fi-C-su. mi-Sa-ra-am i-na a-na mi-ma-at be-el bitini i-in-iu if-5. km-ma ma-tim a-na sit-pi-;??I. a-wi-liim i-na di-nim a-na ii-bu-ut sa-ar-ra-tin1 11-ji-a-am. a-ra-an di-nim if-ta-na-ai-ii. i a u,,-n~i-iu iz-za-zu a-na E-babbar. i-na iu-ut-ti-ia ^B21et-bi-ri iz-zi-iz-za-am. i-na pa-ni bi-ti-ia la-az-za-az. aljni i a ma-ah-ri-ka iz-za-az-zii. e-eS-me-e-ma at-ta-pa-al-si-ah. a-na Babilim'"1 a-al-la-ak 11 ab-ba-la-ka-tam. 2. Translate into Akkadian; he will revolt. they caused them to revolt. he is silent. he falls silent. he fell silent, the whole country knows. he is not able to go out. he stood by me. they are waiting for the king. 3. Cuneiform:

Cuneiform signs Signs Phonetic

URU =

Logographic
alum 'city'

KA = babum 'gate' KA.DINGIR.RA'~~= BabiliinP

'Babylon' (etymologized as bob ilim~/ili)

GUD ^

a~plll?l 'OX' belium 'lady' ellum 'pure, holy'

NIN =

el, il,

SIKIL =

86

LESSON 12

GENERAL PHONETICS OF AKKADIAN

882. AKKADIAN HISTORICAL PHONETICS

a. Vowels are a, i, u, e. They should be pronounced as in Latin or German. They can be long or short; for conventional indications of length see 54e,4. Of the vowels, a, i, 11 are Proto-Semitic; e is a reflex of either a or i. Other vowels (such as o, ii) do not appear directly in the writing system, but their existence in some stage of the spoken language has been argued. b. Consonants are ', b, p , d, t , (, g, k, q, IJ, I, r , 171, 11, z , s, 4, i,j, ir. Their approximate pronunciation is deduced from other Semitic languages. Semitic consonants not familiar to the speaker of English include the following (for ease of reference the traditional Hebrew name of the consonant is given): ' (aleph), a glottal stop, like the glottal closure between the two words of ~ n ~ l i s h ' ooh!'; h the 'emphatic' consonants (, q and 8 (teth, qoph, sade), equivalent to t, . k, s pronounced with throat constriction; IJ (lost in Hebr.) is sounded like ch in Scots 'loch'; i (shin), pronounced like sh in English; j (yod) has the sound of English y: in transcriptions most scholars use the symbol j, hut some use y, to represent this ,sound (jiiim 'to me', rarely )?fiiim), but in transliterations the symbol i is generally used: ia-ii-im. g is pronounced as in 'go, game'. The remaining consonant's are pronounced roughly as in English. As compared with other Semitic languages, the consonantal system of Akkadian has undergone a simplification, through the merging of several groups of sounds. Though the inadequacies of a writing system adapted from Sumerian may conceal phonemic distinctions that were still felt, at least in some areas, it is generally considered that by the OB period Akkadian had lost the original consonants d, {_, d, t_, ',g, /I, ( I , .f. The consonantal evolution from Proto-Semitic may be indicated as follows:

88

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX I

c. Dentals (d, t, remain in Akkadian) d > z: Arab. 'udii, Hebr. '6zei1, Akk. nznum 'ear' t > 5: Arab. tanr, Hebr. isr, Akk. sunim 'bull' I (Js) > J: Arab. ?ill, Hebr. @I, Akk. sillurn 'shadow' (3) > s: Arab. 'a$, Hebr. ere.?, Akk. er.yeliim 'earth'

$83. PATTERNS OF CONSONANTAL STRUCTURE

a. In $82 we have discussed the relation of Akkadian consonantal phonemes, taken individually, to those in other Semitic languages, a relation traditionally conceived as 'the development of Akkadian from Proto-Semitic'. In the present section we see some inner-Akkadian patterns of consonantism dependent on environment. Some of these patterns are typical of Akkadian in all periods, as compared to other Semitic languages; these are conveniently stated as developments from a reconstructed Proto-Semitic or Proto-Akkadian. Others (where this is stated) are typical of particular dialects of Akkadian.
b. Geers' law of dissimilation. Unlike other Semitic languages, Akkadian does not tolerate a root with two emphatic consonants, and dissimilates one of them (J is retained in preference to 1 1 and (. q in preference to I): *qaJdrum > !iaqdrwn 'to bind' > qultiirum 'to fumigate' *qu(~urm *qatnum > qalnum 'thin'.

