The onion model of process design

Water and effluent treatment Heating and cooling utilities Heat recovery system Separation and recycle system

Reactor

Environmental issues
When designing and operating process plant, consideration must be given to:
All emissions to land, air, water, Waste management, Smells, Noise, Visual impact, Other Environmental friendliness of product
Continuous
Production > 5x106 kg/h Single product No severe fouling Good catalyst life Proven process design Established market

Batch
Production < 5x106 kg/h Range of products Severe fouling Short catalyst life Uncertain design New product

5 Types of separation processes

Thickener Design

Water

Solids

Clarification and Thickening

Large volumes of water are used Environmental requirement to close the water circuit Need to recover water from waste streams for re-use

Most widely used method of removing fine solids from dilute slurries is by sedimentation using a THICKENER Two Processes Occurring...
Thickening To increase the solids concentration of a slurry Clarification To produce a recycle water stream that is free of solids (i.e. clarified)

With the development of polymeric flocculants, the two processes occur simultaneously in one vessel

Introduction
Clarifying
Sometimes the prime objective is to get the cleanest possible overflow
In some cases the underflow density may be compromised as this is of secondary importance. The clarifier generally looks like a thickener but may have features to enhance particle capture.

Thickening
The basic purpose of thickening is to remove as much water from a slurry as to give us a thick underflow, and a clean/clear overflow
A thickener is used to accelerate the process of settling and dewatering of solids in a slurry using flocculants The desired end product will determine how the thickener is designed and operated.

Thickening (settling) calculations

Insert your own text within this layout areas

Thickening - calculations

Insert your own text within this layout areas

Thickener Design

If more solids are fed to the thickener, they will not leave the thickener through the underflow!

Solids Flux and Superimposed Flow

UFlow

t=0
UP UTotal
UP

Volume of solids passing through the area:

due to settling SPS = UPS = UP * CV

due to flow

U: velocity in m/s Cv: concentration in g/m3 S: Flux in g/m2.s or t/m2.h

SFS = UFS = VFlow/A * CV = UFlow * CV

Flux below and above Feed

VOFlow

Settling: SPS = UP * CV Flow: SFS = VFlow/A * CV = UFlow * CV TOTAL FLUX below: STOTAL = UP * CV + UUnderFlow * CV

UOFlow

UUFlow

VUFlow

= UT (1-Cv)4.65 * CV + VUnderflow/A * CV TOTAL FLUX above STOTAL = UP * CV - UOverflow * CV

= UT (1-Cv)4.65 * CV - VOverflow/A * CV

Condition for working Thickener

S
Stot = SPS + SFS

Scrit
SFS a CV SPS = UP CV

CVFeed

CVcrit

Stot = SPS - SFS SFS a CV

Condition for working Thickener

TOTAL FLUX below Feed has to be similar or bigger than feed solids Scrit = F CVF / A = L CVL / A Arequired > F CVF / Scrit TOTAL FLUX above Feed has to be > zero (no solids moving upwards) STOTAL > ScritOverflow = 0 = UP * CV - UOverflow * CV UP > UOverflow = VOverflow / Arequired (for every Cv, 0<Cv<CvFeed) Critical for the thickener is the AREA not the height. The height only improves compression.

Condition for working Thickener

Feed: suspension Overflow: Water Underflow: Sludge CvUnderflow > CVFeed > CVOverFlow = 0 TOTAL FLUX below Feed has to be similar or bigger than feed solids TOTAL FLUX above Feed has to be > zero (no solids moving upwards)

Thickener Design
Height

Feeding zone Clarifying zone Swarm settling Transient zone Compression zone Rake

Concentration

Conventional Thickener
Traditionally no flocculants and hence large diameters. Low unit area throughput t/m2.hr. Slow to react automated (feedback) control more difficult. Control based on constant solids inventory difficult. Suitable for highly variable flow and solids loading. UF density can be variable High capital cost.

High rate thickener

Makes use of increased settling rate through flocculation Maximum unit area throughput t/m2.hr. Consistent high density underflow. Smaller footprint. Control based on constant solids inventory. Relatively fast to react suited to automation. Best suited to relatively consistent process. Can increase density by increasing sidewall.

