Wire and Wireless Communication

Microwave Communication
Generally described as electromagnetic waves with frequencies that range from 500 MHz to 300 GHz or more. Have relatively short wavelengths due to their inherently high frequencies. At any given radio station, transmitters are normally operating on either the low or the high band, while receivers are operating on the other hand.

Short Haul category for intrastate or feeder service microwave systems. It is used to carry information for relatively short distances, such as between cities with the same state. Long Haul interstate and backbone route application. It is used to carry information for relatively long distances. FDM-FM used in early microwave systems TDM-PCM used to carry information for relatively long distances. Terminal Stations point at which information terminate or originate. Microwave radios propagate signals through Earths atmosphere between transmitters and receivers often located on top of the towers spaced about 15mi to 30 mi apart. Advantages of Microwave Radio Radio systems do not require a right-of-way acquisition between stations. Each station requires the purchase or lease of only a small area of land. Because of their high operating frequencies, microwave radio systems can carry large quantity of information. High frequencies mean short wavelength, which require relatively small antenna. Radio signals are more easily propagated around physical obstacles such as water and high mountains. Fewer repeaters are necessary for amplification. Distances between switching centers are less. Underground facilities are minimized. Minimal crosstalk exists between voice channels. Minimum delay times are introduced. Increased reliability and less maintenance are important factors.

Disadvantages of Microwave Radio It is more difficult to analyze and design circuits at microwave frequencies. Measuring techniques are more difficult to perfect and implement at microwave frequencies. It is more difficult to implement conventional circuit components at microwave frequencies. Transient is more critical at microwave frequency. Specialized components are necessary. Propagate at straight line, so does limited to LOS.

FM Used in microwave radio systems rather than amplitude modulation because AM signals are more sensitive to amplitude nonlinearities inherent in wideband microwave amplifiers Less sensitive to random noise and can be propagated with lower transmit powers.

Intermodulation Noise A major factor when designing FM radio systems In an AM, it is caused by repeater amplitude nonlinearity and is a function of signal amplitude. In FM, it is caused primarily by transmission gain and delay distortion and is a function of signal amplitude and magnitude of the frequency deviation.

FM Microwave radio System Widely recognized as providing flexible, reliable and economical communications using Earths atmosphere for the transmission medium. Baseband The composite signal that modulates the FM carrier and may comprise one or more of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. FDM voice-band channels TDM voice-band channels Broadcast-quality composite video or picture phone wideband data point-to-point

FM Microwave Radio Transmitter FM Deviator provides the modulation of the IF carrier that eventually becomes the main microwave carrier. Pre-emphasis follows the FM deviator and provides an artificial boost in amplitude to the higher baseband frequencies. Channel Combining Network Provides a means of connecting more than one microwave transmitter to a single transmission line feeding the antenna. FM Microwave Radio Receiver similar to the conventional FM receiver FM Microwave Radio Repeaters Passive Active

Permissible distance between an FM microwave transmitter and its associated microwave receiver depends on:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Transmitter output power Receiver noise threshold (S/N) Terrain Atmospheric conditions System capacity Reliability objectives Performance expectations.

Microwave Repeater a receiver and a transmitter placed back-to-back or in tandem in the system. Repeater Stations receives a signal, amplifies and reshapes it, and then retransmits the signal to the next repeater or terminal stations down line from it. Types of Microwave Repeaters 1. IF Repeater Here, the received RF carrier is down-converted to an IF frequency, amplified, reshaped, up-converted to an RF frequency, and then retransmitted. Signal is never demodulated below IF Baseband intelligence is unmodified by the repeater aka heterodyne repeaters most commonly used

2. Baseband Repeater Here, the received RF carrier is down-converted to an IF frequency, amplified, filtered, and then further demodulated to baseband. Baseband frequency is then reconfigured, afterwards it FM modulates an IF carrier, which is up-converted to an RF carrier and then retransmitted. It is the most complicated system 3. RF Repeater Here, the received microwave signal is not down-converted to IF or baseband. It is simply mixed with a local oscillator frequency in a nonlinear mixer. Signal is neither reconfigured nor reshaped. Signal is just simply converted in frequency and then reamplified and transmitted. Radio Fades temporary reduction in signal strength due to varying atmospheric condition. AGC built into radio receivers to compensate the radio signal fades less than 40 dB. Diversity Suggests that there is more than on transmission path or method of transmission available between a transmitter and receiver. Increases the reliability of the system by increasing its availability

Provides an alternate transmission path for only a single microwave link within the overall communications system. Provides 100% protection