d. Labials (b, p remain)

e. Palato-velars (g, k, q, h remain) g > ': Arab. garaba, Hebr. 'ereb, Akk. erebum 'to set (of sun)' 5 remain) f. Sibilants (z, s, .Y, i > 5 Arab. kiri, Hebr. kGr23, Akk. karium 'belly' g. Liquids (I, r remain) h. Nasals (in, 11 remain) i. Laryngeals ' remains in some words, but has a tendency to disappear, with consequent vocalic alteration (this is true also of ~. ' developed from g, ' ,/ I , or (I) ' Arab. iami'a, Hebr. s h e ( ' ) , A!&. s.ai11zi111 'be thirsty' Arab. sa'ala, Hebr. 56'al. Akk ia'a11ui1 'ask' Arab. ra's, Hebr. r5(')5, Akk. r&m 'bead' : Arab. sami'a, Hebr. 5Gma; Akk. 5ei11zim 'to bear' A: Arab. nalir, Hebr. nahGr, Akk. iiarum 'river' !I: Arab. (ladata, Hebr. (iiddz, Akk. e d G m 'be new'
,

j. From the Akkadian point of view, consonants of multiple origin may be classified according to their counterparts in other Semitic languages: ': 1 = *., 2 = *A, 3 = *!I, 4 = * ', 5 = *g (w and j are sometimes termed 'aleph six' and 'aleph seven'; while there is no regular development ir > ' or j > ', the terminology is convenient inasmuch as ir and j underwent a development analogous to that of '). 2: 1 . = *z, 2 = *d. : 1 = *J, 2 = *I 3 = *d. i 1 = * 5 ,7 - = * , 3 = *(.
-3

c. Barth's law of dissimilation. A nominal preformative ma- (or its variant me-), when preceding a root containing a labial (b, p, 1 1 7 ) dissimilates to na- (ne-): *marlcabturn > narkabtum 'chariot' *maktamnm > naktamwn 'cover' *mapharum > napharum 'total' *ma!ipaium > 12peiiim 'ritu'al'. d. ',1.5 ($82j) is retained in some words as a strong consonant, but more normally is subject to disappearance, with consequent changes in vocalization. The development of j and >r is analogous to that of ' (see below, $84~-f). e. n often assimilates to a following consonant: *a ~ t a > alla you' * 'anpum > apptim nose' but note -at least in written form - ka1151i.iddin-iu (also iddii-iu), nidintum (also nidittiim).

90

APPENDIX I

583

$83

APPENDIX I

91

f. Dental (d, I, () or sibilant (s, q, 3, z)

regularly > ss: *mat-iu > 1n8s-sii 'his land' *in~bas-iu> idas-su 'he struck him' 'era-iu > eres-sit 'his desire'.

+ i of pronominal suffix

m. In Babylonian from MB on the geminated middle radical of a verb, when it is voiced b, d, g, or z, frequently dissimilated to a nasal (written 171 or 11) + the simple consonant, representing mb, nd, VS, 112: inabbi > inambi 'he names' inaddin > inamdin, inandin (/inandin/) 'he gives' imasgar > imangar (/imaggar/) 'he agrees' inazziq > inanziq 'he becomes angry'. n. An initial or final double consonant is avoided: either the consonant is simplified (Yarr- > far 'king') or a resolutory vowel is introduced ('prus > purus, *(upp- > (uppi 'tablet', *kalb > kalab 'dog', *bill > bilat 'burden'). Medial triconsonance is similarly resolved by consonantal simplification or vocalic epenthesis (*ni-tan-prusum > itaprusum 'to undergo constant separation', > puluiJtum 'awe', *rib-turn > riiJiqtunz 'inundation'). *pull~-tun~

Note that assimilated forms may be written 'historically' (mat-su, ma-at-su) as well as 'phonetically' (ma-as-su, ma-sii); both types of writing represent /m%ssu/. g. After OB, 111 before a dental, s, q, q or k may be written n (representing n before dental, r ) before velar): tFm-ka or ( a - k a 'your report' h. I of the verbal infix -la-, whether in the perfect tense, the t-stems or the tn-stems, is partially assimilated to a first radical g (i.e. it becomes voiced d) and wholly assimilated to d, (, and : sibilants other than i * i s t a m > isdamrI7 'they have finished' *attardam > at(ardam 'I have sent' *astabat > agabat 'I have seized' "iztakar > izzakar 'he has said'. i. In verbs whose first radical is d, ?,z , s, or s, metathesis of that radical and infix I takes place in Gt and Dt-forms without prefix: *sitbut3 > ti~butC 'they are grappling' *zitkar > tizkar 'speak!'.