16 | |

Paste Thickener
Also makes use of flocculation. Unit area throughput t/m2.hr maximised but secondary to UF density. Consistent high yield stress underflow (+150 Pa) Small footprint but relatively tall. Control based on underflow properties (and torque). Automation important for stable operation. Best suited to relatively consistent process. High underflow solids concentration > than 50%

High side walls (usually in excess of 6m) Increased floor slope (generally between 30-45)

17 | |

Lamella thickeners
u u

Tanks, filled with a number of closely spaced inclined plates Short settling distance to the upper surface of each plate and then slide down the inclined plate)

Main parts: Vessel, Feed well, drive, rake, discharge Types: Conventional thickeners: 30 - 200 m diameter High rate thickeners High compression thickeners (high) Deep cone thickeners, Rakeless thickeners Lamella, Flocculation is important (feed well design)
GL&V

Thickener Design

Thickener - Design Considerations (1)

FEED

FLOCCULATION

Solids flux loading Volumetric flux Feed concentration Particle size distribution Particle density Particle charge

UNDERFLOW

Dosage Temperature and pH Concentration of stock solution Number of addition points Mixing conditions at addition points Flocculant type

Rate of underflow removal OVERFLOW Underflow concentration Volumetric flux Viscosity of underflow Clarity of overflow liquid material

Thickener - Design Considerations (2)

BED TANK

Bed height characteristics Concentration profile Bed rise velocity Compression effects

Size Depth Mechanism Rakes

Residence time
Feed entry position (high rate thickening)

Underflow pumping arrangement

Lifting device Efficiency of raking system

Sizing Thickeners: New or Variable Applications (Coal Tailings)

While laboratory tests are convenient and can provide a quick solution, the estimate of underflow density is usually conservative. This is especially the case with Paste applications. Pilot testing is recommended so the effect of compression and solids flux rates can be accurately determined. (6m bed depth can not be simulated in the lab)

Design of the Thickener feed dilution

Most mine tailings have solids levels that are too high for efficient flocculation and settling. This results in higher floc usage and lower underflow density. It has been proven that manipulation and control of the feed density is a key to better thickener performance. In-thickener systems such as Autodil and Turbodil achieve feed dilution.

Flocculation Solid Mineral in Double Layer Suspension

+ + + + + + + - - - + - + + - + - + Diffuse Layer Zeta Potential + - + + + - - + + + Bulk Solution

All solid minerals in suspension have a charged surface Number of charges and sign of charge depend on... pH Other ions Coal tailings generally negative in charge (except at very low pH)

Surface Bound of Layer Particle Electrical Potential

Plane of Shear

Distance from Particle Surface

 What is a flocculant? How does it work?

Flocculation

Long chain polymer (hydrocarbon) with charged groups attached. Very large molecules with Molecular Weights in the millions.

The chains uncoil due to charged site repulsion and hydration effects around the charge sites. The large molecules can reach out a long way and can interact with multiple particles simultaneously holding them , drawing them together.

Flocculation If the amount of flocculant is increased, the underflow density will increase to a peak. Above this flocc dose the underflow density decreases due to over flocculation and inclusion of excess water within the floccs. What types of flocculants are there? Anionic, Neutral, Cationic, Different charge species on chain determine category. Anionic and less so neutrals most common in mining. Cationic use rare for minerals. 23 | |

Coagulants if flocculants dont work

Coagulants

Uses

Coagulants are used when the majority of solids

flocculate and settle well BUT the background liquor is murky due to the presence of colloidal particles very fine and well dispersed.

The cheapest option is normally to use inorganic salts but

these cannot always be used. Most common are Fe3+, Al3+ and Ca2+.

Synthetic coagulants are very effective but increase the

operating costs of the thickener.

Unlike flocculants, too much coagulant can have a

dispersing effect.
24 | |

PROBLEM Suggested Action SETTLING RATE TOO SLOW Increase polymer dilution Reduce slurry agitation

RESULT

............ Improved polymer distribution ............... Larger flocs

Increase dosage slightly

............. Higher effective treatment

Multi-point addition ...................... More effective conditioning to build larger flocs Change pH .................................. Optimised performance of polymer Dilute feed solids ......................... Reduced hindered settling SETTLING RATE TOO FAST Reduced effective polymer dosage Decrease dosage ........................ Formation of large flocs prevented Increase slurry agitation .............. (flocculant capture maintained) Multi-point addition ...................... More flocculant available for particle capture where shear is high Less for floc building where flocculant is low

