Chapter 3 Elementary Quantum Physics

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Problem Set # 3 Due week 4

Worked Example 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.6,3.7, 3.8, 3.17, 3.18,3.19 Problems: 3.1, a) Eph = 4.638 10-28 J/photon; b) 868 V m-1 ; c) 644 A m-2 3.7: a) = 4.733 10-19 J or 2.96 eV ; b) 1.18 eV , c) 4.84 mA cm-2 3.17: a) 91.2 nm to 122 nm; b) 365 nm to 657 nm; c) 821 nm to 1877 3.18: a) Note: The ionization energy of Li+ is 75.6 eV and not 18.9 eV
a) 2.36 eV; b) Zeff = 1.56; c) Zeff = 1.52; d) Zeff = 1.99 , 3.53 and 4.34

3.20: Hand-in this problem. 3.22: 29.8 eV 3.26: 3.27:

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Three major results of quantum theory:

Confining of a particle results in quantization of energy. Schrodinger Eq. No two particles can have the same quantum numbers. Pauli s exclusion principle leads to periodic table You cannot simultaneously know both momentum and position with great accuracy. Heisenberg uncertainty principle px = h p is momentum h is Plank s constant

The classical view of light as an electromagnetic wave. An electromagnetic wave is a traveling wave with time-varying electric and magnetic Fields that are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.

Fig 3.1
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Math digression
Mathematicians and physicists are lazy and they will use the easiest way to solve a problem. It turns out that in many cases it is easier to solve the problem if you describe the wave as:

E y ( x, t ) = E o exp j( kx " #t )
where j = -1. Instead of by the more intuitive:

E y ( x, t ) = E o cos( kx " #t )
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

 Show that since:

exp j " = cos " # j sin " then E y ( x, t ) = E o exp j( kx " #t )

Is mathematically equivalent to

E y ( x, t ) = E o cos( kx " #t )
For an excellent exposition go to: http://nrich.maths.org/public/viewer.php?obj_id=2432

Light as a wave
Traveling wave description changed from sin to cos

E y ( x, t ) = E o cos( kx " #t )
Wave Velocity

3.1

" c = = 2#$% k
J 1 I ( 2 ) = c"oE o2 ms 2

Intensity of light wave (J/m2s)

0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85 x 10-12 C2/Jm c vol. of light, 3x108 m/s

Electromagnetic Travelling Wave

E y ( x, t ) = E o cos( kx " #t )
k is the wavenumber

is the angular frequency

2" k= #

" = 2#$
!
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Schematic illustration of Young s double-slit experiment.

If If

S1P S2P = n what happens? S1P S2P = (n+1/2) what happens?

Fig 3.2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Diffraction patterns obtained by passing X-rays through crystals can only be explained by using ideas based on the interference of waves. (a) Diffraction of Xrays from a single crystal gives a diffraction pattern of bright spots on a photographic film. (b) Diffraction of X-rays from a powdered crystalline material or a polycrystalline material gives a diffraction pattern of bright rings on a photographic film. Fig 3.3
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

2d sin = n n = 1, 2, 3, ...
(c) X-ray diffraction involves constructive interference of waves being "reflected" by various atomic planes in the crystal.

Bragg s Law
Bragg diffraction condition

2d sin = n n = 1, 2, 3, ...
The equation is referred to as Bragg s law, and arises from the constructive interference of scattered waves.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.1.2 The Photoelectric Effect

Fig 3.4
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Note to Self If an electron is accelerated across a potential difference of Vo, it s energy = eV (J)

1 2 eVo = mv 2
When electrons dont reach the electrode, then equation above applies
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Photoemission
Results from the photoelectric experiment.

(a) Photoelectric current vs. voltage when the cathode is illuminated with light of identical wavelength but different intensities (I). The saturation current is proportional to the light intensity

(b) The stopping voltage and therefore the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron increases with the frequency of light . (Note: The light intensity is not the same).

Thus only number of electrons emitted depend on I.

Energy of electrons emitted depend on frequency.