$84. PATTERNS OF VOCALIC STRUCTURE

a. The Proto-Semitic diphthongs au and ai normally > I7 and T: *laurum > 3 2 r m 'bull' "baiturn > bitum 'house' *iapfain > iaptm 'two lips'. b. When two short open syllables come in succession in word interiors, the vowel of the second is normally elided: 'kaiid-Eku > kaidiku 'I reach' *@taras-3 > iptarsti 'they divided' 'damiq-urn > dan1qzi111'good' but before r and 1 the elision need not take place (:ikarnm or zikrinn 'male', akaliini or akiii111 'bread'). When three short open syllables come in succession, the vowel of the second or third is elided: *pitarusitm (Gt inf.) > pitrusum (Bab.), pitarsum (Ass.).

j. d and ( before feminine ending f > t: *ma'adtum > ma'attum 'much'. 'walidtum > tv~ilitfu~~~ 'mother' *muballiyum > n~uballittum'cage'.
k. b and p can assimilate to a following 171 of -ma: h b - m a or hn7-IIIU'I entered'. 1. In MB and later, a sibilant before another sibilant or adental appears as 1: OB iisziz 'I stationed', ai(u; 'I wrote', aisi (also assi) 'I . , called' = MB iilsiz, altur, alsi.
'

. *

92

APPENDIX I

584

APPENDIX I

93

c. Vocalization consequent on the disappearance of word-initial ' (above, $82j and $83d): usually disappears with no vowel lengthening: V~alakiim (i) > aldkum 'to go'. (ii) j similarly disappears, but initial ja- > e or t *jaspiir > iipur 'he sends', *jandqti111> C I I S ~ U I I I'to suck', *jada'um > idiiin 'to know'. (iiil in OB writing, . . iv is usually - preserved . - but may be lost: wabaliim or abahim 'to carry'. d. Loss of *'I., at the end of a syllable is accompanied by compensative lengthening of the preceding vowel: * i h b > irub 'it set' *ba7um > bFlum 'lord' *. jajsir > *ijiir > Iiir 'he went straight', lose ' the opened syllable is lengthened, or When nouns I11 reclosed by a secondary consonant gemination:

*gar& > Ass. e r i b m , Bab. erSbu117'to set' *bayat > Ass. belat, Bab. betel 'lady' *talqa/z > Ass. talqe, Bab. telqe 'you took' *ta.famma > Ass. t a k m m e , Bab. teiemme 'you hear'. This assimilation of a to e takes place even when there is an 1 1 ' nouns of the form pars: intervening consonant in 1

g. In Babylonian, a in the proximity of r or l j often > e; a in preceding o r following syllables is also then assimilated to e: *ardatum > e r ~ e t u m 'earth' arraltim > errelu?)~ 'curse' iabdrum > iebFni117 'to break' qarabum > qerSbum 'to approach' (ahurn > te&m 'to come near'. h. In verbal forms whose writing allows us to distinguish between e and i (see 4e,and $IS), an i preceding syllable-final r or l j often > e in OB; the same shift may be presumed where the orthography alone does not indicate it clearly: utammilj > utammelj 'he seized' utirrii > uterrii 'they caused to go back'. i. Addition of a pronominal suffix (including ventive -h) or -ma effects a lengthening of a preceding short vowel (ana bili-fu > ana bFlisii 'to his lord') and preserves final length that would otherwise be lost (illi 'with', ittiill < *ittai-iu 'with him', so too eli 'upon', warki 'after'; qibDna 'say!', cf. $62). The present Introduction follows CAD in using the macron to note retained length (qibima), but not to mark secondary lengthening (ana beliiu is written, to be read ana belTfti).
j. In Assyrian, a short vowel a in open post-tonic syllable is normally assimilated to the vowel of the nominal or verbal ending (Assyrian vowel harmony): Bab. I I ~ ~ I U I I I I I'meal', II NA napt~inu, gen. ~zaptene Bab. isba16 'they seized', Ass. i~butti.

e. Vowels put in immediate contact within a word by loss of are normally contracted. Some vowel combinations, however, resisted contraction for a longer time; thus the sequences ia and ea (and iu in archaizing prose or poetry) frequently appear uncontracted in OB. In most cases the contracted vowel is a long grade of the original second vowel, the most important exception being di > f. rabiiim normally > r a b h 'great' (nom.) rabiam may > rub6111 (ace.) ruba'um > r1ibii117 'prince' purussi'im > purtiss?m 'decision' (gen.). f. Loss of original /I, ', (rarely / I ) is accompanied by a change of a to e in the same syllable; in Babylonian, a in preceding or following syllables is assimilated to e: *ba'liim > b S l m 'lord' * i h a > *iime > ifme 'he heard'

APPENDIX I1

BARA.ZAG.GAR
GUD.SI.SA
=

Nisaniim (March-April)

APPENDIX I1
SIG.,.GA
=

Ajarum (April-May) Diimuzi (June-July) Abiim (July-Aug.)

