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Upendra K. Singh
A thesis submitted in partial fullment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Philosophy
School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in partnership with CRC Mining The University of Newcastle Callaghan, NSW 2308 Australia February, 2007
I hereby certify that the work embodied in this thesis is the result of original research and has not been submitted for a higher degree to any other University or Institution.
Upendra K. Singh
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have been very privileged to have undoubtedly the most intuitive, smart and supportive supervisor anyone could ask for, namely Richard H Middleton. Ever since I met him during my undergraduate degree supervision, I have been stimulated, encouraged and excited by his constant ow of excellent ideas. Rick has an ability to cut through reams of ideas with a great visual and meaningful explanation that I will always admire, and I have learned a great many engineering interpretational skills from him. He has fostered certainly the most open, friendly, collaborative and competitive research group in control and power engineering in the school of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at the University of Newcastle. He has also known when (and how) to give me a little encouraging and motivating push in the forward direction when I needed it. I thank Dianne Piefke for spending her time on helping me to arrange administrative work for scholarship and studentship matters. I thank the head of School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, the research co-ordinator, advisor and the relevent academics, dignitaries and executives from the University of Newcastle for providing me help, resources and a great supervisor to accomplish my master of philosophy degree. Throughout my two years, I was supported nancially by CRC Mining. I thank CRC Mining for the big support. I thank the CRC Mining group for sending me off to students retreat programs to learn and participate in some extra-curricular activities. I thank the CRC mining staff who have been able to supply me resources when needed. I thank Galina Mirzaeva for keeping both CRC Mining and myself up-to-date on my progress and I thank Nicholas Hawryluk, our laboratory technical ofcer (Research), for making my printed circuit board and Peter Turner for helping me carry out health and safety induction. I would also like to thank my friends from my church and my housemates for being with me in hard times and good times encouraging me to keep going to nish the project.
C ONTENTS
Acknowledgement iii
Abstract
Introduction & Background 1.1 1.2 Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Power Scavenging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 Piezoelectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electromagnetic/Inductive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermoelectric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacitive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light to Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wind to Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Suitable source and scavenging of energy in the mining environment . . . . .
3 6 8 8 10 12 13 14 15 16
Vibration & Piezoelectric Modeling 2.1 Introduction to piezoelectric modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2 2.3 Mechanical and Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Piezoelectric Constants and Terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Piezo Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17 17 17 19 24 25 27 27
Contents 2.4 2.5 2.6 Resonant Peaks Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vibration Spectrum Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Piezoelectric Element Selection and Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v 28 28 32
36 36 36 40 40 42 42 44 44 45 47
RL load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 3.2.6 Results for L = 55mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results for L = 100mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results for L = 300mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results for L = 500mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results for L = 700mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results for L = 900mH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Summary of results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Detailed Simulation 4.1 4.2 Rectier and Vdc Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rectier, Capacitor, L and DC/DC converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 OPAMP analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49 49 53 55
Detailed Experimental Results 5.1 5.2 Rectier & Vdc load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rectier, DC/DC converter & Vdc load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63 65 66 69
vi 71
77 77
Glossary
79
Bibliography
81
A BSTRACT
The growing need of creating a network of sensors in critical environment to monitor, sense and alert an operator about the environment gives rise to the research work carried out in the area of power supply to these sensors. Wireless sensors are usually designed to run on batteries. However, as the number of sensors increases and the devices decrease in size, there is clearly a need to explore alternatives to battery power for wireless sensors. Reliable, efcient and environmentally friendly energy harvesting methods could be adopted to design and build a new electronic device that could be used to replace or supplement batteries in wireless sensors. This thesis focuses on potential ambient sources of power that can be "harvested" to run low power wireless sensors in mining environments. It discusses several techniques for converting energy from such sources into useful electrical power. In particular, piezoelectric power conversion technique is described in detail. Wireless sensor or sensor networks hold signicant potential in the mining environment. The need for deployment of such sensor networks is increasing daily as mining companies are looking to adopt the system developed in the "Intelligent Mine - Technology Program (IMTP)" (Srkk et al. 2000). The objectives of the IMTP are to increase the mines productivity, decrease the total costs and to improve the working conditions. To complement these objectives, there have to be improved methods for powering sensor devices to deploy them in large numbers. Drilling is a crucial component in both underground and surface mining. Water jet assisted drilling is an example of a new drilling technology employing wireless sensors. There are various forms of energy that could potentially be used to power wireless electronic sensors provided the waste energy can be tapped in an intrinsically safe way. In this particular project, the required power to run sensors could be generated by converting mechanical vibration produced from water jet assisted drilling into electrical energy with an intrinsically safe circuit. Various power scavenging methods were researched, but vibration-to-electricity conversion using piezo-ceramic material was selected as the most promising method for this project. Piezo-based energy conversion is not normally good for mining applications because of intrinsic safety issues. In the case of water jet assisted drilling, however, the environment is much more suitable for piezo-electric conversion. A detailed computer model for this type of power conversion has been developed. The mechanical model of the vibration spectrum is based on test data from the
Contents
CRC-Mining group. A power conversion circuit has been built, detailed circuit simulations studied and the experimental results are demonstrated. An example vibration scenario consisting of (20 106 )rms strain is considered. Based on this, and a detailed model of a 70mm 25mm PZT piezoelectric patch with 0.2mm thickness, our computer simulation studies and experiments demonstrate the ability to harvest up to 210mW of power.
C HAPTER 1
4 auto-controlled and auto-powered devices and sensors. Sensors are crucial devices for various forms of automation. Sensors are used for detecting and monitoring a range of physical conditions in various environments. The information collected by the sensors can be used for research, maintenance, safety and control. For example, sensors are used to detect and monitor gas, air ow, temperature, vibration, pressure, humidity, motion, position and various other useful physical conditions. An above ground operator could remotely supervise different physical phenomena in the mine from his computer and thus provide safety precautions and warnings for the miners working underground. The level of harmful gases such as methane can be monitored and various other physical conditions like pressure, humidity, temperature, can be monitored. Thus the monitoring applications in mining industry has become one of various critical operations to maintain safety. These applications can be seen as a rst step towards the concept of the "intelligent mine". However, several difculties must be overcome before we can use the immense potential of mobile ad-hoc networks (Srkk, Liimatainen, and Pukkila 2000). The sensors used in water jet mining detect, monitor and convey the position and orientation of water jet assisted drill to another communication device, a computer in this case. One of the difculties identied is supplying power to run these sensors. Replacing alkaline batteries in those sensors becomes a very tedious, time-consuming and labour intensive job. This difculty challenges researchers to come up with alternative sources of power that could replace conventional batteries with more efcient, less costly and longer life power supplies. The project specications highlight the need for more durable, cost effective, efcient and wireless electrical supply to power electronic sensors. Wireless power supply in this case means that power can be locally generated from the available sources of energy in the vicinity of a device that requires power, thus replacing the need of a cable that would otherwise obtain power from a main supply. Advanced technology in producing electricity from various forms of energy encourage and support us to explore the sources of energy present in the vicinity of an electronic device. Potential ambient energy sources available might be light, wind, heat, sound, vibration, pressure and temperature differential. Given a potential energy source it is also crucial that we examine conversion techniques to generate electrical power for a small wireless sensor. (Roundy, Wright, and Rabaey 2003a)"The process of acquiring energy surrounding a system ("ambient energy") and converting it into usable electrical energy is termed power harvesting". It is also
5 known as energy scavenging. In the history of humankind, we have always scavenged power for our various needs. For example, one of the most essential conversion has been burning rewood thus converting it into heat energy to cook food. As the needs of energy consumptions on a safer, cheaper and more sustainable level are identied, scientists and researchers are challenged to innovate, postulate and invent new forms of power harvesting methods. Later in this chapter, we will discuss some of them. Many ambient energy sources e.g. energy sources available in the forms of vibration in bridges, buildings, aeroplanes, automobiles are identied as a small source of energy because power extracted from them are fairly small. However, power extracted from such sources could power up some electronic devices that use small electrical power such as calculator, mp3/FM players, remote controls, sensors etc. As the energy requirement of these small devices become smaller, it enables us to tap these sources and design an alternative power supply. For example, solar powered calculators have been in use for a while now. This demonstrates the fact that such power sources can be cheaper and sustainable. Mostly we rely on main supply for most electrical and electronic devices in small to large scale home or industrial environments. However, due to lightning and storms, it is highly likely that main power supply can be lost for a period of time. This kind of situation requires a backup power supply to avoid or minimise loss or damage or more importantly to keep the devices operational at all times, thus creating a need of an autonomous power supply designed to make the devices self-powered. For some devices that rely on electrical power to perform some very critical operations, for example sensors that are used to monitor some particular area for safety and regulation, a back up power supply preferably in the form of an autonomous power supply is a must. While UPS and fuel-run generators can be used as a backup power supplies, they are more expensive, and may not be environmental friendly and are surely not long lasting. For devices that require small power (for example many modern sensors), power scavenging from the locally identied sources of energy is a better alternative power source. Power extracted from such power source is more sustainable. The use of piezoelectric material to convert vibrational energy into electrical energy is becoming more popular. Piezoelectric materials have the ability to transform mechanical strain into electrical charge. For example, as we walk or jog, our walking energy can be converted to electrical energy by using piezoelectric or a proper power converting mechanism. Nowadays, miniaturized systems with micro sensors can provide a large amount of information for monitoring and controlling plants, mining environment, resources and infrastructures. The focus now
is on how to supply power to these devices in order to enable fully-wireless operation. For example, "bridge monitoring can be realized by placing smart sensors at a large number of positions on the bridge" (Faravelli and Rossi 2003). Communication between the sensors and the main data centre will become more reliable if the sensors have regular power supply at all times. To meet this requirement, autonomous power supply scavenged from the local source of energy, e.g. vibration in the structure, can be designed and implemented.