Most Common Method of Diversity 1. Frequency Diversity Modulating two different RF carrier frequencies with the sane IF intelligence, then transmitting both RF signals to a given destination. This arrangement provides complete and simple equipment redundancy and has an additional advantage of providing two complete transmitter-to-receiver electrical paths. 2. Space Diversity Uses two or more antennas with the same frequency 3. Polarization Diversity A single RF carrier is propagated with two different electromagnetic polarizations Generally used in conjunction with space diversity 4. Receiver Diversity Uses more than one receiver for a single radio-frequency channel. 5. Quad Diversity Combines frequency, space, polarization, and receiver diversity into one system. 6. Hybrid Diversity Combines the operational advantage of frequency diversity with the improved protection of space diversity Protection Switching Arrangement which provides alternate facilities at avoid a service interruption during periods of deep fades or equipment failures. Provides protection for a much larger section of the communications system that generally includes several repeaters spanning a distance of 100 miles or more.

Types of Protection Switching Arrangement 1. Diversity A single back-up channel is made available to as much as 11 working channels Offers 100% protection only to the first working channel to fail. 2. Hot Standby Each working radio channel has a dedicated back-up or spare channel. FM Microwave Radio Stations Terminal Stations points where baseband signals either originate or terminate. It is composed of four major stations:

Wireline Entrance Link serves as the interface between the multiplex terminal equipment and the FM-IF equipment. Baseband IF section RF section

Transmod (Transmit Modulator) A balanced modulator that, when used in conjunction with a microwave generator, PA, and BPF, up-converts the IF carrier to an RF carrier and amplifies the RF to the desired output power. Microwave Generator provides the RF carrier input to the up-converter Isolator a unidirectional device often made from a ferrite material. It is used in conjunction with a channel-coupling network to prevent the output of one transmitter from interfering with the output of another transmitter. LNA (Low Noise Amplifier) Commonly a tunnel diode or parametric amplifiers

Radio Wave Propagation

Propagation Methods Refers to how a radio wave arrives from a radio transmitting antenna into the receiving antenna Radio waves follow the curvature of the Earth and can travel at distances beyond the horizon. Primarily used by AM broadcasting Best applicable for VLF, LF and MF or frequencies only up to 2 MHz Follows the principle of refraction As the radio waves strikes on a certain ionospheric layer, it will be refracted and go back to Earth at a certain distance for reception. Used for HF communication systems, including long-distance radio-telephone and sound broadcasting. Generally effective above 2 MHz up to 30 MHz

1. Ground-Wave Propagation

2. Sky-Wave (Ionospheric Propagation)

Layers of Earths Atmosphere 1. Troposphere Lowest layer from Earths surface up to approximately 10 km above. 2. Stratosphere Second layer in the height that extends from the upper limit of the troposphere at an approximate elevation of 50 km. Has constant/non-fluctuating temperature and do not have the capability to refract radio waves. 3. Ionosphere Upper limit of the stratosphere at a distance of approximately 60 to 400 km.

Most ionized layer.

Layers of the Ionosphere 1. D Layer Lowest layer of the ionosphere Average daytime height of 70 km and thickness of 10 km. Can refract VLF and LF waves and thus aids surface wave propagation. In daytime, it absorbs frequencies below 8 or 10 MHz absorbs MF (300 3 MHz) 2. E Layer Exists about 100 km during day and a thickness of about 25 km. Aids MF surface wave propagation Can also refract some HF on daytime up to approximately 20 MHz 3. F1 Layer Exists at a height of 180 km in day Thickness of 20 km at daytime Provides absorption of HF waves. 4. F2 Layer Most important layer and responsible for refracting HF waves At daytime, it has an approximate height of about 250 to 400 km and thickness of 200 km. Recombines with F!1 at night and having a height of 300 km. Factors Affecting the Ability of Ionosphere to Refract Radio Waves: 1. Ion Density The greater the degree on ionization, the greater the refraction or bending of wave at any given frequency. 2. Frequency of the Radio Waves The lower the frequency, the more easily the signal is refracted. 3. Angle of Radiation/Angle of Transmission The greater the angle of radiation, the greater the bending of the wave. Virtual Height Apparent height of the ionized layer, as determined by the time interval between the transmitted signal and the ionospheric echo at vertical incidence. Critical Frequency The highest frequency that will be returned down to Earth by that layer after having been beamed vertically straight upward or at normal incidence. Maximum Usable Frequency The highest frequency that will be returned down to Earth over a given path. Optimum Working Frequency Best frequency used to operate a sky-wave link. Frequency that gives the most stable link between transmitters and receivers in skywave propagation.