Simcimim (May-June)
= =

NUMBERS, DATING, MEASURES $85. Numbers are written:

SU.NUMUN
NE.NE.GAR

= Ululiim (Aug.-Sept.) KIN.*INNIN

1. DIS; AS, 10. u 60. GiS

DILI

DUt.Kl)

T a / e X t m (Sept.-Oct.)
=

<
TT

APlN.DU8.A

Arohsamna (OB K ~ I ~ ~ I I (0ct.-Nov.) UI~I?)

Examples:
=

2 o r 120 (also 2/60)

9 or 540

= 5 or 300
=

88. Weight measures.

?$$

50

SE = n[(atum 'grain'

ca. 1/20 gram 180 SE

= =

(ME and LIM are pseudo-logograms from Akkadian me'atiim '100', hull7 'IOOO'.)
$86. Year dates are indicated in OB by a name given to each year; thus 'the year after the walk of M a n were destroyed' = the 33rd regnal year of Hammurapi. In Assyria each year was named after a royal official, the year being called 'the limn711(eponymate) of PN'. In MB and NB texts the year is identified by the formula MU ~ . K A M PN '3rd regnal year of PN'. $87. Month dates are given in the formula
UD / ~ . K A M

GIN = iiqliim 'shekel'

ca. 8.3 g. ca. 500 g. (1 Ib.)

>-f<r

MA.NA =

mam?m 'mina'
=

60

G ~ N=

j ^ GO,$@ 1^'Ff GUN

$89. Linear measures.

biltuin 'talent' = 60 MA.NA = ca. 30 kg.

Su.si = ubc211im'finger' = ca. 1.6 cm.

KOS
=

ammaturn 'cubit' = 30 Su.si = ca. 50 cm.