1.1
Energy Sources
Energy is one of the most fundamental needs of our life. In our daily life, we end up using some sort of energy sources to meet our energy demand. Sources of energy can be found in different forms and in different quantities. Food is a source of energy for humans and living animals. Our bodies convert by digestion food into nutrients that we need to maintain our energy level. In the modern industrialised world, we use energy in different applications, for example electrical energy is used to drive electrical and electronic devices. Petroleum products are used to drive automobiles and y aeroplanes. Chemical energy stored in various forms of batteries is used to run static memory devices, torch lights and various other electronic equipments. Solar energy is used in various solar powered applications and in natural photosynthesis process. Heat energy is used to drive steam engines. As the consumption of small power electronics are becoming more popular, it challenges the science of power electronics to advance and bring more sophisticated means of power conversion methods to build new power supplies to run these electronics. To achieve this, one has to identify various alternative sources of energy. Some of the energy sources are discussed in this section. We rst discuss fundamental sources of energy that may be available before turning to discuss a variety of energy conversion techniques. Some energy sources are abundant in nature and effectively may last for an unlimited time. In general, this means they are continually replenished by a natural processes working from solar energy, or in some cases, arising due to large terrestrial energy stores. For study and research purpose, we classify such sources as sustainable energy sources. These energy sources will essentially never run out. Table (1.1) lists some forms of this type of energy. Energy sources that will eventually run out are known as non-renewable energy source in scientic community. Among these, some energy sources will last longer than others. Energy source like nuclear may take either a billion years or a billions of years to run out and hence there is some argument over whether this should be classied as renewable or non-renewable. Table (1.2) lists some forms of this category of energy.
1.1 Energy Sources Renewable Energy sources 1 Solar 2 Wind 3 Water: Hydro, tidal, wave 4 Geothermal 5 Biofuel: Liquid, Solid biomass, Biogass Table 1.1: Renewable Energy Sources
Non-Renewable Energy sources 1 Nuclear 2 Fossil fuels: Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas 3 Chemical: Batteries Table 1.2: Non-Renewable Energy Sources
There are some energy sources found in an infrastructure, an object, operating machinery or a system. We classify these as ambient energy sources. Scavenging power from such energy source is becoming more popular in the modern world. Table (1.3) lists some forms of this type of energy. Ambient Energy sources 1 Vibration 2 Motion 3 Sound 3 Thermal gradients 3 Light Table 1.3: Ambient Energy Sources
1.2
This section examines the potential of a range of energy scavenging methods. Six different sources have been investigated.
Vibrations (piezoelectric) Motion (magnetic transducers) Thermal gradients (thermoelectric energy) Capacitive Light (photo voltaic cells) Wind
A block diagram representing a power harvesting technique from some of these sources is shown in Figure (1.1). MPTT stands for Maximum Power Transfer Theorem which states that if the source and
Photovoltaic Cell Piezo Transducer Magnetic Transducer Rectifier MPTT Rechargeable Batteries
MPTT MPTT
DCDC recharger
Powered device
Rectifier
Current sensor
Figure 1.1: Energy from various sources to recharge batteries (Casciati et al.
2003)
load impedance of a system are equal, maximum power will be transfered from the source to the load. This is also known as Jacobis law after Moritz von Jacobi who discovered it. In the Figure (1.1), MPTT represents electronic circuitry that uses this theorem.
1.2.1 Piezoelectric
Piezoelectricity is electricity due to piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectric effect is an effect due to strain caused by a stress on a piezoelectric material, thus causing polarisation of electric charges on the surface of the piezo material. A mechanical stress or strain on a pieoelectric material cause electric potential to develop between two points on the surface of a piezo-electric material. The electric charge is proportional to the force, and hence when under compression, the charge moves into a particular direction and under tension, the charge moves in opposite direction. The stress or strain can come
from many different sources such as human motion, automobiles, operating equipments, drilling, earth-quakes, tidal waves, wind power etc. As shown in the Figure (1.2), the voltage across a capacitor is produced due to strain in the piezoelectric material(Amirtharajah and Chandrakasan 2004).
The values Cs and Rs are the source capacitance and resistance as given in Figure (1.3) and Vs is the source voltage. Figure (1.3) shows a typical piezo generator.
Piezo Generator Cs Rs
Load
Vs
Figure 1.3: A typical piezo generator with a load(Amirtharajah and Chandrakasan 2004)
The details of the piezoelectric power conversion mechanism are discussed in subsequent chapters.
10
1.2.2 Electromagnetic/Inductive
Electricity can be produced by changing magnetic ux density using Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, the water jet presents a huge force that can turn small turbines that drive small alternators or generators thus producing electricity. All hydro, tidal, wave, steam and wind power stations use this technology to produce electricity. In this case, a coil moves through a magnetic eld causing current in wire as given in Figure (1.4a). In Figure (1.4b), the magnet moves into the coil and causes current to be induced in one direction, the current is induced in other direction as the magnet moves out of the coil. This is based on Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Michael Faraday in 1831 discovered that "a current was induced in a conducting loop when the magnetic ux linking the loop changed. The quantitative relationship between the induced emf and the rate of change of the ux linkage is known as Faradays law".(Chenge 1993)
e = N
d dt
(1.1)
(a)
(b)
Figure 1.4: The Figures labeled (a) and (b) shows the induced current in the
coil (Amirtharajah and Chandrakasan 2004)
B t
(1.2)
Where E is electric eld intensity, B is magnetic ux density and t represents time. Applying the
11
surface integral of both sides of Equation (1.2) over an open surface and then Stokes theorem (Young and Freedman 1996), we get:
C
E .dl =
d dt
B.dA
(1.3)
where l represents length and A represents Area. Equation (1.3) is valid for any surface S with a bounding contour C. The left hand of Equation (1.3) is induced emf. The right hand side of Equation (1.3), magnetic ux can be written as:
B.dA
If e be the induced emf, the Equation (1.3) can be reduced to e= If we have N number of coils, then e = N which is also one of the Maxwells equations. However, for the particular case of interest, using this technique is not viable due to the presence of high delity magnetic sensors. Sensors used in mining environment have to record more accurate information about the location and orientation of a drill. Such sensors could suffer from signicant interference from either permanent or electromagnets near the sensor.
t t
12
1.2.3 Thermoelectric
Thermal source of energy exists whenever there is a temperature difference between two physical locations. The thermoelectric effect allows the conversion from temperature differentials to electricity. As shown in Figure (1.5), two junctions T1 and T2 are connected by two different conductors A and B such that it forms an open loop circuit with a gap in conductor B. Figure (1.5), If T is the temper-
T2
00 11 00 11 00 11 11 11 00 00 11 11 00 00 11 11 00 00 11 11 00 00 11 11 00 00
B A B + V 11 11 00 00 11 11 00 00 11 11 00 00 11 11 00 00 00 11 11 11 00 00 00 11 00 11
T1
Figure 1.5: Thermoelectricity: Seedbeck effect(MacDonald 1962)
ature at junction T1 , then let T + T be the temperature at junction T2 . A potential difference, V is produced across the gap. V is directly proportional to T . The thermoelectric potential is known as Seebeck potential as it was discovered by Thomas Johann Seebeck (1770-1831)(MacDonald 1962). The thermoelectric power can be given as the derivative of VAB with respect to temperature T . "If the thermoelectric potential difference, V has the polarity as shown in Figure (1.5), then absolute thermoelectric power (SA ) of conductor A is positive with respect to that (SA ) of conductor B"(MacDonald 1962). It can be mathematically expressed as: dV = SA SB dT or, dV = (SA SB )dT Thus, V=
T + T T
(SA SB ) dT
(1.4)
Thus the voltage produced, V due to the thermoelectric effect can be calculated by using the formula given in Equation (1.4) Converting heat energy into electricity this way requires thermocouples to be installed. Hence it will
13
require extra maintenance and cost. The temperature differential needs to be maintained to provide constant electricity. This may require other sources of energy like propene or natural gas to keep the temperature differential. Use of such gases in mining environment can lower the intrinsic safety. Thermo-controllers may be required to control the supply of heat to maintain the temperature differential. Therefore, in the mining environment, this type of power scavenging would be very complex to implement.
