5D01PHY ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS

Module 3 :HEAT AND RADIATION

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Syllabus Heat : Transmission of heatheat in buildingsheat balance in animals and plantsheat engines thermal power stationsgeothermal powersolar water heatersradiatione m spectrum transmission , absorption and reflection-black bodybiological effects of nonionizing radiation remote sensing. ___________________________________________________________________ Heat Heat is a form of energy. It can be converted into other forms of energy. Heat is measured in the unit joule (J) Heat is a measure of the thermal energy of vibrating molecules. The hotter a substance is, the more its molecules vibrate. Transmission of heat Heat can be transmitted by three distinct processes: convection, conduction or radiation. Convection is the movement of liquids and gases brought about by changes in temperature affecting density and creating currents. It is distinct from other heat transfer methods, as it relies on physical movement of warm material. So it can only take place in fluids Convection is important in climatology, as convection currents are the root cause of ocean currents and winds. Convection currents exist within the Earth implicated in the production of the Earths magnetic field Conduction is the movement of heat through a substance, by exchange of thermal energy between neighboring atoms, which can occur in solids, liquids and gases.

5D01PHY ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS

Conduction of heat is analogous to a stream flowing downhill. In the case of heat, the amount conducted depends on the temperature gradient, the size of the conductor, and the conductivity of the material.

Heat flow via conduction is given by

Q=k

A(T2 T1 ) l

Q Heat conducted per second K - conductivity of the material A - Area

l-

length

Tl and T2 - the temperatures on each side

When an atom is heated it vibrates more strongly, passing energy to the neighboring atoms, making them vibrate too. Thus the materials with highest conductivities are those where molecules are close together, i.e. solids rather than gases. Conduction is the only means of heat transfer in solids. Metals are good conductors, while materials such as plastics or wood are poor conductors Conduction is a relatively slow process, compared with convection or radiation. Radiation is the transfer of heat energy via electromagnetic (infra-red) waves. Heat radiations are emitted from every object, as long as it is at a temperature above absolute zero.

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U value The amount of heat lost per unit area of substance is called its U value. It depends on conductivity. If conductivity is large U-value is also large. For building materials used, U- value is large for concrete and brick and low for glass.

Heat in buildings A building in equilibrium must have a heat balance. The energy input from the heating system (Q in), Sundry gains (Q sundry) and Solar Gains (Q solar) is equal to the output via the fabric of the building (Q U) and the ventilation (QV).

Q in + Q sundry +Q solar = Q U + QV
Q in Q sundry The energy input, from the heating system Sundry or incidental heat gains are the energy gains from heat lost by appliances, lights, people and other energy using equipments in the building. Q solar QU QV
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Heat input from the Sun The amount of heat lost through all componentswalls, doors, windows, roof and floors. Heat lost in the ventilation of air

They can be large, especially in buildings such as theatres with a high occupancy, or office blocks with a lot of electrical equipment such as computers, copiers and so on. In a well insulated modern office, these sundry gains can be sufficient to provide all the heat needed for the building Dependent on building design, heat from the Sun incident on windows can significantly increase the heating. This also provides cooling through ventilation.
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Heat Balance in Animals and Plants Heat budgets in animals and plants are a key factor in their evolution. Fur and feathers provide insulation, while sweating, panting and water/mud baths can be used for cooling. The colour of an animals coat or skin determines heat gains from solar radiation, and also radiative heat losses as these depend on emissivity and absorptivity . Plants too need to stay within a viable temperature range, both for survival and to maximise photo-synthesis. Their foliage size and shape may reflect this need in different climates. A heat budget can be calculated for an animal, or for a plant, similar to that for a building. The heat balance equation averaged per unit surface area, has the form R + M = C + E + G R is net radiative heat gain, M is metabolic heat gain, C is convective heat loss, E is latent heat loss and G is loss of heat by conduction to the environment. G is generally negligible, with the exception of underwater organisms. Any animal has evolved to thrive under certain environmental conditions, and will survive over a range of conditions close to its optimum. This range is known as the organisms climate space or environmental niche. Humans go one step further in temperature control by using clothes and buildings, greatly increasing our ability to adapt to different climates, which was probably a major factor in the spread of the human race across the world. The human climate space now includes anything found on the planet, as we can adapt the environment to suit ourselves rather than the other way around.

5D01PHY ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS

Engines The conversion from heat into useful mechanical energy is performed by a heat engine. Heat engines are of two types: (i) Internal combustion engine: In this combustion is taking place inside the working cylinder Eg: Petrol engine, Diesel Engine (ii) External combustion engine : In this combustion is taking place outside the working cylinder Eg: Steam engine, Stirling engine

The main difference between a petrol engine and diesel engine is there is no spark plug in a diesel engine.

Thermal Power Station In a thermal power station, we make use of steam turbines to convert from heat into mechanical energy. The turbine rotates a magnet in a magnetic field to produce electricity. Heat from combustion of the fuel or from the nuclear reactor is used to heat water to steam.

Geothermal Power Geothermal power is the use of heat from the subterranean regions of the Earth (under the Earths surface), either to generate electricity or to use directly as heat.
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5D01PHY ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSICS

There are two alternative geothermal technologiesuse of aquifers, or use of Hot Dry Rock (HDR). Almost all existing geothermal uses heat from aquifers (aquifer is a layer of rock or soil, able to hold water)These deep, high temperature water sources, usually consisting of brine and hence highly corrosive and noxious. Hot Dry Rock (HDR) technology does not rely on the existence of an aquifer. An HDR plant first drills down to 57 km depth, then fractures the rock by a series of controlled explosions. Cold water is then pumped down to permeate the hot rocks, and hot water extracted for power production. This presents more technical difficulties than using an aquifer, and is more expensive, but allows a wider range of sites to be used. Once the hot water or steam is brought to the surface, in either case it can be converted to electricity through a modified steam turbine. The brine in aquifers can contain many contaminants as it comes from so deep down, including arsenic, mercury and other heavy metals. This problem is minimised by reinjection of the cooled brine into the aquifer. Geothermal plants have also been associated with subsidence, and create noise, steam and visual impact from pipelines. Geothermal energy is not renewable, as the temperature of the aquifer or rock used will gradually decline as heat is extracted.

Solar Water Heater A solar water heater consists of a series of pipes, coloured black, encased in an insulated box with a glass top. The module is positioned facing the sun at an angle equal to the latitude to maximise solar irradiance. The pipes are
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incorporated into a metal sheet to increase their absorption, similar to a domestic radiator. The glass allows light to enter but helps prevent loss of infra-red radiation, while selective coatings on the glass improve efficiency further. In the simplest systems, a hot water tank is built into the top of the heater. Hot water rises by convection to the tank, drawing cooler water through the heating element