Different elements have different thresholds

KE m = h" # h" o
A process with a threshold:

Process will NOT occur unless energy of photon > work function

The effect of varying the frequency of light and the cathode material in the photoelectric experiment. The lines for the different materials have the same slope h but different intercepts
Fig 3.6
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Photoelectric Effect
Photoemitted electron s maximum KE is KEm

KEm = h h0
Work function, 0
The constant h is called Planck s constant, 6.625x10-34 J.s

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Work function

The PE of an electron inside the metal is lower than outside by an energy called the workfunction of the metal. Work must be done to remove the electron from the metal.
Fig 3.7
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From a quantum theory point of view it is incorrect to use:

J 1 2 I ( 2 ) = c"oE o ms 2

Needs to be replaced by:

J I ( 2 ) = ! photons h" ms N photons != A!t

where

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Intuitive visualization of light consisting of a stream of photons (not to be taken too literally). SOURCE: R. Serway, C. J. Moses, and C. A. Moyer, Modern Physics, Saunders College Publishing, 1989, p. 56, figure 2.16 (b).
Fig 3.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Note to Self
You CANNOT explain the photoelectric effect by focusing on light intensity! Intensity buys you nothing if below threshold. You can have a ton of photons striking a surface. They will excite electrons if and only if their energy: h > energy needed for process. This will be encountered again when we deal with semiconductors.

Fig 3.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Not included (maybe later) Sections: 3.1.3, 3.1.4

Fig 3.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.2 Electron as a Wave

Fig 3.8
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Young s double-slit experiment with electrons involves an electron gun and two slits in a cathode ray tube (CRT) (hence, in vacuum). Electrons from the filament are accelerated by a 50 kV anode voltage to produce a beam that is made to pass through the slits. The electrons then produce a visible pattern when they strike A fluorescent screen (e.g., a TV screen), and the resulting visual pattern is photographed. SOURCE: Pattern from C. Jonsson, D. Brandt, and S. Hirschi, Am. J. Physics, 42, 1974, p.9, Fig. 8. Used with permission.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Fig 3.12

Fig 3.13
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fig 3.13
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The diffraction of electrons by crystals gives typical diffraction patterns that would be expected if WAVES being diffracted as in x-ray diffraction with crystals [(c) and (d) from A. P. French and F. Taylor, An Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (Norton, New York, 1978), p. 75; (e) from R. B. Leighton, Principles of Modern Physics, McGraw-Hill, 1959), p. 84.
Fig 3.13
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.2.1 De Broglie Relationship

Wavelength of the electron depends on its momentum p

h != p
De Broglie relations

3.13

h = p

OR

p=

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation

Schrodinger s equation for one dimension

d 2" 2 m + 2 ( E # V )" = 0 2 dx !

3.16a

E is total energy of electron; V is its potential energy Schrodinger s equation for three dimensions

"2# "2# "2# 2 m + 2 + 2 + 2 ( E $ V )# = 0 2 "x "y "z !

Where V = V (x,y,z) and = (x,y,z)

3.16b

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The Free Electron

d " 2m + 2 ( E # V )" = 0 2 dx ! For a free electron, V = 0. !
d 2" 2 m d 2" + 2 E" = 2 + k" = 0 2 dx ! dx 2m where we define k = 2 E , !
2

h ! = 2#
2

" ( x ) = A exp( jkx ) or " ( x ) = B exp(# jkx )

!
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

 To obtain the total wavefunction multiply:

" ( x ) by - j exp# jEt / ! and define a ficticious frequency $ = E/!
This begets an equation of a travelling wave:

" ( x ) = A exp j ( kx # $t ) or " ( x ) = B exp j (# kx # $t )

with a wavenumber, k = 2/

Only a solutions if total E, which is KE thus

(!k ) KE = E = 2m Compare with classic expression of KE =p2/2m h p = !k or p = " !
2

Time-Independent Schrodinger Equation

Schrodinger s equation for one dimension

d 2" 2 m + 2 ( E # V )" = 0 2 dx !
Schrodinger s equation for three dimensions

"# !

" # " # 2m + + + ( E $ V ) # = 0 2 2 2 2 "x "y "z !

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Unacceptable forms of (x)

Fig 3.14
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron in a one-dimensional infinite PE well.