1.2.4 Capacitive
Vibration energy can be converted to electrical energy by using electrostatic (capacitive coupling). Ahmed Nounou & Hani F. Ragaie discuss this process in (Nounou and Ragaie 2000). As discussed in the paper, power generation using this process is feasible using a laterally driven comb structure based on MEMS technology. "It is shown that the generation of about 10 W is possible using the SOIMUMPs technology based structure operating at 120 Hz"(Nounou and Ragaie 2000). As
Figure 1.6: Combo Drive for changing capacitance(Nounou and Ragaie 2000)
capacitance is varied, the voltage or charge increases. The concept of this power conversion is based on changing the capacitance C by keeping either charge, Q or voltage, V constant in the relation C= Q/V. In either case, the energy stored on the capacitor given by Eq. (1.5) increases. 1 E = CV 2 2 (1.5)
14
e PV Cell
LOAD
As explained in (Nelson 2003) "solar photovoltaic energy conversion is a one-step conversion process which generates electrical energy from light energy". A solar cell is a basic building block of all
PV generator Power monitoring and conditioning Load
photovoltaics. The cell is also known as photovoltaic cell or PV cell. Solar cells are usually made of silicon crystals. It can be made from either a single crystal of silicon or multiple silicon crystals. It can also be made from non-crystalline silicon or from other materials. Each PV cell when exposed to solar light produces direct current of tens of milliamps per cm2 and generates a voltage in the range or 0.5 to 1V(Nelson 2003). A typical photovoltaic process and application is given in the Figure (1.8)
15
In an underground mining environment, there is no sunlight, hence it can not be used. Even in the surface mining environment, while this technique can be considered, the requirement of constant power supply may not be achieved due to unpredictable weather pattern.
Suppose, A = Area through which the wind would pass normally, M = Mass of the air that would pass through this area, = the mass per unit air volume = air density, v = wind velocity, V = Volume of the air, then mass of air per unit time is:
is v, velocity of the air. Thus, power, the total kinetic energy of the wind per
1 2 3 unit time is 1 2 Av v = 2 Av . Wind power can be directed at the wings of a windmill, as a result
the wings rotate. The rotation produces torque on a rotor used in the windmill. As explained in the book (Golding 1955), A. Betz of the institue of Gottingen proved in 1927 that the maximum fraction of the power in the wind that could be extracted by an ideal aeromotor was 0.597 of the available kinetic energy. Thus,the total power converted in an ideal windmill would be: 1 P = 0.593 Av3 2 (1.6)
Thus, we can say that the amount of power transferred from the available power of the wind to a load via this process is directly proportional to the area swept out by the rotor, air density, and the cube of the wind speed. Again, due to the same drawbacks as found in the solar energy use in the mining environments, this energy is not suitable either for power scavenging.
16
C HAPTER 2
Vibration and piezoelectric modeling requires specication of materials and knowledge about their electrical and mechanical properties. Because the thesis concentrates on converting mechanical energy into electrical energy, the mechanical and electrical properties of the materials involved in this project need to be studied. This chapter describes research on properties of piezoelectric material used in this project. Because piezo-electric phenomenon combines mechanical and electrical properties of a piezo-electric material, knowledge of electrical properties like permittivity and capacitance and the mechanical properties like Youngs Modulus, Yields strength etc are crucial.
(Weidner and Sells 1975) where k is spring constant which is a measure of springs stiffness. Stiffer springs will have a larger value of k. This relationship is also known as Hookes law after the 17th century physicist Robert Hooke who formulated this relation. The Equation (2.1) can also be written as: S = sT (2.2)
18
where S is strain, s is compliance factor and T is stress. This relation is known as Hookes law of elasticity. It represents the observation that in many cases the strain in a material is directly proportional to the stress on the material.
Permittivity and Dielectric Constant Permittivity of a material is dened as its ability to permit an electric eld through itself. Higher permittivity of a material means easier transmission of electric eld through its medium. "The ratio of capacitance with and without the insulator is called the dielectric constant K of the insulator"(Arya 1979). If Cmed and Cvac are the capacitances of an insulator and vacuum respectively, then K= Cmed Cvac
For a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, the capacitance can be given as:
C = 0
A d
If we use a dielectric between the two plates, the capacitance is given as: C = K 0 A A = d d (2.3)
= K 0
or K=
where 0 is permittivity constant of free space or vacuum whose value is 8.85418 109 Nm2 /C2 . Thus we nd out, relative dielectric constant of a material can also be dened as the ratio of permittivity of a material to the permittivity of free space. Dielectric material has another electrical property called susceptibility denoted by e . susceptibility is directly proportional to polarisation of charged particles under an applied electric eld. High susceptibility means the material allows the polarisation to take place quite easily under an applied electric eld. Electric permittivity is determined by this. Various phenomena like electric permittivity, capacitance and speed of light in the medium are determined by it. The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative permittivity r by
e = r 1
19
In a vacuum, r = 1 and hence e =0. The electric displacement D is related to the polarization density P by D = 0 E + P = 0 (1 + e )E Or, it can be written as D = E (2.4)
This is a fundamental relation that says that electric displacement is directly proportional to the applied electric eld.
where d is piezoelectric constant expressed in Columbs/Newton An effect where a material is strained due to an applied electric eld is called converse piezoelectric effect. If E is electric eld and S is strain, then S = dE (2.5)
where d is piezoelectric constant expressed in meters/volt. As we nd out in both piezoelectric effects, the piezoelectric constants "d" is numerically identical. However the most frequently used constant in direct piezoelectric conversion is "g" which is related to constant "d" by the permittivity as below: g= d d = K 0
"g" is a measure of the electric eld produced by an applied stress. And therefore, material with high "g" constant is chosen for piezoelectric power conversion application. "g" can be mathematically expresses as: g= Electric Field Applied Mechanical Stress
where the unit for the electric eld is Volts/meter and the unit of the applied mechanical stress is Newton/m2 . Thus the unit for the "g" constant is MeterVolts/Newton.
20
There are two more piezoelectric constants known as "e" and "h" which relates Stress T, Strain S and electric eld E as given below(William and Jaffe 1971): T = eE E = hS
According to Jaffe and Berlincourt in the book (William and Jaffe 1971), the piezoelectric constants are the partial derivatives taken at "constant stress (subscript T), constant eld (Subscript E), constant displacement (Subscript D) or constant strain (subscript S)". These can be mathematically written as: d=(
S D )T = ( )E E T E S )D = ( )T g=( T D T D e = ( )S = ( )E E S T E )S = ( )D h = ( D S
Coupling Factor The coupling factor usually denoted by k is possibly the best indicator of the strength of a piezoelectric effect. When stress is applied to the piezoelectric material, part of the input mechanical energy applied is converted into electrical energy and the coupling factor can be dened as follows:
k2 =
For the converse piezoelectric effect, when an electric eld is applied, part of the input electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy and the coupling factor for this effect is dened as:
k2 =
There is never a 100% conversion of input energy to the output energy, and hence in either effects of the piezoelectricity, k2 <1 and hence k < 1.