ca. 6 m.

~~~SE.KIN.KU '15th D day of Addarum'. Month names, like many of

GI =

qauiin 'reed' = 6 KO$ = ca. 3 m.

=

the measures given below, were subject to local variation; the most standard names and measures are listed here. The month names are usually written in Sumerian, preceded by the determinative ITI, ITU = war/pm 'month'; they are often abbreviated, only the first sign (BARA, CUD,etc.) being written.

-a
)?& y

GAR

(= nindanunf! iiindakkum?) = 2 GI

ES

a h m 'cord' = 10 GAR berum 'double-hour'

ca. 60 m. 30 US = ca. 1 1 km.

US 'sixty (OAR)' = 6 ES = ca. 360 m.

DANNA =
=

96

APPENDIX I1

$90

$90. Area measures.

SAR =

mus/Sarrim 'garden' = 1 GAR^ = ca. 36 m.I

IICU =

ikiim Tield' = 100 SAR

18 I K U
=

ca. 3600 m.2 ca. 64.8 hectars

INDEX OF AKKADIAN VOCABULARY

(numbers refer to lessons, s to sign-list in the lesson)
erbum': 11 erCbum: 7s, 10 eresum A and B: 10 Eridiin~: 9 errtium: 2 errelsinr: 1 er.!elu171: 2, 4s eqemluni: 2 ~SE~C~III: 10, 1Is eSrurn: 1I eteqiini: 5s e-Ebum: 10 ezzum: I

jjmj" $ &$
<(

B O R ~ ) "= ~ b ~ i r a ~= n
or

ca. 6.48 hectars 10 BUR^^^

=

i^[

~O~-gunIiflCu =

SAR~ICU=

6~O~-gll~~ = i ica. ii~ 3.9 ~ km.I

f^> \BS, S A R X U = ~ ~ 10 ~ S~ AR~IL =~ ca. 39 km.2

$91. Solid capacity measures.
S ~ L A= q i i ~ n 'quart' =

ca. 1 liter 10 SI'LA

=

>-?p

BAN = sIitum 'seah'

2 BAN, BANMIN

ca. 10 1

&

3 BAN, BANES
4 BAN, BANLIMMU 5 BAN, BANIA

l@

*banturn, barium: 1 abbul~iim: 6 bam'im'. 8 abiibuni: 9 baqCr11111: 5 abuin': 2, 2s Barsipa: 9 itdad: 3s basiim: 3s. 8 adi'. 4 helium: 2, 12s aha^11111:10 bClum: 1,8s a ~ 1 i r2 : bir~in~: I2 Aja: 6 bTsii~iz: 2 ajjGm: 5 biliini: 1, Is ajj~imma:7 bfirum: 9s akalum: 10 alakum: 3, 10, 1Is alpurn: 12, 12s alum: 6, 12s aniCrwn: 10 ammafiin~:5s a~~irninidn). ana minim: 4

Amounts of grain etc. are given (as are numerical notations generally) from greater units to lesser. The number of O U R is indicated by horizontal wedges without the sign OUR, the number of NIGIDA by vertical wedges without the sign NIOIDA, the number of SJLA by standard vertical numbers + the sign S ~ L A .The sign OUR frequently appears at the end of the measures, marking them as measures of solid capacity. Examples:
5 (gur) 4 (nigida) 3 b i n 4 sila OUR

ff

ff + T t^T

2 (gur) 2 (nigida) 5 sila

1 b i n 5 sila

OUR

'+?T? fl^r
*=??+I

k-ab:u: 10 E-babbar: 10 ebebum': 10 edEuni: 10 ekallun~:Is, 2 el? 2 Ellil: 7, 9s Ellilfitt~~~r: 9 ellillll: 35, 12s elfim: 12 e n h : 11 ~ I I ~ I 12 II: epeswn: 10 epiS111m'.8 eqlum: 2, 10s

id: 8 'du111: 2. 2s idi'mr 3s, 12 Hum: 1, Is fruar: 7 immerum'. 5s ilia: 1, 8s inurn'. 2, 2s infima: 4 i~~firum: 7s

AKKADIAN VOCABULARY