Fig 3.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

d " 2m + 2 ( E # V )" = 0 2 dx !
Inside the well V = 0.

d " 2m d" + E " = + k " = 0 2 2 2 dx ! dx

You can show that the solution is

" ( x ) = A exp( jkx ) + B exp(# jkx )

Wave function is meaningless. If you square it you get probability of finding electron.

!
!

Infinite Potential Well

Wavefunction in an infinite PE well. See textbook for derivation

$ n#x ' " n ( x ) = 2 Aj sin& ) % a (

It is only a solution if and only if:

3.21

! 2 ("n ) 2 h 2 n 2 En = = 2 2 2 ma 8 ma

3.22

where n is any integer except zero. Energy separation in an infinite PE well

h (2 n + 1) "E = E n +1 # E n = 2 8ma

Energy is quantized

! ("n ) h n En = = 2 2 2 ma 8 ma
2 2 2 2

3.22

These are called eigenenergies.

# n"x & !n (x) = 2Ajsin % ( $ a '

3.21

These are called eigenfunctions or characteristic function.

$ n#x ' " n ( x ) = 2 Aj sin& ) % a (

Need to find A
x= a

3.21

% n$x ( # " n ( x ) dx = # 2 Aj sin' * dx & a ) x= 0 x= 0

2 x= a

=1

3.21

1 A= 2a

3.21

2 $ n#x ' "n ( x) = j sin& ) a % a ( !

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.23

Plot of sin 4x/a

Plot of sin x/a

Electron in a one-dimensional infinite PE well. The energy of the electron is quantized. Possible wavefunctions and the probability distributions for the electron are shown. Fig 3.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

$ sin 4 ! x % " # a

2 1 ! x $ sin % " # a

Fig 3.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Digression on Differential Equations

The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences Eugene Wigner The miracle of the appropriateness of the language of mathematics for the formulation of the laws of physics is a wonderful gift which we neither understand nor deserve. We should be grateful for it and hope that it will remain valid in future research and that it will extend, for better or for worse, to our pleasure, even though perhaps also to our bafflement, to wide branches of learning.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unreasonable_Effectiveness_of_Mathematics_in_the_Natural_Sciences

40

Digression on Differential Equations

The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences. Eugene Wigner It is difficult to avoid the impression that a miracle confronts us here, quite comparable in its striking nature to the miracle that the human mind can string a thousand arguments together without getting itself into contradictions, or to the two miracles of the existence of laws of nature and of the human mind's capacity to divine them.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unreasonable_Effectiveness_of_Mathematics_in_the_Natural_Sciences

Life Simplified
In life: Cherchez la femme In politics: Follow the money In Science: Solve the differential equation

Fig 3.15
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.4 Heisenberg s Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg uncertainty principle for position and momentum

xpx
Heisenberg uncertainty principle for energy and time

Et
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Section 3.5 Maybe later

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Potential Box: Three Quantum Numbers

When you confine the electron in a box then you have to solve Schrodingers Equation in 3-D. What comes out is a wave function and an energy that is quantized. For that we can blame the Unreasonableness of Mathematics.

Fig 3.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.6 Potential Box: Three Quantum Numbers

Electron confined in three dimensions by a three-dimensional infinite PE box. Everywhere inside the box, V = 0, but outside, V = . The electron cannot escape from the box.
Fig 3.19
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron wavefunction in infinite 3-D PE well

$ n1#x ' $ n 2#y ' $ n 3#z ' " n1 n 2 n 3 ( x, y, z) = A sin& ) sin& ) sin& ) 3.37 % a ( % b ( % c (

Electron energy in infinite PE box, a=b=c:

E n1 n 2 n 3 =

2 2 h 2 ( n12 + n 2 + n3 )

8 ma
2

h N = 2 8 ma
2 2 2 3

3.38

N =n +n +n

2 1

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

$ n1#x ' $ n 2#y ' $ n 3#z ' " n1 n 2 n 3 ( x, y, z) = A sin& ) sin& ) sin& ) 3.37 % a ( % b ( % c (

How do you find A?

volume

" # n1 n 2 n 3 ( x, y, z) = ???? 2 3/2 A= ( ) a

Left as an exercise to you to show that

Lowest energy level is??