21
The mechanical variables stress and strain are related to the electrical variables eld and displacement with following equations of state of the piezoelectric effect. {D} = [d ] {T } + t {E } {S} = sE {T } + [dt ] {E } (2.6) (2.7)
where d represents a matrix of the piezoelectric constants. The superscript t stands for matrixtranspose. The equation (2.6) describes the direct piezoelectric effect. The equation (2.7) describes the converse piezoelectric effect. These relations are also known as coupling relations of piezoelectric effect. The mechanical and electrical constants are affected by mechanical and electrical boundary conditions respectively. These properties are orientation-dependent in all peizoelectric materials. The above general equation (2.6) and equation (2.7) representing strain-charge relationship for a material of the 6mm PZT crystal class can also be written as (William and Jaffe 1971): S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 =
E E E S11 S12 S13 E S12 E S11 E S13
0 0 0
E S44
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
d31 E1 d33 E 2 0 E 3 0 0
0 0 0 0
E S44
0 0 0 0 0
E S44
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0
D1 0 0 0 0 d15 0 0 0 0 0 T1
T2 11 0 0 T3 + 0 11 0 T4 0 0 33 T5 T6 E1
E2 E3
As given in the following gure (2.1), the subscript 3 refers to the poling axis, Axes 1 and 2 refer to arbitrarily chosen orthogonal axes in the plane normal to axes 3. Subscripts 4,5 and 6 represent shear stress and strain in planes normal to the axes 1,2 and 3 respectively. Conventionally, the rst subscript of "d" constants gives the "electrical" eld and the second gives the component of mechanical strain.
22
6 5 Y 2
X 1
Axis numbers and their meaning Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 P Axis X Y Z(poled) Shear around X Shear around Y Shear around Z Radial vibration
Equation (2.7) can be further extended as given below in Equation (2.8). If J represents current
23
D t
Or, I =C where Vx =
d3 33 (d31 T1 + d32 T2 + d33 T3 )
(Vx + V ) t
(2.8)
Piezo
XC
Vx
Vx = Function of stress
2.1 Introduction to piezoelectric modeling Electrical - Mechanical Analogies Electrical Descriptoin Voltage, e Current, i Charge, Q Unit (V) (A) (C) Mechanical Descriptoin Force, f Velocity, v Displacement, s Compliance, CM Mass, M Unit (N) (m/s) (m) (m/N) (Kg) ZM
24
Q di e = L dt = Ld dt 2
d s f = M dv dt = M dt 2
Meaning stress components (e.g.1 ) strain components electric eld components electric charge density displacement components compliance coefcients stiffness coefcients electric permittivity piezoelectric coupling coefcients for Strain-Charge form piezoelectric coupling coefcients for Stress-Charge form piezoelectric coupling coefcients for Strain-Voltage form piezoelectric coupling coefcients for Stress-Voltage form
d e g q
25
State variables representing stress T, Strain S, displacement D and electric eld E can be rearranged to give other forms of piezoelectric constitutive equation as given in the Table (2.4) 4 forms of piezoelectric constitutive equation Strain-Charge Form: Strain-Voltage Form:
{S} = sE {T } + [dt ] {E } {S} = sD {T } + [gt ] {D} {D} = [d ] {T } + T {E } {E } = [g] {T } + T 1 {D} Stress-Charge Form: Stress-Voltage Form: {T } = cE {S} [ t ] {E } {T } = [cD ] {S} [qt ] {D} {D} = [e] {S} + S {E } {E } = [q] {S} + S 1 {D} Table 2.4: Four forms of piezoelectric equations(William and Jaffe 1971)
2.2
Vibration Specications
Water jet assisted drilling gives rise to large mechanical vibrations. Vibration from this source has been measured with an accelerometer. The acceleration magnitude of the vibrations is plotted against frequency over the log scale. As shown in Figure (2.3), there are two main resonant peaks to consider and those peaks at about 400Hz and 1600Hz are chosen. Here is a graph of recorded spectral data that was supplied by CRC-Mining. The data presented in Figure (2.3) and (2.4) was supplied by Eddie Prochon from CRC Mining group in mid 2004. As clearly seen in the graph, there are many peaks. Most of them are small and some of them are big. We are interested to choose the bigger peaks so that maximum possible voltage can be generated on the piezo-material during mechanical-to-electrical coupling. Also we need to pick a nite number of resonances to design a circuit that can approximately represent source data. Such a model then can be used as a source for the rest of the power harvesting circuits. This is a source model for the power harvesting circuit, and is used for various stages of the simulation. In order to achieve a model of the provided spectrum, an electrical circuit with the desired resonances at 400Hz and 1600Hz is researched and designed in the next section.
26
27
2.3
Typical RLC
An understanding of an RLC circuit is required to achieve resonances at desired frequencies. The cicrcuit displayed in Figure (2.5) is a typical RLC circuit with an AC soure.
v_sin
Let the source, E = V0 sin( t ) be an AC emf. The current through the circuit in Figure (2.5) can be given as follows: I (t ) = V0 sin( t ) Z (2.9)
where Z is the total impedance of the circuit and its unit is Ohms. Z= where XL = L, XC =
1 C ,
R2 + (XL XC )2
2.3.1 Resonance
From the Equation (2.9), we can say that the maximum current is obtained by making Z as small as possible. If we have a xed R value, then we can achieve the minimum Z by letting L cancel C. In mathematical terms, it can be expressed as: XL = XC i.e. 1 C 1 f= 2 LC
L =
(2.10)
This simply says that to achieve resonance at the natural frequency of the circuit, values of capacitor and inductor can be adjusted, and thus the resulted current in the circuit will be maximum.
2.4 Resonant Peaks Design Power can be given as: Average Power, Pavg = I 2 rms R = E 2 rms R Z2
28
where Average power will be maximum only if Z is minimum which requires again XL = XC .
2.4
r3 .1k
c2 40n
l2 4
In the Figure (2.6), the values of L2 and C2 are chosen such that the lower resonance at lower frequency 400Hz is obtained. Using the Equation (2.10), by choosing C2 = 40nF , the value of L2 must be 3.96H 4H to obtain resonance at 400Hz. Similarly to get resonance at a higher frequency of 1600Hz the values of capacitor 5nF requires to have the value of inductor to be 1.98H 2nH . These resonances were calculated to approximately match the graph of the source signal sent by the CRC Mining group. The frequency response of the circuit in Figure (2.6) is given below which approximately matches the original signal source.
2.5
To get an approximate time response of the circuit shown in Figure (2.6), the at source, V 1 in Figure (2.6) needs to be replaced by a white noise source in Saber. Saber is an electronic design and simulation software tool from Syopsis (Synopsis 2007). Thus the new source model shown in Figure (2.8) was designed that gives a reasonable approximation of the original time response shown in Figure (2.3) supplied by the CRC Mining group. However, on the original data, the vertical
29
30.0
10.0
Amplitude ((1/rt(Hz)))
3.0
1.0
0.3
0.1
0.03
100.0 150.0 200.0 300.0 500.0 700.0 1.0k 1.5k f(Hz) 2.0k 3.0k 5.0k 7.0k 10.0k 15.0k 20.0k
scale of the supplied vibration is unknown since the required gains and calibration constants were not available. Even if they were, since this is acceleration data, very detailed mechanical modelling would be required to generate the appropriate stress or strain data. Therefore, the model is designed to be adjustable to match the specications or requirements.
30
3
NoiseVar c_w_noise
A
Vr
var2v
50n
Control to Voltage
WhiteNoise
10k 1K
The aim of the simulation model is to allow testing various circuit designs for efciencies and power extraction ability. The time response of thus designed source model Figure (2.8) is given below in Figure (2.9).