Problems & Remedies: Thickener (2)

PROBLEM Suggested Action SETTLING RATE TOO FAST Decrease dosage ........................ Reduced effective polymer dosage .............. Formation of large flocs prevented (flocculant capture maintained) Increase slurry agitation RESULT

Multi-point addition ...................... More flocculant available for particle capture where shear is high Less for floc building where flocculant is low

Problems & Remedies: Thickener (3)

PROBLEM Suggested Action POOR CLARITY (1 of 2) Increase slurry agitation at floc addition points ............................. Increased particle contact with polymer to allow capture Reduce slurry agitation at floc addition points ............................. Overshearing and floc break-up prevented Increase number of addition points ........................................... Optimised particle contact Minimised effect of shear RESULT

Problems & Remedies: Thickener (4)

PROBLEM Suggested Action POOR CLARITY (2 of 2) Increase dosage ......................... Increased effective treatment Vary relative amounts at floc addition points ............................. Optimised floc capture conditions Vary pH ....................................... Optimised charge characteristics to neutralise particle charge ............... Optimised coagulation and bridging characteristics RESULT

Dual chemical program Eliminate aeration

Problems & Remedies: Thickener (5)

PROBLEM Suggested Action RESULT UNDERFLOW DENSITY TOO LOW (1 of 2) Dilute flocculant and increase dosage ......................................... Improved settling and dewatering (check for island formation) Increase slurry agitation at addition points ............................. Provided smaller but tighter flocs Dilute feed solids Reduce pumping rate ........................ Overcome rapid hindered settling ................. Longer compaction time given acceptable sludge level

Problems & Remedies: Thickener (6)

PROBLEM Suggested Action RESULT UNDERFLOW DENSITY TOO LOW (2 of 2)
Multi-point addition Lower rakes ...................... Produced tight flocs

Optimised settling sludge dewatering

................................ If rakes are too high to pull sludge to centre

Increase molecular weight of flocculant Higher settling rate ..................................... Better compaction Recycle underflow to feed (least favoured Increased feed solids density option) ........................... Increased floc density

Raise rakes

................................. Reduced torque

Reduce polymer dosage

Increase pumping rate Add water to pump suction

............. Reduced effective treatment

................ Reduced solids in thickener ......... Reduced percent solids

Sizing Thicker on solids flux rate

Test work has shown that the thickener should be sized based on 0.35 t/m 2 h : For say 450 tph of solids then, we have
2 450 t solid m T 2 hickener Area h x 1286 m T hickener Area h 0.35 t solid

To convert the required area to a diameter we use Diameter (m) 4 x Area

2 4 x 1286 m T hickener Area

40.5 m

Sizing Thickener / Clarifier on liquid rise rate

Test work has shown that the clarifier should be sized based on a rise rate of 3.5 m/h : Note : A 3.5 m/h Rise Rate is equivalent to a Volumetric Loading of 3.5 m 3 / m 2 h For say 500 m 3 /h of feed ' slurry' (at low %w/w solids), we have 500 m 3 slurry h
2 mT 2 hickener Area h x 142.9 m T hickener Area 3.5 m 3 slurry

To convert the required area to a diameter we use Diameter (m) 4 x Area

2 4 x 142.9 m T hickener Area

13.5 m

31 | |

Advantage of Fluidised Beds

Drying in fluidised beds:

Outcome / Expectation
Fundamental understanding

Compact, simple and relative (Fluid flow) low capital cost Absence of moving parts => low Fluid flow: minimum maintenance fluidisation & bubbling Relatively high thermal efficiency velocity Gentle powder handling

Chemical reaction in fluidised beds:

Expansion of Fluidised beds

Good gas-solids contact Fluidised bed designs and shapes Good heat transfer due to good Mostly circular. Why? mixing Near isothermal conditions Freeboard, wider diameter at possible due to good heat top exchange (good control)

Simple removing of solids from the reactor

Solids separation (cyclone) Fluidised bed types such as circulating

Design examples

Fluidised bed in flowsheets:

The gas / overflow from a fluidised bed usually has to be cleaned. This could be achieved by gas cyclones, bag house or scrubbers. Heat exchange could be done directly inside the fluidised bed (e.g. heat exchange pipes inside)

Fluidised Bed: Minimum Fluidisation velocity (2nd year)

Fluidised Bed: Expansion

Fluidised Bed: Expansion

A fluidised bed with powder A is working (designed) and does not bubble. Production of powder A changes, now the fluidised bed bubbles, all other fluidisation properties stay the same. What design differences are required for the fluidised bed? What equal fluidisation parameters are necessary to have the same fluidisation?