Lowest Usable Frequency The lower limit of the range on frequencies that provide useful communications between the two given points by ionospheric refraction. Gyrofrequency The frequency where the periodic time of the wave is equal to the time required for one complete revolution about the magnetic axis, the path of the electrons becomes a very wide single loop. Critical Angle Highest angle of refraction that will return the wave to the Earth. Skip Distance The minimum distance over which communication at a given frequency (usually MUF) can be established by means of the sky-wave. Skip Zone The area that lies between the outer limit of the ground wave range and the inner edge of energy return from the ionosphere. Hop Refers to a single reflection of a radio wave from the ionosphere back to the Earth. Multihop Multiple reflection and refractions thus increasing the coverage along Earths ground in sky-wave propagation. Factors Affecting Optimum Operating Frequency 1. Location and Geography 2. Seasonal Variations Brought about by the revolution of the Earth around the sun. 3. Diurnal Variations Brought about by the rotation of the Earth in its own axis. 4. Cyclical Variations Ionospheric Irregularities 1. Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID) Caused by solar flares which are gigantic emission of hydrogen from the sun. 2. Travelling Ionospheric Disturbances (TID) Seriously affect the accuracy of high-frequency direction finders due to irregularities of electron densities in the ionosphere. 3. Ionospheric Storms Caused by particle emissions from the sun. 4. Fading The fluctuation of signal strength at the receiver. Types of Fading a. b. c. d. e. Interference Fading Polarization Fading Focusing and Defocusing Absorption Fading Selective Fading

Forms of Selective Fading

a. Rayleigh Fading Occurs when the signal received by an antenna is the result of reflected signals from a number of nearby objects and there is no signal path between transmitter and receiver. b. Rician Fading Similar to Rayleigh fading, but now there is also a direct radio path between the transmitter and receiver. c. Multipath Fading Occured when the time delay of the reflected signals is long compared to the modulation periodic time.

3. Space-Wave (Tropospheric) Propagation

Line-of-sight propagation Compulsory when frequency generally exceeds 30 MHz and beyond up to 300 GHz. Used for TV broadcasting and for mobile systems operating in the VHF, UHF and SHF bands.

Irregularities of Space Wave Propagation 1. Superrefraction or Ducting Occurs when the refractive index of the air decreases with height b=much more rapidly than normal. Duct a region in which superrefraction occurs. Formed in the troposphere when a layer of cool air becomes trapped underneath a layer of warmer air of when a layer of cooled air becomes sandwich between two layers of warmer air. 2. Subrefraction Reduces signal strength by bending the ray away from the receiving point. Scatter Propagation Modes 1. Tropospheric Scatter Wave (troposcatter) Propagation Least method of propagation and used only when the other methods are not available. Operates on UHF band (between 350 MHz to 10 GHz) with common frequencies of 0.9 GHz, 2 GHz and 5 GHz. 2. Ionospheric Scatter Propagation (Ionoscatter) Works much similar to troposcatter, except that it uses E-Layer as scattering medium with some assistance of D and F layers. 3. Backscatter Form of ionospheric propagation via the E and F layers. Characterized by rapid fluttering and fading. 4. Sidescatter Propagation Similar to backscatter except that the ground scatter zone is merely somewhat off the direct line between the participants. Observed frequently on the 14-MHz band. 5. Trans-equatorial (TE) scatter Propagation Usually about 4000 km (2500 miles) either side of the geomagnetic equator. Due to equators more exposure to sun.

Minor Propagation Modes 1. Auroral Propagation Happens during the existence of Aurora Borealis Phenomenon., fluorescence at E-layer height, that is a curtain of ions capable of reflecting radio wave in the frequency range of about 20 MHz. 2. Sporadic-E (ES) Propagation Ionization at E Layer that affects mainly lower amateur frequencies. At its season this extends the single-hop maximum range to about 1400 miles and double-hop maximum range to about 1400 to 2500 miles. 3. Gray Line Propagation Propagation of radio waves to the what is called gray line. Gray Line a band around the earth between the sunlit portion and darkness. It also called as terminator or twilight zone. 4. Meteor-Burst Propagation A type of propagation af VHF and UHF waves that utilizes the phenomenon of scattering of a radio signal from the ionization trails caused by meteors entering the Earths atmosphere. Waiting time time between useful trails. Suns Role on Radio Wave Propagation 1. Sunspots The tendency of the sun to have grayish-black blemishes, seemingly at random places, on its fiery surface 2. Solar Flux A measure of the energy received per unit time, per unit area per unit frequency interval. 3. Solar Flare A sudden eruption on the sun that causes high-speed atomic particles to be ejected far into space from the surface of the sun. 4. Maunder Minimum Long period with a lack of any solar activity.