Graph0
(V) : t(s)
15.0
vr
10.0
5.0
(V)
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
0.0
50.0m
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5 t(s)
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1.0
31
Graph0
(dBv/Hz) : f(Hz)
10.0
dB(vr)
0.0
10.0
20.0
(dBv/Hz)
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
32
2.6
The main purpose of doing research and study on this particular topic is to nd out the most suitable piezo-ceramics for this project. Different piezo ceramics have different properties listed as:
The material that produces maximum charge under applied vibration is targeted. While doing mathematical analysis of the various properties factors of these materials, a compromise was made among various conditions that suit the operating environment. The "g" and "d" factors as mentioned earlier in this section play important role in determining the type of the material because these factors are indicative of how much charge the material is going to produce under applied stress or strain. Considering costs, availibility and quality of different piezoceramic materials from various manufacturers, the following PZTs from PI Ceramic (Physikinstrumente 2006) were considered for selection. PIC 151 PIC 255 PIC 155 PIC 152 PIC 181 PIC 141 PIC 241 PIC 300 PIC 110 Table 2.5: PZTs (Physikinstrumente 2006)
The comparison study of different piezo-material from the data sheet from Piceramic (Physikinstrumente 2006) wad done. A brief of the main properties relevant to this project is listed below in the Table (2.6). The details of the datasheet is available on public website as specieed by the URL given in the (Physikinstrumente 2006). As per the properties of the different piezo-material displayed in Table (2.6), we can see that PIC151 has comparatively bigger permittivity, coupling factor and the piezoelectric charge constants than other piezo-materials. Though the piezoelectric voltage constant for PIC151 is slightly smaller than the others, the former properties make this material superior to the others in selecting PIC151 for this project. Also, the availibility of PIC151 in our lab was another factor to select this material. Thus after comparison studies about various properties of these PZTs, PIC 151 was selected for this project. Next, the size of the piezo patch was determined according to the available space in the
2.6 Piezoelectric Element Selection and Specications Properties Permittivity in polarized direction PIC151 PIC255 PIC155 2400 1750 1650 0.62 0.47 0.35 0.69 -180 400 -11.3 25 1450 1400 0.62 0.48 0.35 0.69 -165 360 kp kt k31 k33 d31 1012C/N d33 Unit
33
Permittivity perpendicular to the polarity 1980 0.62 Coupling factors 0.53 0.38 0.69 Piezoelectric charge constant(d ) -210 500 -11.5 22
mounting device in mining environment. Piezo patches are availabe in different sizes. Comparing the available space in the mounting device to the different available sizes of the piezo-materials, PIC151 of 75mm 25mm area and 0.2mm thickness was selected to be the suitable piezo patch for this project. Knowing the area, the thickness and the permittivity for this material from Table (2.7), we can calculate its capacitance using Equation (2.3). The resultant capacitance 180nF. The data sheet (Physikinstrumente 2006) for PIC 151 is given below.
34
Material Type: PIC 151 Physical and Dielectric Properties Unit Density Curie Temperature Permittivity
g ( cm 3
Tc (C)
In the polarization direction 33T /0 Perpendicular to the polarity 11T /0 Dielectric loss factor Electromechanical Properties kp tan (103 )
0.62 0.53 0.38 0.69 1012C/N 1012C/N 103V m/N 103V m/N -210 500 -11.5 22
Coupling factors
kt k31 k33
(1012 m2 /N ) 19.0
2.6 Piezoelectric Element Selection and Specications Material Type: PIC 151 Physical and Mechanical Properties Unit Elastic constants (stiffness) Mechanical quality factor Temperature stability Temperature coefcient of 33 (20Cto + 125C) Specic Heat Capacity Specic Thermal Conductivity Poissons ratio Static Compressive Strength Coefcient of thermal expansion Thermal expansion coefcient T K 33 (103 /K ) J/Kg K W/m K 6 350 1.1 0.34
D (1010 N /m2 ) C33
35
10 100
Qm
MPa J/Kg K
Thus the mechanical and electrical properties of materials in general were studied. Then these properties critical to the requirement of the design of a power scavenging circuit suitable for this project were studied in detail. After a consideration of various piezoelectric materials, two key properties: (1) permittivity and (2) high "g" factor were the major players in deciding the type of PZTs. In this case PIC151 PZT was chosen for the piezoelectric power conversion as the key properties favour this material for the application.
C HAPTER 3
I DEALISED S IMULATIONS
The main objective of this section is to design a circuit where a load absorbs maximum power from the driving network. The load model is simplied substantially to examine limits to the performance achievable with realistic electronic load circuits.
3.1
R load
Vs
RL
i = Imax cos( t )
Figure 3.1: Source and Load Match for Maximum Power Transfer
the source. Just as the current through a resistor is a function of the voltage across the resistor and the resistance offered by the resistor, the AC current through a capacitor is a function of the AC voltage across it, and the reactance offered by the capacitor. The impedance of the capacitor can be expressed as
1 C
and its unit is Ohms(), where C is the capacitance of the capacitor. Let RL represent the load
resistance. Given the open circuit rms voltage Vs , the average power at the load PL is: PL = irms 2 RL where Imax |Vs | irms = = | X 2 c + RL |
37
+ RL |2
RL =
RL 2 RL + 21C2
|Vs |2
(3.1)
The power PL absorbed by the load is a function of load RL . Therefore by setting the derivative of PL with respect to RL to zero, the maximum value of PL can be calculated:
2C2
This is a variant of the maximum power transfer theorem which states that when the source impedance is xed and the load impedance can be selected, maximum power is absorbed by the load when the source and load impedances are equal. In this particular project, the driving network as given in Figure (3.2) is a piezo patch which is under a random stress and strain from a particular vibration as an energy source generated in waterjet mining. The source impedance of the piezo is: |XC | = | 1 | 2 fC
where C = C6 = 180nF . This value of C is taken from the PIC151 piezo ceramic manufacturer datasheet for the piezo area 25mm 70mm with 0.2mm thickness with relative permittivity of 2400. Thus the load resistance RL is calculated, given the frequency, f in Hz as
RL =
1 885 K 2 fC f
(3.3)
From Equation (3.3), the load resistance depends on frequency of the source signal. For example, at 500Hz, the load resistance of 1.7K will absorb the maximum power and at 1600Hz, the load resistance of 552 will absorb the maximum power. However, the vibration signal has frequency components from 1Hz to 10Khz, and it is very difcult to design the load that will adapt to the varying frequency to match the source impedance.
3.1 R load
38
The aim here is to study how an input impedance matches with a load and to examine the suitable load to give maximum power transfer to the load. The circuit in Figure (3.2) was designed and simulated to nd the best matching output load resistance to the input impedance. The true rms value of the
1
c_w_noise
2
2K .1k 5n 40n 2 180n
NoiseVar
var2v
50n
Control to Voltage
WhiteNoise
Vr
10k 1K
Vrms
c6 r5
A
2k
vp vcvs vm
5.6
source signal at the input is ( 19V ). The source rms voltage of this value is limited in the current laboratory setup. This is achieved by combining two broadband power amplier, each of which gives about (9.5V )rms at the maximum gain. Therefore, to simulate the circuit in Saber at more realistic input rms voltage, the gain 5.6 is selected as shown in the Figure (3.2). This value of the VCVS gain amplies the real source rms voltage, Vr 3.43V to be 19V . At this gain, we see from the graph in Figure (3.3), the maximum power is 0.34W when the load resistance is 117.21. Therefore, we can conclude for this section that that ideal value of a matching load will be 120 for an ideal "R Load" circuit for the given source signal in this project. 120 is the equivalent resistance of a capacitor with the 180nF at approximately 7372Hz. Though the target frequencies for this project are 400Hz and 1600Hz, the smaller value of resistance for the maximum power transfer in this case justies that high frequency signals reduces the resistance of a capacitor. Therefore matching load resistance decreases as the frequency increase without having any inductor in the load.
3.1 R load
39
Graph0
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2 Power(W)
0.15
0.1
50.0m
3.2 RL load
40
3.2
RL load
In this section, we study the nature of the load resistance changing to match the input impedance at different values of inductance connected in series with the load resistance. At different frequencies, the capacitor and inductor offer different response. For example, at low frequency, the capacitor offers high impedance and inductor offers low impedance. At high frequency, a capacitor offers low impedance and an inductor offers high impedance. Therefore to match a load resistance to an input impedance of a piezo, a different value of inductor will be required at different frequencies. We know the value of the piezo capacitance which is 180nF. The values of inductance that will give resonance at 400Hz and 1600Hz are 900mH and 55mH respectively. Thus the circuit in Figure (3.4) was designed selecting a value of inductor in between this range of inductor values. The circuit was simulated at ve different values of inductance with the input rms voltage xed at Vrms 3.43V 5.6 19Vrms .