Overview of Filtration Processes Separation: No cake formed Cake formation Deep granular beds Pressure Cartridge filter Vacuum Gravity Centrifugal batch and continuous

Deep Bed Filtration Applications: Liquor clarification (polishing) after leaching Wastewater treatment Solids removal (valuable solids) Nutrient removal (chem. precip. phosphorous) Operation: Filtration Phase (collecting solids inside the bed) Cleaning Phase or back-washing (removing trapped solids from the bed)

Solid-Liquid Separation Driving Forces Gravity (drainage) e.g. on stockpile, bunker Vacuum (sucking water + air through the filter cake) Mechanical pressure (squeezing) Slurry pressure (pumping through filter) Air pressure (blowing water, air through the filter cake) Centrifugal force (spinning packed bed in a perforated bowl)

Laboratory Filter for determining filtration rate Filtration rate (mass of filtrate versus time and filter area) Cake formation time / drying Gas flow rate to design vacuum pump Final cake moisture (wt%) Specific filter cake resistance rc Filter media resistance Rm in (1/m) Effect of Filtration Parameters Operating Parameters Pressure drop across the cake Filter speed (interrelated with cake thickness and filtration time) Trough slurry level for rotary filter Material Properties Feed size distribution, Feed solids concentration, Feed composition (ash, mineralogy, shape, hydrophobicity) Flocculation, Viscosity and Temperature Design Parameters Maximal filter speed Filter cloth permeability

Mineral Processing
Introduction and Overview Comminution Crushing and Grinding Sizing Screening and Classification Beneficiation Density Separation, Magnetic Separation Flotation, Sorting Solid / Liquid - Separation Thickening, Clarification Filtration, Centrifugation Tailings Handling and disposal Storage and Transport

Schematic of mining-processing
Water Mining Tailings/Waste Solid/Liquid Separation Tailings Chemicals

Crushing Grinding
Beneficiation Solid/Liquid Separation Product Recovery

Roasting

Leaching

Purification

Solid/Liquid Separation

Mineral Processing Flowsheet and Equipment

COMMUNITION - Crushing
Crushing reduces ROM ore to -10mm to -15mm Usual ly involves several stages - primary, secondary, tertiary if needed, reduction ratio about 3:1 to 4:1 each stage Screening between stages to bypass fines and recycle oversize Typical crushers: jaw (primary), gyratory (secondary)

COMMINUTION - Grinding

Reducing particles to micron size Grind to liberation size (P80 < 75 microns) Multi stages, SAG mills, rod mills, ball mills, etc Classification by hydrocyclones to recycle oversized materials Grinding also liberates unwanted impurities

Crushing Practice

Jaw crusher primary Gyratory crushers primary Cone crushers secondary Roll crushers soft e. g. coal Impact crusher Hammer mills High pressure grinding rolls Shredders recycling

Crushers

(d)

Grinding Practice

Ball mill Rod mill Autogenous mill Semi-autogenous mill (SAG) High pressure grinding roll

N>Nc

Critical ball mill speed: D [m], Nc[rpm]

Nc

42.3 D

Grinding Practice

Ball mill - using steel or other balls as media Rod mill - using steel rods as media Autogenous mill (+ no Contamination) using coarse product as media (sandstone lumps used to grind sand) Semi-autogenous mill (SAG) N>Nc using coarse product and steel balls as medium size is not grind autogeneous

For Example

1m sample to 200m
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Primary Crushing (RR 5:1), Secondary crushing (RR 5:1) Tertiary crushing (RR 5:1), Primary grinding (RR 20:1) Final grinding (RR 20:1)

1m0.2m0.04m0.008m0.0004m0.00002m
Volume occupied by the broken particles is significantly larger than the uncrushed rock.