iqifnz: 3. 3s i i i t t i m : 1, 10s iidunt: 6 Isiar: 8 iften: 1 1 iStu: I, 5s; conj.: 8 iSwir: 12 itti: 2 iz~izzum:1 Is, 12 j a E b (Amorite): 7 kabatum: 7 kabttlm: 1, 9s kadrurn: I kajanis: 7 kalbunr 7s kalunl (noun): 2 kal~in (verb): ~ 8 kanrirunr. 6 kinunr 9 karibum: 5 kaspum: 3, 3s kafadum: 3, 4s ki'am: 4 kibritum: 11 kinla: 1 kirh:4 Kis: 6 kiipu: 10 kiffatum: 9 kittum: 4 kimukkum: 2 kussh: 8 -ma: 4 magirum: 5 maharum: 7 mahi$um: 3 mahrurn: I mala: 7 mammon: 7 'mani'iini, manuin: 11 marmum: 5 man& (noun): 11 nlundm (verb): 8 ntaqalum: 5s mariyum: 7 Marduk 2, 9s niar?unt: 1 martun,: 4 m h m : 2, 2s rilitum: 2, 9s rnaSuni: 9 Mera: 8 mfrestunr: 6 Meslam 6 minlnla: 7 minima iiinisir 6 minimum: 7 rnmiim, rnimim: 5 miiarum: 2 mu: Is, 3 muStilunv: 5 n1usum: 4s, 7 mufum: 9

AKKADIAN VOCABULARY
jarrum: 1, 1 IS Sarruturrz: 2 Sarh: 7

sahirurt~: 7 salimum: 8 migum: 6 sapbn~: 1 sarr6turtr: 12 samim: 6 Sattuk/;~;m: 7 . Sin: 4, 6s, 8s sinniitum: 4, 6s Sipparwn'. 9 siiniim: 8s

.wrum: 3s

qabf11 5s, 1 1 q a n h : 8s gaqqad~m 5 qarnum: I Is qalurn: 9s qitunf: 2, 3s gisturn: 2 qii"Un~: 12 rabuni (adj.): 1, Is rabum (verb): 8 ribum: 9 ragZmum: 3 rakcisunr 8s rapasiim: 6 raZm: 8 r-nt: 9 rebunt: 11 redurn: 8 re'h: 5 re'utum: 2 riibunr: 9 riEunl: 9 rit~lztniA : I rinrti~nB: 4 ritlufir: 3

iasunr: 5s fa1111ri1: II ia(Zrum: 4, 8s SebCrunr: 3 Ser~~Itrr~: 8 "fe'tim: 6 . 8s fe'iirn: 12 iiimum, S&uini sibiitum: I2 Sikarum: 6s smtuy: 9 Sinniim: 5s Siprum: 2 iiqliim: 4, 11s sirurn: 9 S I ~ ~ I11 I: Sizbum: 2s -fu: 12

B: 9

umma: 6 umnninr: I 'imun~: 3s urrum: 7 uznum: 2s

Sii:5
fa: 4 .tadilum: 6 S a d h : 9s f a k a ~ u m3 : Saknunr: 2 Salimum': 5 Saknl: 8 SahiSltim: 2 *iami'ii. fmm? Is, 2 San~uS: 3s S U ~ ~ I I I I 5s III~~: iamnum: 6s fanu;: Is, 2 siimim A and B: 9 S ~ ~ I I I1 I~I: .fapirum'. 4 Saqihmr: 3 Sarikun~: 3 Sariqiinr: 3 Sarriqum: 4 Sarratum'. 2 siibtiwr. 2 Sukltilum: 6 Sulmum: 2, 4s f i l l l l ~ 10 ~ : summa: 3 kmrujiim: 9 Sum~inr. 2, 6s ,tItqttrunt: 2 iurgunr: 8 SurSudum: 6 Sultur~t: 10

la: 4s, 5
l a b f i m : 9s IabaSum'. 5 labirum: 5 lama: 4 lan~id~ 3s, ~ r6~ ~ : lapiturn: 6s leqh: 8 le'~im:12, libbum: 2, 10s 1it11um:2s la ... tu: 4

ENGLISH GLOSSARY

not: ill. la nothing: iil/la ... fiiiniina

ENGLISH-AKKADIAN GLOSSARY
accuse PN of x: .v eli PN nudfim agree: m a g ~ r w n angry: e x u m another: iaiifiin arrive: kaiadum battle: ~amhiruin be able: le'fim he estranged from: nakirum i m be silent: siifwrrurum bear, give birth: wa16diiiii bone: e.yemtum break: SebZrum bring in: erebum S broaden: raptiiiun D brother: afiiim carry: wabdum city: alum clothe: labiiiim D or 5 come: alikuni ventive construct: epZiiini country: m a u m cut: naki.~iim garment: $ubci~im gift: iiidiniwn, qtsliim give: 1iat1Cnitin give joy to: iiraiii !iibln~m go: a l a k u ~ ~ go out: \\wfini god: ilum great: rubtiin guard: najcinim heal: hali(wn D heart: libbum heaven: icsmi; honored: kab~iim house: biiuni in: ina increase: wa~arum S palace: el<~~l/iun people: 11i.ifi perfect (verb): iiukhdum perish: hulEqum place (noun): airum place (verb): iakunum possession: bisiim powerful: daimum purify: ebibum D queen: Surramm raise (children): ralium D raise a claim: rugi~iii~in recite: rnciniif,ii regular ofTering: yUl/ukk.tini renew: ed~finii D restore: (ana aSri.'i'ii)[arum D reverence: p u l ~ u m revolt: n;ibuIkiiliiii~ rise up: ieburn