Microwave System Parameters

Free Space Path Loss Loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects. = 4
2

where: LP = free-space path loss (unitless) D = distance (km)

 = wavelength (m)
Also, = 92.4 + 20 log + 20 log = 32.4 + 20 log + 20 log = 96.6 + 20 log 20 log

Path Clearance and Antenna Heights Fresnel Zone a region near an object in which diffraction effects are significant First Fresnel Zone all points from which a wave could be reflected with an additional path length of one-half wavelength from an ellipse.

Beyond this First Fresnel Zone region interference will be alternatively destructive and constructive. Fresnel showed that the destructive contribution of some of these zones beyond the First Fresnel Zone will be offset by the constructive contribution of other zones and thus the reaction of the reflector responsible for a reflection will be only that of the First Fresnel Zone. 1 2 1 + 2

where: Fn = nth Fresnel Zone radius (m) d1 = distance of P from one end (m) d2 = distance of P from the other end (m) = wavelength of the transmitted signal m

Fade Margin Aka link margin Essentially a fudge factor included in system gain equation that considers the non-ideal and less predictive characteristics of radio wave propagation, such as multipath loss and terrain sensitivity. = 30 log + log 1 70

where: FM = fade margin (dB) D = distance (km) f = frequency (GHz) R = reliability in decimal 1-R = reliability objective for one-way 40km route

A = roughness factor = 4 over water or very smooth terrain = 1 over an average terrain = 0.25 over a very rough, mountainous terrain

B = factor to convert a worst-month probability = 1 to convert an annual availability to a worst-month basis = 0.5 for hot humid areas = 0.25 for average inland areas = 0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas

System Gain = =

where: FM = fade margin for a given reliability objective (dB) LP = free-space path loss incurred as a signal propagates from the transmitter to the receiver antennas through Earths atmosphere dB Lf = transmission line loss (dB) Lb = total coupling or branching loss (dB) At = transmit antenna gain relative to isotropic radiator (dB) Ar = receive antenna gain relative to isotropic radiator (dB) Pt = transmitter output power (dBm/dBW)

F (GHz)

Feeder Loss (Lf) Loss Type (dB/100m) Air-filled Coax

Branching Loss (Lb) Frequency Space Diversity Diversity

1.8

5.4

7.4

EWP 64 elliptical waveguide

4.7

8.0

EWP 69 elliptical waveguide

6.5

Antenna Gain (Ar or At) Diameter Gain (dB) (meter) 1.2 25.2 2.4 31.2 3.0 33.2 2.7 34.7 4.8 37.2 1.2 37.1 1.5 38.8 2.4 43.1 3.0 44.8 3.7 46.5 1.2 37.8 2.4 43.8 3.0 45.6 3.7 47.3 4.8 49.8

WaveGuides
A hollow metal tube designed to carry microwave energy from one place to another

Advantages of a Waveguides 1. 2. 3. 4. Less copper loss No Skin Effect Less dielectric loss Large power handling capability

Disadvantages 1. Physical size is the primary lower-frequency limitation of waveguides. 2. Waveguides are difficult to install because of their rigid, hollow-pipe shape. 3. Increase the costs and decrease the practicality of waveguide systems at any other than microwave frequencies. Waveguide Cut-Off Frequency The lowest frequency of operation.

EM Wave propagation on Waveguide

Mode the way in which the electromagnetic field propagate along the waveguide. Classification of Mode 1. Transverse Electric (TE) The E field exists across the guide and no E lines extent lengthwise along the guide. 2. Transverse Magnetic (TM) H lines loops in plane perpendicular to the walls of the guide, and no part of an H line is lengthwise along the guide.

Mode Numbering Systems for Rectangular Waveguides: TEm, n or TMm, n m number of half-wave patterns in the a dimension n number of half-wave patterns in the b dimension Dominant Mode mode which gives the lowest cut-off frequency For the cut-off wavelength: = 2
2

Mode Numbering Systems for Circular Waveguides: TEm, n or TMm, n m number of full-wave patterns around the circumference n number of half-wave patterns across the diameter = 2 = 1.7

where: r = internal radius of the waveguide d= diameter of waveguide kr = solution of a Bessel Function equation (1.84 commonly)

Waveguide Input/Output Methods 1. Probe a /4 vertical antenna at the signal frequency which is inserted in the waveguide one quarter wavelength from the end which is closed.