O/F

O/F

U/F

U/F

Conventional circuit for hard rock

Comminution PSD
Q3(d) 100% Product B Feed Product A

0% d

Comminution PSD
Q3(d) 100%

Smaller PSD with increasing time and/or mixing energy

0% d

Crushing and Grinding Practice

Wear and tear is high, spare parts Liners used in ball mills to reduce wear and tear Replaceable liners or parts in mills
Ball

Crushing and Grinding Practice Sizing

Sizing by Classification or Screening separation depending on particle size large (coarse) / small (fines) Reduce loading of mill Recycle coarse Feed coarse and fines to different mills

Sizing and Classification

Grizzlies: Static

coarse

Vibrating Screens: Vibrating screen coarse/medium DMS sieve bend Banana screens Classification (Particles in a fluid) Hydrocyclones: fines Elutriators and others: accurate fines

VIBRATORY MOTIONS ON INCLINED SCREENS

15-20 Elliptical motion Straight line motion

15-20

15-20 Circular motion

Single Slope Screen

Feed 0.5m/s

Screen

Zone 1

Zone 2

Zone 3

Screen length

Vibrating Banana Screen

3 - 4 m/s

1 - 2 m/s
Zone 1 Zone 2 0.5 - 0.8 m/s

Zone 3

Screen length

LINEAR MOTION ON A MULTISLOPE SCREEN

30 25 20
Banana Screen

15

Sizing / Classification PSD

Q3(d) 100% Product B Feed Product A

0% d

Beneficiation Recovery Definition

How much of the fed valuable do I recover in the product? Recovery = Valuable in Product/Valuable in Feed = 9 t/h / 10 t/h = 90% Recovery Feed 100t/h 10% gold =10t/h gold
Benefication Black Box

Tailings

Product 10t/h 90% gold =9t/h gold

Gravity Separation
Principle: Float/sink method rely on differences in specific density of minerals Practice: similar devices used for size classification Jigs (coarse size) pulsing bed on a screen Flowing film separators Drums, cones, cyclones

1) Jigging
Oscilating jig up and down under water in the denser and larger particles forming the low layers, with the finer lighter particles on top. Two stage strokes:
1. pulsion stroke - particle bed elevated above jig plate 2. Suction stroke - particles settle back on the plate
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gqzvTMnhVQ

Ideal Jigging Process

Hindered settling

Consolidated trickling

Start

Differential Initial Acceleration

2) Shaking tables
Flowing film type separator - heavy minerals The separation is controlled by 1.operating variables-wash water, feed pulp

density, deck slope, amplitude, feed rate

2. particle shape and size of ores, type of deck

Flowing Film Separator Principal

3) Spiral
Heavy mineral deposits such as ilmenite, rutile,
zircon, monazite

Modified semicircular cross-section

Ore introduced on top of spiral - it flows spirally downwards - the particles stratify due to centrifugal force - the differential settling rates of the particles

Flowing Film Separators

Spirals are often applied in stages such as rougher-, scavenger- and cleaner stage

Humphreys Spiral Size of 3 0.075 mm.

(Coal usually 1 or 2 stages, beach sand usually more stages).

Pinched sluices

-heavy mineral separations

-an inclined launder about 1m long, narrowing from

about 200 mm in width at the feed end to about 25mm at the discharge.

5) Knelson Concentrator
Gravitational force + centrifugal force

The way how it works.

1. Water is injected into rotating cone. 2. Once sample reaches the bottom of the cone, high gravity particles are retained in the cone as low gravity particles are floated out. 3. high gravity particles are recovered from the cone wall.

Dense or Heavy Media Separation

Magnetite Fe3O4 SD = 5100 kg/m3 applied for coal SD 1450 kg/m3

Ferrosilica FeSi SD = 6700 kg/m3 (with ca 15 % Si) Practice: TESKA and Daniels Bath Cyclones, LarCoDem

(gravity) (centrifugal)

Heavy Media Cyclones

Sorting - Principles
Using different physical properties to sort materials: Sorter functions: singulation - detection ejection

optical characteristics (colour, shape) Practice: magnetic susceptibilities Hand and machine sorting of x-ray fluorescence diamonds, glass, coal, radioactive radioactivity material electrical and thermal (PET bottles, plastics, recycling of conductivity waste) electrical charging

Magnetic Separators Principles

Paramagnetic materials: e.g. hematite, ilmenite ... attracted by a magnetic field Practice Ferromagnetic materials: Wet drum low intensity iron, magnetite magnetic separator very strongly paramagnetic Wet high intensity magn materials separators (WHIMS) Diamagnetic materials quartz and feldspar repelled by a magnetic field