tablet: !uppum lake: IcqGm take as wife: +ia:um tci.icIi: lauicidim D temple: hie ilim tenant-farmer: crrFfins that: Jii, ulliim thief: Jarriqum this: annfim wait for: q~i"fi,n weigh out: iaq6lum what?: infiitim. minimi which?: ajjuiti who": n~antiiini whole: gitizriiin, ku11i111, kifiulwn why?: anifiiinim, una minim with: ie~i withhold: kalfim woman: sinnifiiini wood: ijzir~i word: awciiiini write: Jupcirm, k~!Cr~~ni

kill: dakiim king: .t-urriim know: idum

daughter: m?r~um destroy: ~alaqiim D die: niiliim divide (inheritance): ziznm dream: i~iifrdrn dwell: waiZbwn

farmer: errF.t-~~t~z father: abum fire: iiiiiim foundation: isdurn from: is'in

make pleasant: [iibum D make happy: hadfini D maker: bfiiiini, bEmim man: awiiitni murder: nFriii~ii; to murder: 1i1211im S; to have a person murdered: dcikiirn S

INDEX OF SIGNS

INDEX OF SIGNS
(numbers indicate the lesson in which the sign is introduced)

SIGN-VALUES

I05 iton: 6 la: 5 106: I I rag: 6 Ink 4 rant: 3 rbr: 8 rn,i: 7 1e: 9 li: 2 rik 9 lirrt: 8 lik 7 1 1 1 :7 I,> 3 TOM: I1 tor: 2 lllk 4 (0: 4 !a 5 {a/: 4 !azzz: I0 {e: 4 {& I0 {ej: 9

kizr: 9 KUS: 5

INDEX OF SIGN-VALUES
(numbers !vitl~out 5 indicate sign-lists in the lessons)
0: I A: 2 nb: 5 A D L U : 10 ud 2 ag: 6 oh: 7 nk 4 a,,,: 3 AhlAlt: 9 all: I or: 6 ni: 8 nz: 9 60: 3
BADBAR:

di: 4 dib: 5 cIiL 8 dirzr: 8 UINGIR: 1 1 1 1 s : $85 du: I I DUG: 7 DUGj: 5 UUhlU: 2 dCr: 4 e: 8
E:

gi: 8 gid 9 gfd I

GzDltl: 7 GIN: 11 GIN:I I girt: 9 gik 3 CIS: $85 Gl$+U:$85 giz: 3 GU: $88 Go: 5 gz16: I I GUU: 12 glit 8 GUN: $88 CUR: $91 3 GUSKIN:

bad: 9 bog: 7 DAN: $91 be: 9 bk 6 bi 6 b i I0 bid I hjd: 9 bik I0 6,): I nuzt: $90 ~On-gz~r!~?: $90 da: 4 dab: 5 dal: 4 danz: I0 dnrz: 1I DANNA: $89 dor: 8 de: 4

eb: 8 ed 2 eg: 3 eb: 7 ek 12 errz: 3 erz: 8 er: 9 Gr: 2 e r t I2 ek 6 Es: $89 ex: 3 go: 2 gnk I GAL: 3 g c i 1 1 z : I0 GAIL: $89 gbr: I0 go.?: 6 ge: 8
4 GE~IE: I I
GE6:

[GI: 2 ib: 7 ii 2 IKU: $90 il: 6 i15: 1.2 inz: 3 ill: I0 irzn: 8 INIhl: 5 ir: 9 ir: 2 i r t I2 ii: 6 ii8: 8 , ISKUR: 3 ITI:$87 it,: 2 iz: 3 121: I0 kn: 5 K,i: I2 kal: I I KALAG: 11 knnr: I0 kcir: 10 kis: 6 knk 6 kc.: 4 KSDA: 8 kt 4 kid: 9 kir~: 9 k11: 4 KO: 3 xu,: 7 Ku6: 7 kt(/: 8

la: 5 lab: I I lud 9 /ah: 3 1nn1: I I Ie: 5. li: 5 1 ; 6 1;b: I I lib: I0 lig: 7 lib: 3 Iil: 9 /in>:2 I,,: 5 Lo: I1 Ilz,,: 2 LUGAL: 11 /I,,,,: 2 171n: 4 rz1nd 9 nrnr: I0
me: 6

N I ~ I I N : $91 ,,in: I2 NITA: 9 rz11: 4 lllk 5 zlz1117: 5 NUhlUN: 8

pn: 7 pag: 7 par: 3 pe: 2 pG: 6 pt 2 pi 6 pid: 9 pik I0 pir: 3 p11: I qa2 qnd: 3 qak I qbn~:I0 qor: I0 q& 4 qt 4 qid: 9 qid I qtk 4 qub: I I qlzl: 8 qir: 9 rn: 1 rag: 6 re: 4 r6: I2 rt 4 r t I2 rib: I I r11: 5 ru 8 rurrl: 8 s,i: 4 sa 3 sob: 9

snk 6 sur: 8 se: I I .si: 8 si I1 .si 8 sib: 6 S I G $87 ~: sib: 9 SIKIL: 12 SILK $91 SlLIhI: 4 sill: 6 sir: I st;: 3 sub4: 9 s1i1z1: I1 SUMUN: 9 ,s,,,,: 9 Jn: 3 ?nL 6 se: I2 .?k 8 .yt I2 ji 8 .:[I: 4 ?,I: I I $li: 3 .yz1rz1: I I Jur: 9 in: 4 f a I0 ind 9 ink 6 iarzl: 5 .far: 8 S,~IL: $85 icir: I1 ~AI~xu $85 : ie: 8 .f? 2 .fib: 6 iir: I fir: 8