E n1 n 2 n 3 =
2 2 h 2 ( n12 + n 2 + n3 )

8 ma

h N = 2 8 ma

3.38

Recall n integer > 0

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Hydrogen Atom
In one dimension, time independent: Hydrogen atom

" 2# 8$ 2 me + Etot % Epot )# = 0 ( 2 2 "x h

Epot

z1z 2 e e = =$ 4 " # 0r 4 " # 0r

2 2 ' $ ' $ h & " # 2 "# ) & e ) + & E tot + #=0 2 & 2 + ) ) 8! m e % " r r "r ( % 4! *0 r ( 2

This is the DE you need to solve. In spherical coordinates:

3.7: Hydrogenic Atom

The electron in the hydrogenic atom is atom is attracted by a central force that is always directed toward the positive nucleus. Spherical coordinates centered at the nucleus are used to describe the position of the electron. The PE of the electron depends only on r.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Fig 3.20 Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Solution are many

" = exp( #c 0 r)
me e Etot = " 2 2 8# 0 h
4

= -13.6 eV
For n =1: Etot = - 13.6 eV That was when Schrodinger knew he was getting a Noble Prize..

" me e c0 = 2 # 0h

 is meaningless, but:

" ( x ,y ,z; t) dx dy dz
2

Prob. of finding e-1 in volume element dxdydz

W = ! 4" r dr
W is probability density function. Radial symmetry = s-electrons

Another solution
$ # rc 0 ' " ( r) = A(1 + c1r) exp& ) % 2 (

Only a solution if: E = -13.6/4 = E/n2

2s electron

Non-spherical solutions or electrons on alcohol

p-orbitals p-electrons 2 per so total = ???

Electrons on drugs + alcohol

d-orbitals

Electron wavefunctions and the electron energy are obtained by solving the Schrdinger equation
Electron s PE V(r) in hydrogenic atom is used in the Schrdinger equation

Ze V (r ) = 4 o r
Z is atomic number or number of protons in nucleus.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) Radial wavefunctions of the electron in a hydrogenic atom for various n and values. (b) R2 |Rn,2| gives the radial probability density. Vertical axis scales are linear in arbitrary units.
Fig 3.21
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron probability distribution in the hydrogen atom

Bohr radius is where maximum probability for = n 1

rmax

n 2 ao = Z

for l = n -1

3.44

Z is atomic number or number of protons in nucleas

!
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.7.2 Electron energy is quantized

Electron energy in the hydrogenic atom is quantized. n is a quantum number, 1,2,3,

me Z En = " 2 2 2 8#o h n
4

3.43a

Ionization energy of hydrogen: energy required to remove the electron from the ground state in the H-atom

me 18 EI = 2 2 = 2.18 10 J = 13.6 eV 8 o h
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The energy of the electron in the H atom (Z = 1).

E I ,n =

Z (13.6eV) n
2

3.43b

Fig 3.23

3 Quantum Numbers
In analogy with particles in a box, you need 3 quantum numbers to characterize energy and shape of orbitals: Principle quantum number, n = 1,2,3 Orbital angular momentum quantum number
l = 0,1,2,.. (n-1 )< n.

Magnetic quantum number, ml = -l, -l-1, 0, l +1,l+2, l Fourth has to do with spin, 1/2.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) The polar plots of Yn,(, ) for 1s and 2p states. (b) The angular dependence of the probability distribution, which is proportional to | Yn,(,

)|2.
Fig 3.22
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The physical origin of spectra. Routinely used for chemical analysis of elements.