2. Loops also used to couple the microwave signal into the waveguide.

3. Slot or apertures are sometimes used when very loose (inefficient) coupling is desired. In this method energy enters through a small slot in the waveguide and the E field expands into the waveguide. The E lines expand first across the slot and then across the interior of the waveguide.

Minimum reflections occur when energy is injected or removed if the size of the slot is properly proportioned to the frequency of the energy.

Waveguide Terminations Electromagnetic energy is often passed through a waveguide to transfer the energy from a source into space. As previously mentioned, the impedance of a waveguide does not match the impedance of space, and without proper impedance matching, standing waves cause a large decrease in the efficiency of the waveguide.

Any abrupt change in impedance causes standing waves, but when the change in impedance at the end of a waveguide is gradual, almost no standing waves are formed. Gradual changes in impedance can be obtained by terminating the waveguide with a funnel-shaped HORN, such as the three types illustrated in figures. The type of horn used depends upon the frequency and the desired radiation pattern.

A waveguide may also be terminated in a resistive load that is matched to the characteristic impedance of the waveguide. The resistive load is most often called a DUMMY LOAD, because its only purpose is to absorb all the energy in a waveguide without causing standing waves.

WaveGuide Propagation Modes

Group Velocity the actual speed at which a signal travels down the guide. 2
2

= 1

where: vg = group velocity = free-space wavelength a= larger dimension of the interior cross section But since
= 2

where: fc = cut-off frequency f = operating frequency

Phase Velocity the rate at which the wave appears to move along the wall of the guide, based on the way the phase angle varies along the walls. = 1
2 2

= 2 Waveguide Plumbing Since waveguides are really only hollow metal pipes, the installation and the physical handling of waveguides have many similarities to ordinary plumbing. In light of this fact, the bending, twisting, joining, and installation of waveguides is commonly called waveguide plumbing. Naturally, waveguides are different in design from pipes that are designed to carry liquids or other substances. The design of a waveguide is determined by the frequency and power level of the electromagnetic energy it will carry. The following paragraphs explain the physical factors involved in the design of waveguides.

WAVEGUIDE BENDS The size, shape, and dielectric material of a waveguide must be constant throughout its length for energy to move from one end to the other without reflections. Any abrupt change in its size or shape can cause reflections and a loss in overall efficiency. When such a change is necessary, the bends, twists, and joints of the waveguides must meet certain conditions to prevent reflections. Waveguides may be bent in several ways that do not cause reflections. One way is the gradual bend shown in figure 1-46. This gradual bend is known as an E bend because it distorts the E fields. The E bend must have a radius greater than two wavelengths to prevent reflections.

Another common bend is the gradual H bend (figure 1-47). It is called an H bend because the H fields are distorted when a waveguide is bent in this manner. Again, the radius of the bend must be greater than two wavelengths to prevent reflections. Neither the E bend in the "a" dimension nor the H bend in the "b" dimension changes the normal mode of operation.

A sharp bend in either dimension may be used if it meets certain requirements. Notice the two 45degree bends in figure 1-48; the bends are 1/4 apart. The reflections that occur at the 45-degree bends cancel each other, leaving the fields as though no reflections have occurred.

Sometimes the electromagnetic fields must be rotated so that they are in the proper phase to match the phase of the load. This may be accomplished by twisting the waveguide as shown in figure 1-49. The twist must be gradual and greater than 2.

The flexible waveguide (figure 1-50) allows special bends which some equipment applications might require. It consists of a specially wound ribbon of conductive material, most commonly brass, with the inner surface plated with chromium. Power losses are greater in the flexible waveguide because the inner surfaces are not perfectly smooth. Therefore, it is only used in short sections where no other reasonable solution is available.

WAVEGUIDE JOINTS Since an entire waveguide system cannot possibly be molded into one piece, the waveguide must be constructed in sections and the sections connected with joints. The three basic types of waveguide joints are the PERMANENT, the SEMIPERMANENT, and the ROTATING JOINTS. Since the permanent joint is a factory-welded joint that requires no maintenance, only the semi-permanent and rotating joints will be discussed. Sections of waveguide must be taken apart for maintenance and repair. A semi-permanent joint, called a CHOKE JOINT, is most commonly used for this purpose. The choke joint provides good electromagnetic continuity between sections of waveguide with very little power loss. A cross-sectional view of a choke joint is shown in figures 1-51A and 1-51B. The pressure gasket shown between the two metal surfaces forms an airtight seal. Notice in figure 1-51B that the slot is exactly 1/4 from the "a" wall of the waveguide. The slot is also 1/4 dee p, as shown in figure 1-51A, and because it is shorted at point (1), a high impedance results at point (2). Point (3) is 1/4 from point (2). The high impedance at point (2) results in a low impedance, or short, at point (3). This effect creates a good electrical connection between the two sections that permits energy to pass with very little reflection or loss.