1
c_w_noise
2
2K .1k 5n 40n 2 4 180n 55m
3
l3
r5
vcvs vm
NoiseVar
var2v
50n
Control to Voltage
WhiteNoise
Vr
10k 1K
Vrms
c6
vp
5.6
2k
3.2 RL load
41
Graph0
1.0
0.9
0.7
Power(W)
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1.0
10.0
/r.r5() Ohm
100.0
1.0k
3.2 RL load
42
0.18
0.16
0.14
X_Max: (452.04, 0.16572)
0.12 Power(W)
0.1
80.0m
60.0m
40.0m
20.0m 10.0
100.0
/r.r5() Ohm
1.0k
10.0k
3.2 RL load
43
Graph0
70.0m 65.0m Power(W) 60.0m 55.0m 50.0m 45.0m 40.0m 35.0m 30.0m 100.0 1.0k /r.r5() Ohm 10.0k
3.2 RL load
44
0.1
90.0m
80.0m
X_Max: (727.9, 0.090112)
70.0m Power(W)
60.0m
50.0m
40.0m
30.0m
/r.r5() Ohm
3.2 RL load
Graph0
45
0.18
0.16
0.14
X_Max: (280.72, 0.1678)
0.12 Power(W)
0.1
80.0m
60.0m
40.0m
20.0m 10.0
100.0
/r.r5() Ohm
1.0k
10.0k
3.2 RL load
46
Graph0
0.4
0.35
0.3
X_Max: (62.102, 0.38143)
0.25 Power(W)
0.2
0.15
0.1
50.0m
47
3.3
Summary of results
Simulation ID L(mH) P(mW) R(Ohm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 55 100 300 500 700 900 900 165 82 90 168 381 28 452 1487 727 280 62
In Figure (3.11), the horizontal axix represents simulation IDs. Simulation 1 with 55mH inductor and load resistance 28; and simulation 6 with 900mH and load resistance 62 gives more power than other simulations. Thus, from Table (3.1) and Figure (3.11), it is clear that the power transfer
48
to the load increases and load resistance decreases around resonant frequencies which are 400Hz and 1600Hz. At these frequencies, we obtain values of L to be 900mH and 55mH respectively to provide resonance with 180nF capacitor.
C HAPTER 4
D ETAILED S IMULATION
The objective of this chapter is to design more realistic circuits for power scavenging. The goal to achieve maximum power at the battery remains the primary focus of all simulations completed in this chapter. The current produced due to piezoelectricity is AC in nature. However the battery requires a DC current to charge itself. Therefore, a full wave rectier is used. Various electronic circuits where a load absorbs maximum power from the driving network were studied. There are two different electronic circuits that were selected for a detail comparison study in both theoretical and practical simulations. The rst circuit uses a full wave rectier directly connected to a 3V battery as shown in Section 4.1. Then as shown in Section 4.2, the second circuit has a full wave rectier feeding rectied signal to a PWM IC which passes the pulse width modulated signal to the load via a small 220uH inductor.
4.1
The circuit in Figure (4.1) is the simplest form of a real power harvesting circuit. The left hand side
1 2 3 4 5 6
r4 2K r3 .1k
c5 5n c2 40n r2
l5 2 l2
c6 180n
Vrms = 19.73V
D2
B
WhiteNoise
Vr
D3
2.7
10k
c_w_noise
50n
c4
NoiseVar C
Vr
1K r1
vp vm
vcvs 5.6
Battery
Control to Voltage
var2v
D1
D4
1 r5
gnd
gnd
of the VCVS amplier represents the source signal. The source signal, Vr can be measured from
50
Time(s)
vr
15.0
Vr (RMS) = 3.4124V
10.0
Vr (V)
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
0.0
50.0m
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25 Time(s)
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
The rms input voltage Vr is 3.5V in this case. As per the experiment carried out in the nal chapter, the maximum rms voltage of a combined two broadband amplier does not exceed 19.3V. Thus dividing 19.3 by 3.5, we achieve the setting for the gain of the VCVS to be 5.6. C6 is 180nF capacitor that represents a 25mm 70mm PIC 151 (Physikinstrumente 2006) piezo patch with 0.2mm thickness. The input signal represents vibration that excites the piezo patch which produces AC that becomes rectied by the full wave rectier. Most of the resultant charge is then stored into the battery.
51
0.3
X_Max: (12.308, 0.25876)
0.25
0.15
0.1
50.0m
0.0
0.0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0 27.5 30.0 32.5 35.0 37.5 40.0 /v_dc.battery(V)
Figure (4.3) displays the average power available at varying battery voltages for input voltage, V = (19.73V )rms for the circuit shown in Figure (4.1). From Figure (4.3), we see that under the conditions studied, the maximum power 0.259W will be achieved when the load voltage is equal to 12.3V. To nd out an equivalent DC load impedance at these values: Power, P = 0.259W Voltage, V = 12.3V Therefore, Current = P = 21mA V V And, Impedance = = 584 I
Based on the idealised analysis of Section 3.1, 180nF capacitor at 1500Hz frequency also gives an impedance of approximately 589. Thus the input impedance of the circuit matches the output impedance at 1500Hz causing the maximum power transfer from the source to the load. However, 12.3V can not be achieved in this circuit since we wish to use a battery voltage of 2.7V. Therefore, maximum power can not be transfered with this very simple circuit and it requires us to design a more complex circuit that will cause the supply rail voltage to rise closer to the voltage where maximum power transfer can occur. This leads to the intuition and design of the circuit in Section 4.2. The graph in Figure (4.3) display approximately 163mW of power at 2.7V battery. This matches the
52
average power obtained in Saber by direct transient analysis of the circuit in Figure (4.1) at the xed load of 2.7V as also proved in Figure (4.4).
Graph0
4.0
3.0
1.0
2.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 t(s) 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
The Saber(Synopsis 2007) simulation of the circuit in Figure (4.1) with xed load at 2.7V display the average current through the battery. The resultant average current is shown in Figure (4.5). Later in the real experiment, we will nd out that the battery current value approximately matches the current value in the experiments carried out on a breadboard and a circuit built on a PCB.
Graph0
1.0
0.6
0.4
53
4.2
We have now studied various power levels available from Section (4.1). The maximum power at the battery can be achieved if the output impedance can be matched to input impedance or approximately brought near the input impedance. One way to achieve such impedance matching is to store charges on a 10uF capacitor and then use switching technique (PWM) in combination with an OPAMP to charge the battery as shown in Figure (4.6). The circuit in Figure (4.6) is a power harvesting circuit.
0 1 2 3
Switch
4
Vdc
2K
5n
180n
Vcc
220u
.1k
40n
Vrms
vp
vcvs
10k
Vr
1K 50n
D2
D4
vm
1u
PWM Output
5.6
Z1
Battery
500k
r18
D5
2.7
c_w_noise
33p
D3
D1
Control to Voltage
0.1u
10u
C
1
var2v1
pwm_ideal
Vs
r12
22k
r14
2MEG
Vdc
vcc
v_dc 1.22
r15 2MEG
lmc6482
vee
33u
r6
Based on various ideal simulations, this circuit has been ne tuned in Saber(Synopsis 2007). The left hand side of the circuit including the VCVS is an ideal source that represents the characteristics of the vibration source and the piezoelectric patch. The details of this source and its spectrum are given in chapter 2. The source is connected to a full wave bridge rectier, thus converting AC into DC. A lter capacitor with the value of 10uF is used to smooth out DC pulses. The zener diode immediately after the full bridge rectier is used as an overvoltage protection device. The Zener voltage of the diode used in the prototype electronic circuit for this project is 33V , since the rectier diodes have a maximum blocking voltage rating of 40V . An ideal Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) circuit and switch are used as a simplied model of the real PWM IC used. The particular component selected for the electronic circuit, MAX5033D was not found in the Saber library, and hence this simplication was adopted.
54
The motivation behind using PWM is to have a high efciency interface between the rectied source (which is variable voltage) and the almost constant voltage rechargeable batteries. In this circuit using PWM causes the rectied supply Vcc to rise to a range of desired values otherwise not obtained without using PWM. This rise in the values of Vcc helps achieve a better impedance matching between the source and the load for maximum power transfer, and thereby implements a form of maximum power point tracking(Casciati et al. 2003). D5 and the 220uH inductor are added to give a simple forward (or buck) converter. It converts the high DC voltages to low DC voltages and hence it is also known as step-down DC to DC converter. A voltage divider circuit, or series regulator could also be used to lower the voltage however these are much less efcient than the buck converter. Resistor, r6 in parallel with the 33uF capacitor give a means of sensing the approximate average DC current owing from the rectied signal. Because quiescent current of the pwm chip is very small which is 270uA, essentially all the DC current from the rectied signal has to ow through to ground via r6. The 1 resistor in series with the voltage source is there to permit simple measurement of the current through the battery for testing purposes. Once testing and debugging is completed and the circuit is nalised, this component could be omitted and replaced by a short circuit. The LMC OP Amp, and associated circuits allows for comparison of the average current and the DC voltage from the rectier, which is used in feedback to the PWM chip. This allows the PWM chip to adjust its duty cycle in an appropriate range for the impedance matching between the source and the load.
