People to Know: 6.

Elizabeth Toth conducted the velvet

1.
2. Hendrix author in course reader
3. Glen Broom famous for pr role,
found that just because a person is
accustomed in a technician role
they’d be good in managerial role?
4. David Dozier famous for pr role
5. Martha Lauzen, sdsu professor
famous for studies of
emproachment that deals with
situation when a pr function is
taking over by marketing function
guetto studies in the mid 80’s of
statistical documentation of
salaries, equities and roles in pr
7. Carolyn Cline conducted the velvet
ghetto studies in the mid 80’s of
statistical documentation of
salaries, equities and roles in pr
8. Linda Aldoory author of the
feminization of the field
9. Bey-Ling Sha = teaches our PR
class

1. Rochelle Ford, associate dean, found that most African American

population were communicating with AA clients or publics but not due
to pigeon-holed (because that’s what they wanted to do)
10.Scott Cutlip
11.Allen Center
Concepts to Review:
1. Why we need theory in public relations
• Set a foundation to understand what is involved in public
relations
• Learn the ethics of the business
• Informs of how things should be done

2. Definitions of public relations

• “Public relations is the function that establishes and maintains
mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and
the publics on whom its success or failure depends” (Cutlip,
Center & Broom, 2006, p.5)

3. Difference between public relations and marketing

• Public Relations
○ Focus on customer needs and wants
○ Based on compromise and trust
○ Focus on organizational publics
○ Broader mandate responsible for all state holders, not just
customers
• Marketing
○ Element of exchange
○ $ For a good or service
○ Focus on customers’ past, current and future

4. Parts of the PR function and how they differ

• Internal relations: based within the employee communication
function
• Publicity: uncontrolled messages that are earned, not free
• Advertising: controlled messages that are paid for
• Press agentry: creating newsworthy news out of nothing i.e.
celebrity gossip
• Public affairs:
○ Relationship between organizations and the government
i.e. lobbying
○ Government itself engages in practice
• Lobbying: to persuade, to influence political decisions and
legislative process i.e. congress and state assembly
• Issues management: preventing communication and
management crisis tied to environmental scanning
• Investor relations: communicating and building relations with
stock holders
• Development: building resources for organizations, usually non-
 profit

5. Recommended contents of PR educational programs

• Theory and principles
• Ethics and law
• Research
• Planning and management
• Writing and production

6. Professional associations*
• PRSA
• IPRA
• IABC
• CERP
7. Characteristics of a profession
• Specialized educational preparation
• Body of Knowledge
• Community Recognition
• Individual Accountability
• Established codes of ethics or standards of performance

8. The professional status of PR

• Specialized educational preparation to acquire unique knowledge
and skills
• A body of theory-based knowledge, developed through research,
that provides us with principles of appropriate public relations
practice
• Code of ethics and standards of performance established and
enforced by a self-governing association of colleagues
• Autonomy in practice and acceptance of personal responsibility
by practitioners
• Recognition by the community of a unique and essential service

9. Academic and trade publications in PR

• Trade Publications
○ PR Tactics (comes out once a month) entry level
professionals – has tips
○ PR Strategists (quarterly) geared towards managers, 10 or
more years experience
○ PR Week (weekly) industry gossip magazine, news of our
business.
• Academic Publications
○ Journal of Public Relations Research, primer research in our
 field
○ PR Review, a publication more academic in nature but
read by practitioners to know the cutting research done in
the field
○ PR Journal, an online only publication and designed to be
useful for educators and professionals about research

10.How the body of knowledge gets produced in academic publications

• Do the research (collecting information)
• Write the paper (writing the report)
• Present it at a conference (builds the reputation of the program)
• Actually getting it published (it goes through a double blind
review, don’t know who wrote it and don’t know who edited it),
preserves rigor and standards of the academic process.

11.Definition of organizational publics?

• Define group of special collection of organizational stake holders
○ Stake holders: have interest in organization but not
necessarily has a piece of the organization (not stock
holders). They are people who can be effected by the
organization

12.Where PR practitioners work, including names & locations of major

firms
• The largest PRSA chapter is located in Washington D.C.
○ PR practitioners: 40% corporate sector, the rest public
relation agencies
○ Major firms:
 •Burson-Marsteller
 •Shandwick (UK)
 •Hill & Knowlton
 •Fleishman-Hillard
 •Porter Novelli
 •Edelman (family owned operated)
 •Ketchum
• All but Shandwick, originated in the U.S.
•
13.Effects of feminization on the field of public relations?