(a) Emission (b)Absorption

Fig 3.24
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

An electron in an atom can become excited by a collision with another Atom. When it returns to its ground energy state, the atom emits a photon. Neon light works this way.. Also this is how a HeNe laser works
Fig 3.25
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The Li atom has a nucleus with charge +3e, 2 electrons in the K shell , which is closed, and one electron in the 2s orbital. (b) A simple view of (a) would be one electron in the 2s orbital that sees a single positive charge, or Z = 1 because of screening or charge shielding. The simple view Z = 1 is not a satisfactory description for the outer electron because it has a probability distribution that penetrates the inner shell. We can instead use an effective Z, Zeffective = 1.26, to calculate the energy of the outer electron in the Li atom.
Fig 3.26
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Ionization energy from the n-level for an outer electron

E I ,n =

2 effective

(13.6eV) 2 n

3.45

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Selection Rules

An illustration of the allowed Photon emission processes. Photon emission involves = 1,

Fig 3.28
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.7.3 Orbital Angular Momentum and Space Quantization

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Quantization of Orbital angular momentum

Basically electron is not allowed to spin at any arbitrary angular velocity around nucleus. Same as energy. So electron can spin with an angular momentum of 1, 2, 3, but not 1.2 or 1.4.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) The electron has an orbital angular momentum, which has a quantized component L along an external magnetic field Bexternal. (b) The orbital angular momentum vector L rotates about the z axis. Its component Lz is quantized; Therefore, the L orientation, which is the angle , is also quantized. L traces out a cone. (c) According to quantum mechanics, only certain orientations ( ) for L are allowed, as determined by and m
Fig 3.27
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Key concept: Space quantization is always in reference to an externally applied magnetic field, B.
Fig 3.27
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Orbital Angular Momentum and Space Quantization

Orbital angular momentum

L = [( + 1)]
where = 0, 1, 2, .n-1 Orbital angular momentum along Bz

1/ 2

Lz = m
Selection rules for EM radiation absorption and emission

= 1

and

m = 0, 1

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Spin angular momentum exhibits space quantization. Its magnitude along z is quantized, so the angle of S to the z axis is also quantized.

Another weird result: The electrons can only spin at certain angles to externally applied B! This is called space quantization

Fig 3.29
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electron Spin and Intrinsic Angular Momentum S

Electron spin

S = ![ s( s + 1)]
Spin along magnetic field

1/ 2

1 s= 2

S z = ms

1 ms = 2

the quantum numbers s and ms, are called the spin and spin magnetic quantum numbers.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.7.5 Magnetic Dipole Moment of Electron

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) The orbiting electron is equivalent to a current loop that behaves like a bar magnet. (b) The spinning electron can be imagined to be equivalent to a current loop as shown. This current loop behaves like a bar magnet, just as in the orbital case.
Fig 3.30
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Magnetic Dipole Moment of the Electron

Orbital magnetic moment

e orbital = L 2me
Spin magnetic moment

spin

e =" S me

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Energy of the electron due to its magnetic moment interacting with a magnetic field
Potential energy of a magnetic moment

EBL = orbital B cos

Where is the angle between orbital and B.
v

A magnetic moment in a magnetic field experiences a torque that tries to rotate the magnetic moment to align the moment with the field. A magnetic moment in a nonuniform magnetic field experiences force that depends on the orientation of the dipole.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) Schematic illustration of the Stern-Gerlach experiment. A stream of Ag atoms passing through a nonuniform magnetic field splits into two.
Fig 3.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(b) Explanation of the Stern-Gerlach experiment. (c) Actual experimental result recorded on a photographic plate by Stern and Gerlach (O. Stern and W. Gerlach, Zeitschr. fur. Physik, 9, 349, 1922.) When the field is turned off, there is only a single line on the photographic plate. Their experiment is somewhat different than the simple sketches in (a) and (b) as shown in (d).
Fig 3.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Stern-Gerlach memorial plaque at the University of Frankfurt. The drawing shows the original Stern-Gerlach experiment in which the Ag atom beam is passed along the long- length of the external magnet to increase the time spent in the nonuniform field, and hence increase the splitting. The photo on the lower right is Otto Stern (1888-1969), standing and enjoying a cigar while carrying out an experiment. Otto Stern won the Nobel prize in 1943 for development of the molecular beam technique. Plaque photo courtesy of Horst Schmidt-Bcking from B.
Friedrich and D. Herschbach, "Stern and Gerlach: How a Bad Cigar Helped Reorient Atomic Physics", Physics Today, December 2003, p.53-59.