55
A
Icc
D2
D3
Vcc
Rx (Load)
Input Signal
D1
D4
10u
c7
gnd
cc impedance of the circuit can be given as Rx = V Icc . Therefore if we can deduce an equation that relates
Vcc to Icc , then we can design the circuit by tuning the circuit elements parameter values related to this equation in Saber(Synopsis 2007) simulation. The following OPAMP analysis can help us achieve the relation. In an ideal OPAMP operation, V = V +. Therefore, in the circuit in Figure (4.7), Vs = V ,
0 1 2 3 4
Vcc
B
22k 2MEG
1.22V
Vs
B
r12 r15
r14
Vdc
vcc vee
2MEG
lmc6482
Or, Vs = (r12 ||r14 )Vcc (r12 ||r15 )1.22V + (r12 ||r15 ) + r14 (r12 ||r14 ) + r15
4.2 Rectier, Capacitor, L and DC/DC converter Because r12 is much smaller than r15 and r14 , r12 ||r15 r12 and r12 ||r14 r12 . Vs = r12 1.22V r12Vcc + r12 + r14 r12 + r15
56
For the reasons explained above, r12 + r14 r14 and similarly r12 + r15 r15 Thus, Vs r12 1.22V Vcc + r14 r15
In this case, ne tuning of the circuit in Saber for maximum power transfer gives r14 = r15 = 2M and r12 = 22K . 1.22V is the required voltage for pin number 4 on a Maxim 5033D PWM IC (Maxim 2006). This pin is connected to the output pin of the OPAMP, TS942 (STMicroelectronics 2006). Therefore, Vs = 22K [1.22V + Vcc ] 2M (4.1)
When the switch is on, almost all of the supply current has to ow through 4 resister as there would be negligible amount of current owing through any other grounded circuit element, therefore, Vs 4 Icc Combining Equation (4.1) and Equation (4.2), we get, 1.22V + Vcc 4 2M = Icc 22K If Vcc >> 1.22V , then Vcc 4 2M = = 363 Icc 22K The mathematical analysis of OPAMP as given above suggests that there are some differences between the input impedance (584) and the effective DC resistance which actually gives best power transfer. The mismatch is due to some inefciencies in the circuit that depend on the DC voltage Vcc . In particular, for larger Vcc , the PWM duty cycle will be lower, and this will increase the power loss in the free-wheeling diode, D5 in Figure (4.6). This, combined with the fact that the average power versus V-Load (see Figure (4.3)) is very at near the optimal point, means that the optimal Vcc for maximum battery power is signicantly less than 12V. (4.3) (4.2)
4.2 Rectier, Capacitor, L and DC/DC converter Battery Power at Varying Input RMS Signal
Graph0
Power(W) :
57
0.3
0.8
time(s)
Graph0
power(v_dc.battery)
0.2
0.5
Power(W)
0.4
0.1
Ave: 0.045556
0.0 0.0 50.0m 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 time(s) 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.0 0.95 50.0m 1.0 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 time(s) 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.95
time(s)
Graph0
power(v_dc.battery)
0.9
0.8
1.2
0.7
1.0 0.6
Power(W)
Power(W)
0.5
0.8
0.4 0.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.1
Ave: 0.084788
0.2
Ave: 0.14228
0.0
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0.0
50.0m
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0.15
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0.95
We see in Figure (4.9) that the average battery power rises as the input voltage, Vrms increases. In Figure (4.12), we also see that Vcc rises as the Vrms rises, and hence it clearly indicates that the supply voltage, Vcc has to rise closer to 12V to give maximum power at the battery. Later in the section, we will nd that RT hevenin changes as we vary the input signal, Vrms . In Saber, the average battery power was plotted versus varying input voltage, Vrms as shown in Figure (4.11).
58
Graph0
Power (W) :
Time(s)
power(v_dc.battery)
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
Power (W)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Ave: 0.21061
0.2
0.0
0.0
50.0m
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0.15
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1.0
Battery Power at Vrms = 18.71V Figure 4.10: Average Battery Power at varying input signal..continued..., Vrms
Graph0
0.2 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 Power(W) 0.1 80.0m 60.0m 40.0m 20.0m 0.0
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8
Power(W) : /vcvs.vcvs2()
Ave(power(v_dc.battery))
5.0
/vcvs.vcvs2()
59
Graph1
Vcc(V) : t(s)
4.25
Graph0
vc
8.0
7.5
7.0
3.75 6.5
6.0 3.5
Vcc(V)
Vcc(V)
Ave: 5.5303
5.5
3.25
Ave: 3.1807
5.0
4.5 3.0
4.0
2.75
3.5
3.0
2.5
0.0
50.0m
0.1
0.15
0.2
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0.4
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0.5 t(s)
0.55
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0.65
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0.4
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0.5 t(s)
0.55
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0.65
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0.75
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0.85
0.9
15.0
14.0
10.0 12.0
Vcc (V)
Vcc(V)
Ave: 7.7692
11.0
Vrms = 11.765V
10.0 5.0
Ave: 10.159
9.0
8.0
0.0
7.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 t(s) 0.6 0.7 0.8
0.2
0.25
0.3
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0.4
0.45
0.5 t(s)
0.55
0.6
0.65
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0.85
0.9
60
Graph0
Vcc(V) : t(s)
20.0
vc
15.0
Vcc(V)
Ave: 12.538
12.5
10.0
7.5 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 t(s) 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Vcc at Vrms = 18.71V Figure 4.13: Vcc at varying input signal..continued.., Vrms
61
Graph0
0.12
0.3 0.275
Current(A) : t(s)
i(v_dc.battery)
Graph0
0.1
0.25 0.225
80.0m
0.2 0.175
Current(A)
Current(A)
Ave: 0.0060278
60.0m
40.0m
20.0m
50.0m 25.0m Ave: 0.016873 0.0 0.0 50.0m 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 t(s) 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.0 50.0m 0.95 1.0 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 t(s) 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
0.0
0.9
Graph0
0.45
0.4
0.5 0.45
0.35 0.4 0.3 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.1 50.0m
Ave: 0.031958
0.2
0.15
Current(A)
0.25 (A)
50.0m 0.0
Ave: 0.052698
0.0 0.0 50.0m 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 t(s) 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85
0.0 0.9
50.0m 0.95
0.1 1.0
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0.2
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0.4
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0.85
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0.7
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0.5 t(s)
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
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0.95
1.0
Icc at Vrms = 18.71V Figure 4.14: Icc at varying input signal, Vrms
62
Icc (mA)
8 Vcc (V)
10
11
12
13
8 Vcc (V)
10
11
12
13
From the Figure (4.12) and Figure (4.14), Vcc and Icc were recorded, and then RT hevenin was calculated by dividing Vcc by Icc as shown in the Table (4.1). The graph of Vcc versus Icc ; and RT hevenin versus Vcc were plotted in Matlab as shown in Figure (4.15). The result presented in the Table (4.1) also validates the reason of impedance mismatch discussed in the OPAMP Analysis earlier in this section. At the Thevenin impedance, 160, the battery recieves the maximum power. As discussed earlier in the OPAMP analysis, there is clearly a mismatch between the input impedance and effective DC resistance due to inefciencies in the circuit as Vcc increases. Vrms Vcc (V ) Icc (mA) Rth () 5.27 3.181 8.55 5.5 6 16.8 32 52.7 78 530 327.4 242.5 192.6 160.6
C HAPTER 5
1. Source noise model from Saber 2. Function Generator 3. Power Amplier 4. Oscilloscope/Earth isolated transformer 5. True RMS and Normal multimeter 6. Power Scavenging Electronic Circuit on PCB 7. Power Scavenging Electronic Circuit on Breadboard 8. Decade Resistor and decade capacitor
64
Function Generator
Oscilloscope
Multimeters
Breadboard
65
Source noise data was exported in CSV format from Saber. The source was imported into Function generator software on a computer running Microsoft Windows XP. Using the function generator software, the source noise was downloaded via serial cable to the function generator. The function generator was connected to the input of Power Amplier. The output of Power Amplier was connected to the input of the electronic circuit. The results were measured as given in following sections.
5.1
The breadboard as displayed in Figure (5.2) was used to simulate the circuit in Figure (4.1) from Section 4.1. The input source with rms 19.73V signal source was introduced to the input of the circuit. The circuit contains equivalent piezo capacitance, full wave rectier and a pair of 1.2V rechargeable batteries as a load. A 1 Ohm resister was used to measure the current ow through the batteries. After connecting the source to the input of the circuit, the output current through the battery was
66
measured to be 61mA. The total battery voltage measured was 2.8V. Therefore the power transfered to the battery from the source in this case is: Prect _to_battery = 2.8V 0.061A = 0.17W The result matches the one that is produced by Saber simulation program running on the computer. Saber simulation of the same circuit gives 0.171W of power at the battery.
