Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Second edition Robert W. Erickson Dragan Maksimovic University of Colorado, Boulder

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1. 1.2. 1.3.

Introduction to power processing Some applications of power electronics Elements of power electronics Summary of the course

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Introduction to Power Processing

Power input

Switching converter

Power output

Control input

Dc-dc conversion: Ac-dc rectification: Dc-ac inversion:

Change and control voltage magnitude Possibly control dc voltage, ac current Produce sinusoid of controllable magnitude and frequency Ac-ac cycloconversion: Change and control voltage magnitude and frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Control is invariably required

Power input

Switching converter

Power output

Control input feedforward Controller reference

Fundamentals of Power Electronics
4

feedback

Chapter 1: Introduction

High efficiency is essential

1

Pout Pin

0.8

1 1 Ploss = Pin Pout = Pout

0.6

High efficiency leads to low power loss within converter Small size and reliable operation is then feasible Efficiency is a good measure of converter performance

0.4

0.2 0 0.5 1 1.5

Ploss / Pout

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

A high-efficiency converter

Pin

Converter

Pout

A goal of current converter technology is to construct converters of small size and weight, which process substantial power at high efficiency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Devices available to the circuit designer

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

s s Linearmode Switched-mode Semiconductor devices

DT

+
T
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
7

Chapter 1: Introduction

Devices available to the circuit designer

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

s s Linearmode Switched-mode Semiconductor devices

DT

+
T

Signal processing: avoid magnetics

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Devices available to the circuit designer

Resistors

Capacitors

Magnetics

s s Linearmode Switched-mode Semiconductor devices

DT

+
T

Power processing: avoid lossy elements

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Power loss in an ideal switch

Switch closed: Switch open:

v(t) = 0 i(t) = 0

+ v(t)

i(t)

In either event: p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 0 Ideal switch consumes zero power

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

10

Chapter 1: Introduction

A simple dc-dc converter example

I 10A + Vg 100V + Dc-dc converter R 5 V 50V

Input source: 100V Output load: 50V, 10A, 500W How can this converter be realized?

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

11

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dissipative realization

Resistive voltage divider

I 10A + Vg 100V + 50V R 5 + V 50V Pin = 1000W Pout = 500W

Ploss = 500W

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

12

Chapter 1: Introduction

Dissipative realization
Series pass regulator: transistor operates in active region
+ 50V Vref I 10A + Vg 100V + linear amplifier and base driver Ploss 500W Pin 1000W + R 5 V 50V Pout = 500W

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

13

Chapter 1: Introduction

Use of a SPDT switch

I 10 A + Vg 100 V +
2

+ R v(t) 50 V

vs(t)
vs(t) Vg

Vs = DVg 0 (1 D) Ts 2
14

DTs switch position:

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

t 1
Chapter 1: Introduction

The switch changes the dc voltage level

vs(t)

Vg Vs = DVg 0 (1 D) Ts 2

D = switch duty cycle 0D1 Ts = switching period fs = switching frequency = 1 / Ts

DTs switch position: 1

t 1

DC component of vs(t) = average value:

Vs = 1 Ts
Ts

vs(t) dt = DVg
0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

15

Chapter 1: Introduction

Addition of low pass filter

Addition of (ideally lossless) L-C low-pass filter, for removal of switching harmonics:
1

i(t) + L C R + v(t) Pout = 500 W

Vg 100 V

vs(t)

Pin 500 W

Ploss small

Choose filter cutoff frequency f0 much smaller than switching frequency fs This circuit is known as the buck converter
16

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction

Addition of control system for regulation of output voltage

Power input Switching converter + vg + v Transistor gate driver
(t)

Load i

H(s)

Sensor gain

dTs Ts

Reference vref input

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

17

Pulse-width vc G (s) c modulator Compensator

Error signal ve

Hv

Chapter 1: Introduction

The boost converter

L
1

+ C R V

Vg

5Vg 4Vg

3Vg 2Vg Vg 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

D
Fundamentals of Power Electronics
18

Chapter 1: Introduction

A single-phase inverter
vs(t)
1

Vg

+
2

+ + v(t) load

2 1

vs(t)

H-bridge Modulate switch duty cycles to obtain sinusoidal low-frequency component

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

19

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.2 Several applications of power electronics

Power levels encountered in high-efficiency converters less than 1 W in battery-operated portable equipment tens, hundreds, or thousands of watts in power supplies for computers or office equipment kW to MW in variable-speed motor drives 1000 MW in rectifiers and inverters for utility dc transmission lines

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

20

Chapter 1: Introduction

A laptop computer power supply system

Inverter

Display backlighting

iac(t) vac(t)

Charger PWM Rectifier Buck converter Microprocessor Power management Disk drive

ac line input 85265 Vrms

Lithium battery

Boost converter

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

21

Chapter 1: Introduction

Power system of an earth-orbiting spacecraft

Dissipative shunt regulator

+ Solar array vbus Battery charge/discharge controllers Batteries Payload Payload Dc-dc converter Dc-dc converter

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

22

Chapter 1: Introduction

An electric vehicle power and drive system

ac machine

ac machine

Inverter battery + 3ac line 50/60 Hz Battery charger vb

Inverter

control bus P system controller DC-DC converter Vehicle electronics

Low-voltage dc bus Inverter Inverter

Variable-frequency Variable-voltage ac ac machine ac machine

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

23

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.3 Elements of power electronics

Power electronics incorporates concepts from the fields of

analog circuits electronic devices control systems power systems magnetics electric machines numerical simulation

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

24

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part I. Converters in equilibrium