Electrostatic Separation
Principles Electrostatic charges result in separation Particle charging (induction, ion bombardment, contact) Separation at a grounded surface Separation by trajectory of particles

Practice Dynamic/High Tension: ionizing electrode Static/Conductive: induction

Wet Magnetic Separation

Electrostatic Separation

Typical beach sand treatment flowsheet

 Dry or wet low intensity, or wet high intensity mag. sepn,(WHIMS) - relies on different magnetic susceptibilities Electric separation ( High tension separation) relies on forces acting on charged or polarised particles for separation

MAGNETIC AND ELECTRICAL SEPARATION

FLOTATION
Relies on air bubbles to float mineral particles for collection as concentrates Add reagents to enhance collection (collectors) and to stabilise froth bubbles (frothers) Types: Conventional, column, Jamieson cells Produces sulphide concentrates - Cu 20% to 30% (from <2% in ores), Pb 60% to 70% (from 5%), Zn 48% to 60% (from 5%), Ni 10% to 20% (from <2%)

SOLVENT EXTRACTION Chemical process of extracting (SX) LEACHING

metal from ores using extractants (acids, bases, oxidants, reductants)

Selectively removes target metal from pregnant leach liquor via an organic extractant Extensively used for copper and nickel recovery, e.g. using oxime chemicals to extract Cu from 2g/L leach liquor and concentrate to 50g/L, or D2EHPA to upgrade Ni from 3g/L to 100g/L
for processing PGMs and rare earths

May involve use of pressure vessels (most expensive), stirred reactors, or heaps or dumps (cheapest)

Impurities may be leached with target metal SX is also used extensively

ADSORPTION / ION EXCHANGE

Activated carbon and ion exchange resins are used to uptake metals from dilute solutions e.g. activated carbon is used to adsorb gold cyanide from pulp slurry in the CIP process The loaded materials are then stripped to recover metals in more concentrated forms Similar processes are used in waste water treatment

ELECTROWINNING (EW

Recovers high purity metals by DC electrolysis of high purity liquors (Cu, Zn, Ni, etc.) Products: 99.99+%Cu, 99.9% Zn Acid is produced during EW of Cu, Zn, etc. for recycling to leaching Energy consumptions: 2.5 kWh/kg Cu, 3.5 kWh/kg Zn, 12 kWh/kg Al (high temp melts)

 Used for refining smelter products upgrading cast smelter anodes (95% Cu) to 99.99+%Cu cathode Cells dissolve copper anodes and plate copper cathodes, simultaneously By-products: Au, Ag and other PGMs Energy consumption: 0.25 kWh/kg Cu as cells require lower voltage.

ELECTROREFINING

PRECIPITATION

Achieved by adding chemicals (sulphide, hydroxide, hydrogen) to solution, precipitating the target metal as a solid (metal hydroxide, sulphide or pure metals) Used for liquor purification (as in water treatment) or for recovering products (production of alumina, Al2O3).

 Achieved by adding a less valuable metal (A) to the solution (higher reduction potential) The target metal (B) electrochemically cements onto the remainder of A Used for liquor purification (cementation of Ni, Co, etc. from zinc sulphate liquors using zinc powder) or for product recovery (gold recovery using zinc or copper powder)

CEMENTATION

PYROMETALLURGICAL PROCESSING
Roasting - apply high temperatures (9000C) to convert sulphides to oxides,etc. Smelting - to melt and separate metals from slag (e.g. to produce blister copper) Calcining - heating to drive off water or carbon dioxide Sintering - heating with binder to convert fines to lumps

ACID MINE DRAINAGE

metals back to soils caused by bacterial/air oxidation of sulphidic materials minimised by encapsulation and additives treated by neutralisation ponds

CYANIDE MANAGEMENT
acid dissociable) for tailing disposal Currently relies on cyanide

produces acid and liberates base NSW-EPA sets 20-30 ppm CN (weak

destruction techniques (Degussa or

Interox: H2O2, hypochlorite, INCO: SO2/air)

New technologies:

Elutech (resin technology) Occtech (membrane technology)

RESIN TECHNOLOGY
Recovers gold and other base metals as products -Recovers cyanide as HCN for recycling -Discharges to tailings contain less than 5 ppm CNwad (May Day Mines) -Yet to be accepted by industry