Whenever a stationary rectangular waveguide is to be connected to a rotating antenna, a rotating joint must be used. A circular waveguide is normally used in a rotating joint. Rotating a rectangular waveguide would cause field pattern distortion. The rotating section of the joint, illustrated in figure 152, uses a choke joint to complete the electrical connection with the stationary section. The circular waveguide is designed so that it will operate in the TM0,1 mode. The rectangular sections are attached as shown in the illustration to prevent the circular waveguide from operating in the wrong mode.

Distance "O" is 3/4 so that a high impedance will be presented to any unwanted modes. This is the most common design used for rotating joints, but other types may be used in specific applications.

WAVEGUIDE DEVICES The discussion of waveguides, up to this point, has been concerned only with the transfer of energy from one point to another. Many waveguide devices have been developed, however, that modify the energy in some fashion during transit. Some devices do nothing more than change the direction of the energy. Others have been designed to change the basic characteristics or power level of the electromagnetic energy. This section will explain the basic operating principles of some of the more common waveguide devices, such as DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS, CAVITY RESONATORS, and HYBRID JUNCTIONS.

Directional Couplers The directional coupler is a device that provides a method of sampling energy from within a waveguide for measurement or use in another circuit. Most couplers sample energy travelling in one direction only. However, directional couplers can be constructed that sample energy in both directions. These are called BIDIRECTIONAL couplers and are widely used in radar and communications systems. Directional couplers may be constructed in many ways. The coupler illustrated in figure 1-53 is constructed from an enclosed waveguide section of the same dimensions as the waveguide in which the energy is to be sampled. The "b" wall of this enclosed section is mounted to the "b" wall of the waveguide from which the sample will be taken. There are two holes in the "b" wall between the sections of the coupler. These two holes are 1/4 apart. The upper section of the directional coupler has a wedge of energy-absorbing material at one end and a pickup probe connected to an output jack at the other end. The absorbent material absorbs the energy not directed at the probe and a portion of the overall energy that enters the section.

Figure 1-54 illustrates two portions of the incident wavefront in a waveguide. The waves travel down the waveguide in the direction indicated and enter the coupler section through both holes. Since both

portions of the wave travel the same distance, they are in phase when they arrive at the pickup probe. Because the waves are in phase, they add together and provide a sample of the energy traveling down the waveguide. The sample taken is only a small portion of the energy that is traveling down the waveguide. The magnitude of the sample, however, is proportional to the magnitude of the energy in the waveguide. The absorbent material is designed to ensure that the ratio between the sample energy and the energy in the waveguide is constant. Otherwise the sample would contain no useful information. Cavity Resonators In ordinary electronic equipment a resonant circuit consists of a coil and a capacitor that are connected either in series or in parallel. The resonant frequency of the circuit is increased by reducing the capacitance, the inductance, or both. A point is eventually reached here the inductance and the capacitance can be reduced no further. This is the highest frequency at which a conventional circuit can oscillate. The upper limit for a conventional resonant circuit is between 2000 and 3000 megahertz. At these frequencies, the inductance may consist of a coil of one-half turn, and the capacitance may simply be the stray capacitance of the coil. Tuning a one-half turn coil is very difficult and tuning stray capacitance is even more difficult. In addition, such a circuit will handle only very small amounts of current. By definition, a resonant cavity is any space completely enclosed by conducting walls that can contain oscillating electromagnetic fields and possess resonant properties. The cavity has many advantages and uses at microwave frequencies. Resonant cavities have a very high Q and can be built to handle relatively large amounts of power. Cavities with a Q value in excess of 30,000 are not uncommon. The high Q gives these devices a narrow bandpass and allows very accurate tuning. Simple, rugged construction is an additional advantage. Waveguide Junctions You may have assumed that when energy traveling down a waveguide reaches a junction, it simply divides and follows the junction. This is not strictly true. Different types of junctions affect the energy in different ways. Since waveguide junctions are used extensively in most systems, you need to understand the basic operating principles of those most commonly used. The T JUNCTION is the most simple of the commonly used waveguide junctions. T junctions are divided into two basic types, the E-TYPE and the H-TYPE. HYBRID JUNCTIONS are more complicated developments of the basic T junctions. The MAGIC-T and the HYBRID RING are the two most commonly used hybrid junctions. E-TYPE T JUNCTION It is called an E-type T junction because the junction arm extends from the main waveguide in the same direction as the E field in the waveguide.