ill:

bcz: 7 bad 7 bnk 6 be: 7 hi: 7 bir: 8 blk 3 b,,: 7

i: I ?6

rrz2 4 n ~ e kI rni: 4 h11: 6 zz~id:9 6 n~ik rr~irzi:6 niu: 6 ~IUNU 6S : hlUSEN: 7

,,a: 1 ,,ud Y zzc: 10 116: 6 ,ti: 6 rzid 9 N I E $91 ~: NIGIDA: $91 NlLlhlhlU: $91 nirrl: 5

{t4
{? 2 {it 8
(11:

!I>

II II

G F ~ T U :2

i,,: 6 in: 2 in5: 6 ib: 8 id 2 IDIhl: 9 ie: 2 ig: 3

u: $85 5 u7 114: 3 1 , d 3 uuu: 5 11g: 9 UGULA: 7 ub: 7 "k 7

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1zzzz:

I
12

rtr: 7 zir: 8
URU:

illb:

lis: 9

SIGN-VALUES

ltse: 2
,tzt

2
2

II,~,:

za: 3 =oh 6

ze: 8 z 2 12 zt 8 :i: 12 zir: 8 ziz: 9

ADDITIONS
p. 33, 535. Prononlin;~Isuflixes. Sil~ce \re~iti\lee~idiiixs(see $36) are customarily used wit11 1st s i ~ ~accusdtive g. :111d 2111 dative sufixes exce]il 1st siiig,, the follo~vii~g ~OI-111s result (wit11 @ink 'he fa~red',to/~/fl!li 'you (.F.) fca~-ed', @/~1!1fi'tliey feared'. ;ir~l/c 'lie prese~~ted'. tc~fr~~/ci 'YOLI (F.) presented', iirl~lcfi 'tliey prese~~ted'): Accusative Si~ix.lc. 2n1. 2L 3 1 1 1 , 3L P ~ u T ,1 C, 2111. 2C 3111. 31: ;~/~!I-~IIII; < *-~I~I-II; ip/n!~-/cf~ ip/fl!~-/c; ~J/~I!I-~II ip/f~!~-f; ~J/~[l-ll;d~; ~I~CI!I-/CIIII~~~~ @/(I!I-/c~II~~; ip/fl~~-i~lllfi/; ;p/fl!~-fi~~dl; Dative ;jr111c-fl111 ;.~~II/~-cI/~/cIIII~ < 4:-c~~~~-/c~~~ll i.fr~~/;-f~/c/ci~~l ; ~ ~ I I / ~ - ~ I< ~* .? LIIIIII-I. ~ I I I I ~ -~ ;,tr~~/c-n.f.?i~~~ ;~~II/~-~IIIII;~~~III
;~~II/c-~I/~/~IIII~~~;III

ifr~~/<-f~/c/c;~~d.f;~~ I 1 iir~~/c-c~i~~~llfi.~il~ iir~~/c-c~ifi~~E.f;~~l

Si~ig.lc, tnp/n!1;1111; < 'ptf~l~/fl!~i-~~~-~~; ~ ~ I ~ ~ I< I/ q~ ' l;fI~IiIr ~ ~ / c i - ~ ~ ~ tIcI~ 3111. tn/~/cl!~i-fll I~I.?~II/~< ; ~' ~pL I, Ifr~~/ci-~~~-i~~~~~ etc. etc. Sing. lc. @ / ~ ~ ! I ~ ~ -< I I*-II;II~-11; ~IIII~ 2m. @/flkfi-/en 3111, ip/n!~fi-f~[ etc.

iir11/cfi-11;111 ; i r ~ ~ / c f i - ~ ~ i< / c*-II;I?~-/~IIII~ /ci~~~~ i i r ~ ~ / e f i - ~ ~< ; i'f ~ ~~ kt~i ~ i ~ ~ ~ - i ~ ~ ~ etc.

I08 p. 52, 557. The tn-stems.

ADDITIONS

So~neti~nes the lneanillg is distributive: The Glil and Ntn of verbs of motion IIILIY express the idel of 'to a11d fro, llitller and ll~itl~er':

13.

57, 562. Verbs third ~vealc.

N

P a r a d i g m o f S t r o n g Verb
Pret.
Imp.
~II~ILY

V. Adj.

Stat.

I1

Gt

O/II~ a
I1

Gtn 0171, a
11

i D Dt Dtn

5
st1 St? Stn N U / I Ia , , LI
1

ipnrrns ijabbat irappt~d ipaqqid iptarras irIag~1111? iptaqqid iplallarrfls irtat~appl~(l iptatloqqid Ilpnrras IIP[arras 11pIn11nrras ltiapras 11iIapras ~litnparrfls uitn~lapras ipparras ippflqqid itInnapros ittnnapqid

N t n a/[{,a ,
1

II

SD

ipr11s ijbat irpt~d ipqid ipIaras irIag1111z iptaqid iptarras irtnpp~~d ip~nqqid ttpnrris ~ptarris IIPInrris llfapris ~lilapris ~~ilapris zlilapris ippnris ippaqjd iltapras i~tupqid ~tiparris

jabat r~ip~ld piqid pitrfls ritg11111 pi~qid pilarras ri~appt~d pitaqqid pl[rris pl/Iar?i$ p~llarris iupris i~itnpris i~ltapris fulapris napris nopqid itaprns i~apqid itlparris

pars11171 jabt~~n~ paqd11111