Inductor waveforms
vL(t)
Vg V DTs D'Ts V switch position: 1 2 1

Averaged equivalent circuit

RL D Ron D' VD D' RD D' : 1 + V R

Vg

iL(t)
I iL(0) 0 Vg V L

iL(DTs) V L DTs Ts

iL

Predicted efficiency
100% 90%

0.002 0.01

80% 70% 60%

0.02 0.05 RL/R = 0.1

50% 40%

Discontinuous conduction mode Transformer isolation

Fundamentals of Power Electronics
25

30% 20% 10% 0% 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Switch realization: semiconductor devices

The IGBT
gate

collector

Switching loss

iA(t)
transistor waveforms

Qr Vg vA(t) 0 iL 0 t

emitter

Emitter Gate

diode waveforms

iL 0

iB(t) vB(t) 0 t

area Qr

Vg

np

minority carrier injection

pA(t)
area ~QrVg

tr

= vA iA

Collector
t0 t1 t2

area ~iLVgtr t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

26

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part I. Converters in equilibrium

2. Principles of steady state converter analysis 3. Steady-state equivalent circuit modeling, losses, and efficiency 4. Switch realization 5. The discontinuous conduction mode 6. Converter circuits

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

27

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part II. Converter dynamics and control

Closed-loop converter system
Power input Switching converter + vg(t) + v(t) transistor gate driver (t)
(t)

Averaging the waveforms

Load
gate drive

R feedback connection
actual waveform v(t) including ripple t

vc(t)

voltage reference vref

t

dTs Ts

Controller

Small-signal averaged equivalent circuit

vg(t)

I d (t )

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

compensator pulse-width vc G (s) c modulator

v
averaged waveform <v(t)>Ts with ripple neglected t

1:D

V g V d (t )

D' : 1
+ I d (t )

v( t )

28

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part II. Converter dynamics and control

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Ac modeling Converter transfer functions Controller design Input filter design Ac and dc equivalent circuit modeling of the discontinuous conduction mode Current-programmed control

12.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

29

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part III. Magnetics

n1 : n2

transformer design

i1(t)

iM(t) LM R1 R2

i2(t)

the proximity effect

layer 3

3i 2i 2 2i i

layer 2

ik(t)
layer 1

i
d

: nk

4226

transformer size vs. switching frequency

3622

0.1 0.08

Pot core size

2616 2213 1811 1811 2213

2616

0.06 0.04 0.02 0

25kHz

50kHz

100kHz

200kHz

250kHz

400kHz

500kHz

1000kHz

Switching frequency

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

30

current density J
Bmax (T)

Rk

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part III. Magnetics

13. 14. 15.

Basic magnetics theory Inductor design Transformer design

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

31

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part IV. Modern rectifiers,

and power system harmonics
Pollution of power system by rectifier current harmonics A low-harmonic rectifier system
boost converter ig(t) iac(t) vac(t) + vg(t) vcontrol(t)
multiplier

i(t) L D1 Q1 C + v(t) ig(t) Rs PWM va(t) R

vg(t) X

v (t) + err Gc(s) vref(t) = kx vg(t) vcontrol(t) compensator controller

100% 100% 91% 73% 52% 32% 19% 15% 15% 13% 9% 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19

Harmonic amplitude, percent of fundamental

80% 60% 40% 20% 0%

THD = 136% Distortion factor = 59%

iac(t) +

Ideal rectifier (LFR) p(t) = vac / Re Re(vcontrol)

2

i(t) + v(t) dc output

Model of the ideal rectifier

vac(t) ac input

Harmonic number

vcontrol

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

32

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part IV. Modern rectifiers,

and power system harmonics

16. 17. 18.

Power and harmonics in nonsinusoidal systems Line-commutated rectifiers Pulse-width modulated rectifiers

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

33

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part V. Resonant converters

The series resonant converter
Q1 D1 Q3

L
D3

1:n +

Vg

+
Q2 Q4

D2

D4

Zero voltage switching

vds1(t) Vg

1 0.9

Q = 0.2

Q = 0.2

0.8
0.35

0.7

M = V / Vg

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3

0.35

0.5 0.75

conducting devices:

Q1 Q4 turn off Q 1, Q 4

X D2 D3 commutation interval

0.5 0.75 1 1.5 2 3.5 5 10 Q = 20

1 1.5 2 3.5 5 10 Q = 20

Dc characteristics

0.2 0.1 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

F = fs / f0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

34

Chapter 1: Introduction

Part V. Resonant converters

19. 20. Resonant conversion Soft switching

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

35

Chapter 1: Introduction

Appendices
A. B. C. D. RMS values of commonly-observed converter waveforms Simulation of converters Middlebrooks extra element theorem L 1 2 Magnetics design tables 50 H
1 2 CCM-DCM1

iLOAD + R1
11 k

Vg
20 dB

+
5

C
500 F
4

28 V
Open loop, d(t) = constant

|| Gvg ||
0 dB 20 dB 40 dB 60 dB 80 dB 5 Hz

R2
85 k

R=3

Xswitch
L = 50 fs = 100 kz
8 7 6

R3
120 k

C3

C2
1.1 nF

2.7 nF

+12 V
5 +

Closed loop

R = 25

vx
VM = 4 V
500 Hz 5 kHz 50 kHz

vz

vy

LM324

50 Hz

Epwm
value = {LIMIT(0.25 vx, 0.1, 0.9)} .nodeset v(3)=15 v(5)=5 v(6)=4.144 v(8)=0.536

vref +
5V

R4
47 k

Fundamentals of Power Electronics

36

Chapter 1: Introduction