H-TYPE T JUNCTION. is called an H-type T junction because the long axis of the "b" arm is parallel to the plane of the magnetic lines of force in the waveguide. Again, for simplicity, only the E lines are shown in this figure. Each X indicates an E line moving away from the observer. Each dot indicates an E line is moving toward the observer. MAGIC-T HYBRID JUNCTION. The magic-T is a combination of the H-type and E-type T junctions. The most common application of this type of junction is as the mixer section for microwave radar receivers.

In summary, when an input is applied to arm b of the magic-T hybrid junction, the output signals from arms a and c are 180 degrees out of phase with each other, and no output occurs at the d arm. Unfortunately, when a signal is applied to any arm of a magic-T, the flow of energy in the output arms is affected by reflections. Reflections are caused by impedance mismatching at the junctions. These reflections are the cause of the two major disadvantages of the magic-T. First, the reflections represent a power loss since all the energy fed into the junction does not reach the load which the arms feed. Second, the reflections produce standing waves that can result in internal arching. Thus the maximum power a magic-T can handle is greatly reduced.

HYBRID RING.A type of hybrid junction that overcomes the power limitation of the magic-T is the hybrid ring, also called a RAT RACE. The hybrid ring, illustrated in figure 1-71A, is actually a modification of the magic-T. It is constructed of rectangular waveguides molded into a circular pattern. The arms are joined to the circular waveguide to form E-type T junctions. Figure 1-71B shows, in wavelengths, the dimensions required for a hybrid ring to operate properly.

The hybrid ring is used primarily in high-powered radar and communications systems to perform two functions. During the transmit period, the hybrid ring couples microwave energy from the transmitter to the antenna and allows no energy to reach the receiver. During the receive cycle, the hybrid ring couples energy from the antenna to the receiver and allows no energy to reach the transmitter. Any device that performs both of these functions is called a DUPLEXER. A duplexer permits a system to use the same antenna for both transmitting and receiving.

Ferrite Devices A FERRITE is a device that is composed of material that causes it to have useful magnetic properties and, at the same time, high resistance to current flow. The primary material used in the construction of ferrites is normally a compound of iron oxide with impurities of other oxides added. The compound of iron oxide retains the properties of the ferromagnetic atoms, and the impurities of the other oxides increase the resistance to current flow. This combination of properties is not found in conventional magnetic materials. Iron, for example, has good magnetic properties but a relatively low resistance to

current flow. The low resistance causes eddy currents and significant power losses at high frequencies. Ferrites, on the other hand, have sufficient resistance to be classified as semiconductors. FERRITE ISOLATORS.An isolator is a ferrite device that can be constructed so that it allows microwave energy to pass in one direction but blocks energy in the other direction in a waveguide. This isolator is constructed by placing a piece of ferrite off-center in a waveguide, as shown in figure 175. A magnetic field is applied by the magnet and adjusted to make the electron wobble frequency of the ferrite equal to the frequency of the energy traveling down the waveguide. Energy traveling down the waveguide from left to right will set up a rotating magnetic field that rotates through the ferrite material in the same direction as the natural wobble of the electrons. The aiding magnetic field increases the wobble of the ferrite electrons so much that almost all of the energy in the waveguide is absorbed and dissipated as heat. The magnetic fields caused by energy traveling from right to left rotate in the opposite direction through the ferrite and have very little effect on the amount of electron wobble. In this case the fields attempt to push the electrons in the direction opposite the natural wobble and no large movements occur. Since no overall energy exchange takes place, energy traveling from right to left is affected very little.

Microwave Antennas
1. Horn Antenna Not practical at low frequencies because of size Can be E-plane, H-plane, pyramidal or conical Moderate gain, about 20 dBi Common as feed antennas for dishes Types of Horn Antenna a. Sectoral Horn flaring the waveguide in only one direction.

b. Pyramidal Horn Flared in both dimensions.

c. Conical Horn Most appropriate with circular waveguide.

Gain = = 7.5 2 4 2

where: dE = E-plane dH = H-plane k = constant derived from how uniformly the phase and amplitude of the electromagnetic fields are distributed across the aperture A = aperture of horn
Beamwidth = 80 70

56

where: B = beamwidth W = width of horn (m) H = H-plane beamwidth E = E-plane beamwidth dH = H-plane aperture dE = E-plane aperture
Aperture Area the area of the rectangle formed by opening of the horn Flare Angle typically about 20 to 60 Beamwidth the angle formed by extending lines from the center of the antenna response curve to the 3-dB-down points. Horn Antennas are usually employed in conjunction with parabolic reflectors. Parabolic Reflectors A large dish-shaped structure made of metal and screen mesh. Collimate EM waves into a narrow beam of energy.