Fig 3.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

What if you have both Spin angular momentum and orbital angular momentum? You add them vectorially
Fig 3.31
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Orbital angular momentum vector L and spin angular momentum vector S can add either In parallel as in (a) or antiparallel, as in (b). The total angular momentum vector J = L + S, has a magnitude J = [j(j+1)], where in (a) j = + and in (b) j = -
Fig 3.32
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) The angular momentum vectors L and S precess around their resultant total angular Momentum vector J. (b) The total angular momentum vector is SPACE quantized. Vector J precesses about the z axis, along which its component must be m j
Fig 3.33
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

e2 e2 e2 V ( r1, r12 ) = " " + 4 #$ o r1 4 #$ o r2 4 #$ o r12

Equation in book is not correct if r1 is not equal to r2.

A helium-like atom The nucleus has a charge +Ze, where Z = 2 for He. If one electron is removed, we have the He+ ion, which is equivalent to the hydrogenic atom with Z = 2.
Fig 3.34
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The Helium Atom

PE of one electron in the He atom

Solve Schrodinger s equation and all is taken care of

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Energy of various one-electron states. The energy depends on both n and

Fig 3.35

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electronic configurations for the first five elements. Each box represents an orbital (n, , m)
Fig 3.37
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Hund s Rule
Electrons prefer their spins to be parallel to each other Electrons will only pair up if you put a gun to their head.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Electronic configuration for C, N, O, F and Ne atoms. Notice that in C, N, and O, Hund s rule forces electrons to align their spins. For the Ne atom, all the K and L orbitals are full. Fig 3.38
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Paired spins in an orbital.

Fig 3.36
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated emission

Absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.

Fig 3.39
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Optical pumping

E2 Is A Long Lived State

The principle of the LASER. (a) Atoms in the ground state are pumped up to the energy level E3 by incoming photons of energy h13 = E3-E1. (b) Atoms at E3 rapidly decay to the metastable state at energy level E2 by emitting photons or emitting lettice vibrations. h32 = E3-E2.
Fig 3.40
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Population Inversion Avalanche Aka lasing emission

(c) As the states at E2 are metastable, they quickly become populated and there is a population inversion between E2 and E1. (d) A random photon of energy h21 = E2-E1 can initiate stimulated emission. Photons from this stimulated emission can themselves further stimulate emissions leading to an avalanche of stimulated emissions and coherent photons being emtitted.
Fig 3.40
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Illustration of the HeNe laser.

He + e # He * +e He * + Ne # Ne * + He
Fig 3.41
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

"1

"1

The principle of operation of the HeNe laser. Important HeNe laser energy levels (for 632.8 nm emission).
Fig 3.42
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) Doppler-broadened emission versus wavelength characteristics of the lasing medium. (b) Allowed oscillations and their wavelengths within the optical cavity. (c) The output spectrum is determined by satisfying (a) and (b) simultaneously.

Fig 3.43
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Laser Output Spectrum

Doppler effect: The observed photon frequency depends on whether the Ne atom is moving towards (+vx) or away (- vx) from the observer

v x v2 = v0 1 + c

v x v1 = v0 1 c

Frequency width of the output spectrum is approximately 2 1

2v0v x v = c
Laser cavity modes: Only certain wavelengths are allowed to exist within the optical cavity L. If n is an integer, the allowed wavelength is

n = L 2
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Conclusions
Light can behave as a wave or a particle. Electrons can behave as waves or particles Everything including you behaves as wave or a particle! Schrodinger s equation is the be all and end all when it comes to quantum phenomena. 2

d " 2m + E # V " = 0 ( ) 2 2 dx !

All you have to do is solve it for different boundary and initial conditions. The solution gives you a wave function that has no physical meaning. Square it and viola, you have probability of finding an electron in space + facebook!

Conclusions
The solution also tells you that if you confine the electron in any way, i.e. if V is NOT zero everywhere then the energy will be quantized Free electrons are not quantized. Confining an electron in a box of side a results yields:
2 2 h 2 ( n12 + n 2 + n3 )

E n1 n 2 n 3 =

8 ma

h N = 2 8 ma

3.38

Which requires 3 quantum numbers to describe. For H2 atom put Coulomb s law into Schrodingers Eq. Not only is the energy quantized, but also the angular momenta, both orbital and spin.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Conclusions
They can also be space quantized To get Lasing action you need a population inversion.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Energy diagram for the Er3+ ion in the glass fiber medium and light amplification by Stimulated emission from E2 to E1. Dashed arrows indicate radiationless transitions (energy emission by lattice vibrations).
Fig 3.44
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

A simplified schematic illustration of an EDFA (optical amplifier). The erbiumion doped fiber is pumped by feeding the light from a laser pump diode, through a coupler, into the erbium ion doped fiber.