5.2
The circuit in Figure (4.6) from Section (4.2) was exported to Protel for printed circuit board manufacturing purpose. Maxim 5033D PWM IC replaces the ideal PWM IC that was designed and simulated in Saber. Because Saber does not have Maxim5033 part in its library, the circuit in Figure (4.6) uses ideal PWM IC that is available in Saber parts library. Max5033D PWM IC from Maxim Inc. was chosen due to its low power loss while operating. Other electronic parts for the circuit were also chosen so that their power losses are minimum. TS941 OPAMP from STElectronics, Phillips zener diode (BZX79C36), diodes (D1N5819) from Semiconductor Components Industries were chosen for the circuit. The datasheets for these parts are provided on a CDROM disk. The Protel schematic for this circuit is given in Figure (5.3).
67
68
Based on the schematic in Figure (5.3), PCB in Figure (5.4) was manufactured. Its size is 10cm
6.3cm. It accommodates two AA size batteries. However the size is scalable, for example, using surface mount electronic components, the size can be made as small as 5cm 5cm if we use a pair of AAA size batteries. And furthermore, if coin battery is used, the size could be further minimized.
69
5.2.1 Measurements
Waveform of the source signal, Vr given in the circuit from Figure (4.6) was saved in CSV format in Saber program. The CSV le was exported from computer to the function generator given in Figure (5.1) using a serial cable. This CSV le is supplied on a CDROM Disk. The source signal was displayed on Oscilloscope as given in Figure (5.5). The time-domain signal given in Figure (5.5) is the input signal to the power scavenging circuit. This was recorded from Tektronix TDS220 Oscilloscope by a digital camera. In Figure (5.5), time scale is 2.5msec per division, and voltage scale is 1V per
division.
70
The spectrum of the signal is given in Figure (5.6). The spectrum was calculated using Saber calculator.
Graph0
(dBv/Hz) : f(Hz)
10.0
dB(vr)
0.0
10.0
20.0
(dBv/Hz)
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
71
The PWM signal at the output pin of PWM chip displayed in Figure (5.7) by a Tektronix TDS220 Oscilloscope was recorded by a digital camera. Along with the PWM signal, source signal was also recorded as displayed in the Figure (5.7). In Figure (5.7), time scale is 25uSec per division, and
72
73
However, the breadboard given in Figure (5.9) has multiple inputs. As a result higher rms voltages can be sent to the input of the circuit to study various results at the load. When the input rms voltage
is (9.7V )rms , the battery current is 18.4mA in both PCB and breadboard cases. However, since we can supply a rms input upto 19V in breadboard case, when the input rms voltage is (19V )rms , the battery current is measured to be 76mA. Current through the battery was measured by measuring voltage drop across 1 resister connected in series with the battery using a multimeter. Current through the 2.77V Battery was measured to be 76mA. Thus, average Power at the battery Ppwm_to_battery = 2.77V 0.076A = 0.21W This proves 25% improvement in the power increase at the load by using dc-dc converter.
5.2 Rectier, DC/DC converter & Vdc load Battery Power at Varying Input Signal
74
The limit of Vrms was extended from (9.7V )rms from a single broadband amplier to (19.73V )rms by adding a second broadband power amplier. If the inverting output of the rst amplier is V1 and the non-inverting output of the second amplier is V2 , the the difference between the two is V1 (V2 ). That means the resultant is the addition of the two outputs. The reason, we needed to increase the RMS voltage, is obviously known from Section 4.1 that the Vcc needs to rise above 9V so that we can track the voltage at which maximum transfer of power occurs from the source to the battery. The Vrms Vcc (V ) Icc (mA) Rth () Battery Power (mW ) 3.731 5.08 5.44 5.71 8.84 10 5.09 5.09 5.17 5.21 4 5.2 6 16.8 20.5 33.6 48.6 58.6 76 1270 980 850 310 250 160 150 130 112 10.0 14.04 16.2 45.36 55.35 90.72 131.22 158.22 205.2
experiment was carried out to observe how battery power varies as we vary the Vrms . The Table (5.1) displays all the experimental results recorded and the graphs in Figure (5.10) were plotted in Matlab over the observed set of data. As we see from the Figure (5.10), the battery power rises as we increase the Vrms . In all occurances in this chapter, Icc is a symbol meaning the current that ows through the 4 resistor when the switch is on. Effectively, this current has to be approximately equal to the supply current as there is almost no other elements that allow current ow into the ground as mentioned earlier due to extremely low leakage current of the other the grounded circuit elements. Vcc was also recorded as shown in the Table (5.1). Thus by dividing Vcc by Icc , we get the Thevenin resistance of the circuit. The graphs in Figure (5.10) display the relationship between Vcc versus Icc , Vrms versus Rth , Rth versus Icc and Vrms versus battery power. The Icc versus Vcc and Thevenin Resistance results differ between experiment and simulation. This is because the diodes used in simulation were ideal diodes. The practical diodes have more losses as opposed to ideal diodes. And also there is small amount quiescent current of the PWM chip that
75
80 70
200
60
Battery Power (W)
Icc (mA)
150
50 40 30 20
100
50
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0
10 12 Vrms (V)
14
16
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20
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80 70
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1000 RThevenin (Ohm)
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800
Icc (mA)
40 30
600
400
20 10 0
200
10 12 Vrms (V)
14
16
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10 12 Vrms(V)
14
16
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20
76
The results as shown in the graph match those obtained from Saber. In both Saber and real PCB or Breadboard case, the average battery power rises as the Vrms increases. The results obtained from Figure (5.10) validates that the results obtained from both Saber and real-time simulation have a good match in their behaviour.
C HAPTER 6
C ONCLUSION
A source vibration model was rst designed and simulated to match the supplied spectrum from CRC Mining. Then various loads were tested to achieve the desired power. At the end, two ideal simulations with R and RL load were considered to be included to be informative and relevant parts for this project. The AC current was then rectied using full wave rectier, and combination of highly efcient and low power rated PWM and rail-to-rail dual OPAMP were used to regulate the power at the maximum level as expected. The power extracted from the given source to the battery is 210mW. This meets the power requirement of many wireless sensors. Thus this device can be used as power source for such low power electronics working in a suitable condition. Use of this device is scalable and viable in many other applications where vibration can be found as a source of energy. The research has opened the door to explore a few more techniques that can improve the regulation of maximum power to the load. For example one of the techniques to be explored is Active Front End (HBridge) load. Also to completely get rid of the use of any inductor on the electronic board, the idea of synthetic impedance can be researched and the real inductance can be replaced by the synthetic impedance which will provide the same results with a lower risk of interferences in the environments where magnetism becomes a serious concern. Thus this project encourages research in the area of power scavenging. As we face a challange to meet our energy demand by consuming the conventional energy sources, this research work brings a new approach to meet some of energy demands by deploying an alternative source of energy that would otherwise not be used.
6.1
78
Intrinsic safety procedures may need to be considered depending on the physical conditions of the surroundings where the device may be used. Voltage regulation techniques can be used to set and regulate a specied voltage at all times at the output. To extract more power from a source, a low power microcontroller can be used to control the impedance matching between the source and the load at all discrete frequencies dened within a range of frequencies.
A PPENDIX
G LOSSARY
Terms CMOS PWM PZT OPAMP IC Meaning Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor Pulse Width Modulation Lead Zirconate Titanate Operational Amplier Integrated Circuit
Thevenins Impedance In this thesis, most occurrences of the words Thevenins Impedance refer to the equivalent resistance with the ratio of open circuit voltage divided by short circuit current RMS VCVS DC AC Saber Root Mean Square Voltage Controlled Voltage Source Direct Current Alternating Current Electronic Design and Simulation Program. Saber Sketch Version 4.0. Copyright 1985-2006, Synopsis Inc. All Rights Reserved. Saber Sketch is a schematic capture package by Saber Duty cycle Duty cycle is the proportion of time during which a component, device, or system is operated. CSV PCB Breadboard Comma Separated Value. Printed Circuit Board. A breadboard is used to make temporary circuits for testing an electronic circuit. No soldering is required. Therefore it is easy to change connections and replace components. Table 1: Glossary
80
Contents of CDROM Disk submitted 1 Signal source waveform generated by Saber and saved in CSV le format 2 Datasheets 3 OPAMP (TS941/TS942) 4 PWM Chip (Max5033D) 5 Phillips Zener Diode (BZX79C36) 6 Semiconductor Component Industry Diodes (D1N5819) Table 2: CDROM Contents
B IBLIOGRAPHY
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