Gain of Parabolic Reflector = 6 Beamwidth of Parabolic Reflector = 80

2

Parabolic Reflector Feed Arrangements a. Horn Feed

b. Cassegrain Feeds

2. Helical Antenna Made up of six to eight turns of heavy wire or tubing to form a coil or helix.

15 3

where: G = gain (in ratio) N = number of turns in the helix S = turn spacing in meters D = diameter of the helix in meters = wavelength in meters
Beamwidth 52

3. Patch Antenna Consists of a thin metallic patch placed a small fraction of a wavelength above a conducting ground plane separated by a dielectric.

4. Slot Antenna

Microwave Devices
Transmission lines for microwave signals that are constructed on the PCB.

1. Microstrip a flat conductor separated from a large conducting ground plane by an insulating dielectric.

2. Stripline a flat conductor sandwiched between two ground planes.

Circulators and Isolators Uses ferrites in their operation Isolator a device that allows a signal to pass in only one direction. Circulator a very useful device that allows the separation of signals.

Microwave Solid State Devices Problems on Conventional Solid State Devices on Microwave 1. Exhibits stray inductance and capacitance 2. Transit time

1. Point-Contact Diode Oldest microwave semiconductor A piece of semiconductor device and a fine wire (made of tungsten) which makes contact with semiconductor material. Has an extremely low capacitance Ideal for low-signal applications and are widely used in microwave mixers and detectors Extremely delicate and cannot withstand high power

2. Schottky or hot-carrier diodes Extremely small and has a tiny junction capacitance Has low bias threshold voltage

3. Varactor Diode Familiar from its lower frequency use as a means of providing a capacitance that can be changed by varying the voltage that reverse biases the diode.

4. Step-Recovery or Snap-Off Varactor At forward bias, it conducts as any diode, but a charge is stored in the depletion region. At reverse bias, charge keeps the diode on momentarily. Then suddenly turns off abruptly. Produces an extremely high intensity reverse current pulse.

5. Gunn Diode Also known as Transferred-Electron Device (TED) One of the simpler transit-time devices. Exhibits a negative resistance characteristics

6. Tunnel Diode Produces a narrow range of negative resistance when forward-biased Used to produce low-power microwave oscillation

7. IMPATT Diode Impact Avalanche and Transit Time Four-layer PN junction device Operates in reverse-breakdown region

8. TRAPATT Diode Trapped Plasma avalanche triggered transit Time Operate on higher power rating

9. Yttrium Iron Garnet Device A type of ferrite YIG sphere can be used in place of a resonant cavity as a microwave resonant circuit. Microwave Tubes 1. Magnetron The oldest microwave tube design

High power, fixed-frequency oscillations, but noted for stability or ease of modulation but simple, rugged, and relatively efficient. Commonly used in radar transmitters, where they can generate peak power levels in the megawatt range. Consists of a circular anode into which has been machined an even number of resonant cavities

In the center of the anode, called the interaction chamber, is a circular cathode that emits electrons when heated.

Cyclotron Frequency The rate at which electrons move around the cathode. Slow-Wave Structure The circular arrangement of resonant cavities that require for the movement of the wave around the tube at a rate much slower than the speed of light. Pulsed Magnetron used in radar system CW Magnetron used in heating purposes in microwave ovens. 2. Klystron A microwave tube using cavity resonators to provide velocity modulation of the electron beam and produce amplification Preferred tube for high-power, high-stability amplification of signals at frequencies from UHF to about 30GHz. Commonly found on UHF TV transmitters Velocity Modulation the speeding up and slowing down of the electron beam. Buncher Cavity the input cavity that produces bunches of electrons. Catcher Cavity cavity closer to the collector on which the output signal is taken. Types of Klystron 1. Reflex Klystron 2. Multicavity Klystron

3. Travelling-Wave Tube One of the most versatile microwave RF power amplifiers Has an extremely wide bandwidth of operation Has the ability to generate hundreds and even thousands of watts of microwave power. Not resonant at a single frequency Consists of a cathode, an anode, a filament heater, collector plate and helix Also produces velocity modulation which produce density modulation Used as power amplifiers in satellite transponder.

Helix coil which provides a path for the RF signal that will slow down its propagation