Fig 3.45
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) The retina in the eye has photoreceptors that can sense the incident photons on them and hence provide necessary visual perception signals. It has been estimated that for minimum visual perception there must be roughly 90 photons falling on the cornea of the eye. (b) The wavelength dependence of the relative efficiency eye() of the eye is different for daylight vision, or photopic vision (involves mainly cones), and for vision under dimmed light, (or scotopic vision represents the dark-adapted eye, and involves rods). (c) SEM photo of rods and cones in the retina. SOURCE: Dr. Frank Werblin, University of California, Berkeley.
Fig 3.46
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Some possible states of the carbon atom, not in any particular order.
Fig 3.47
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.5 Tunneling Phenomenon: Quantum Leak

Probability of tunneling

T=

III ( x) I ( x)

2 2

C12 1 = 2 = A1 1 + D sinh 2 (a )

Probability of tunneling through

T = To exp(2a)
Reflection coefficient R

where

16 E (Vo E ) To = Vo2

2 A2 R = 2 = 1 T A1

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

(a) The roller coaster released from A can at most make it to C, but not to E. Its PE at A is less than the PE at D. When the car is at the bottom, its energy is totally KE. CD is the energy barrier that prevents the care from making it to E. In quantum theory, on the other hand, there is a chance that the care could tunnel (leak) through the potential energy barrier between C and E and emerge on the other side of hill at E. (b) The wavefunction for the electron incident on a potential energy barrier (V0). The incident And reflected waves interfere to give !1(x). There is no reflected wave in region III. In region II, the wavefunction decays with x because E < V0. Fig 3.16
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Fig 3.17
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) image of a graphite surface where contours represent electron concentrations within the surface, and carbon rings are clearly visible. Two Angstrom scan. |SOURCE: Courtesy of Veeco Instruments, Metrology Division, Santa Barbara, CA.
Fig 3.18
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

STM image of Ni (100) surface SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM

STM image of Pt (111) surface SOURCE: Courtesy of IBM

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Light Intensity (Irradiance)

Classical light intensity

1 2 I = c oE o 2
Light Intensity

I = ph h
Photon flux

ph =

N ph At

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Light consists of photons

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

X-rays are photons

X-ray image of an American one-cent coin captured using an x-ray a-Se HARP camera. The first image at the top left is obtained under extremely low exposure and the subsequent images are obtained with increasing exposure of approximately one order of magnitude between each image. The slight attenuation of the X-ray photons by Lincoln provides the image. The image sequence clearly shows the discrete nature of x-rays, and hence their description in terms of photons. SOURCE: Courtesy of Dylan Hunt and John Rowlands, Sunnybrook Hospital, University Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005) ofFrom Toronto.

Scattering of an X-ray photon by a free electron in a conductor.

Fig 3.9
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

The Compton experiment and its results

Fig 3.10
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

3.1.4 Black Body Radiation

Schematic illustration of black body radiation and its characteristics. Spectral irradiance vs. wavelength at two temperatures (3000K is about the temperature of The incandescent tungsten filament in a light bulb.)
Fig 3.11
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Black Body Radiation

Planck s radiation law

2hc I = hc 5 exp 1 kT
Stefan s black body radiation law

PS = S T
Stefan s constant

2 5k 4 8 2 4 S = 2 3 = 5.670 10 W m K 15c h
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

Stefan s law for real surfaces Electromagnetic radiation emitted from a hot surface

Pradiation = total radiation power emitted (W = J s-1)

Pradiation = S S [T T ]
S = Stefan s constant, W m-2 K-4 = emissivity of the surface = 1 for a perfect black body < 1 for other surfaces S = surface area of emitter (m2)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Third Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2005)

4 0