14.Liberal vs. radical feminism

• Liberal: work within the confines in society to change yourself,
individualistic change)
• Radical feminism: society to change (laws, policies, change the
system)
15.Work assignments in PR
• Writing and editing #1
○ Newsletters, correspondence, website, annual reports
• Media relations
○ Contacting news, magazines, trade publications
organizations with intent of publishing
• Research
○ Gather information about public opinion, trends, political
and media coverage, surveys
• Management and administration
○ Determine needs, establish priorities, set goals and
objectives, develop strategy and tactics, administer
program budget, schedule and personnel
• Counseling
○ Advise management on social, political and regulatory
environments, consult on how to avoid and response to
crisis, devise strategies for managing sensitive issues
• Special events to plan
○ Arrange and manage news conferences, conventions, fund
raising, open houses, ribbon cuttings, grand openings, i.e.
middle management job
• Speaking
○ Coaching for speaking assignments, managing speakers
bureau to provide platform for organization before
important audiences
• Production
○ Create multi-media presentations
• Training
○ Prep executives, spokesperson to deal with media, public
appearances and introduce changes to an organizational
culture
• Contact or liaison work
○ Communication with media, community, internal and
external groups plus negotiate and manage conflict with
stakeholders

16.Public relations roles

• Communication technician
○ Entry-level position that does writing, liaison work.
• Communication facilitator:
○ Generates dialogue across the organization
• Expert Prescriber:
○ Brought in from the outside, analyses situation and
 prescribes a solution
• Problem solving facilitator:
○ Generate dialogue, to solve specific problems within the
organization

17.Mean & median

• Mean (Average): 30-32K
• Median (Middle): 6 figures?

18.Glass ceiling effect: what it is and how to overcome it

• A situation were women are not promoted
○ Why? Family, children
○ Decrease salary in the field because most women are
technicians
• Plan and select employer carefully

19.Challenges faced by minority practitioners

• Pigeon-holing: restricted to working with a small group, when you
like to work with others
• Tokenism: when companies hired minorities to make it diverse
• Intragroup heterogeneity: the diversity that exists within a group
of same people?
• Cultural interpretation: when a single individual is suppose to
interpret the culture for everybody else
• Traitor: traitor by their own people, stuck between American and
Latin American world

20.Characteristics for success in PR

• Results: get reputation for getting things done
• Conceptualizing: quick study, good listener, through note taker,
focus on client needs
• Human Relations: be a team player, balance personal goals with
the organizations
• Style: a can-do attitude
• Intangibles: charisma, presence and motive, know what the boss
expects of you
• Other: understand how the business works, skills in computer
software and news media, be informed, ability to deal with
frustration and stress, #1 ability to write
21.Organizational image vs. reputation
• Image: the picture of the organization, is the image people have
in mind
○ Difficult to change
 • Reputation: grounded in the actions of its top leadership
○ Leadership can change representatives but not image

22.Staff function vs. line function

• Line Function: the parts of the organization that have to be there
for the organization to exist
○ Engineering
○ Production
○ Marketing
• Staff function: to support and enhance line function
○ Finance
○ Legal
○ Human resources
○ Public relations
 Legal and PR becoming line function

23.Dominant coalition and why PR is often excluded from it

• Dominant coalition makes the final decisions regarding anything
in the organization and have control over organizational
resources
○ How do you get in?
 Work your way up, something concrete you bring to
the table
• Why PR is often excluded?
○ Very little evidence of how we contribute to the
organizations bottom line, characteristics of the
practitioner

24.Advantages and disadvantages of internal PR departments and of

outside PR counsel
• Internal Advantages:
○ Knowledge
○ Funding
○ Connections/Support
○ Convenience
• Internal Disadvantages:
○ Objectivity
○ Distracted w/outside work
○ Organizational politics
• External PR Advantages:
○ Relatively more objective, neutral
○ Level of expertise
○ Knowledge of programs
• External PR Disadvantages:
 ○ Not as familiar with the organization

25.Conflicts between PR and other departments

• Marketing: the constituency is broader
• Legal Counsel: Legal says no comment, while PR needs to speak
out
• Human Resources/Personnel: both want ownership of employee
communication
• IT: content of the organizational website

26.Areas of specialization for PR firms

• Fashion
• Beauty
• Technology
• Sports
• Entertainment
• Agriculture

27.Reasons to hire outside PR counsel

• Management has not previously conducted a formal public
relations program and lacks experience in organizing one
• Headquarters may be located far from communications and
financial centers
• The firm has a wide range of up to date contacts
• An outside firm can provide the services of experienced
executives and creative specialists who would be unwilling to
move to other cities or whose salaries a single organization could
not afford
• An organization with its own public relations department may
need highly specialized services that it cannot or does not need
on full time, continuous basis
• Crucial policy matters require the independent judgment of an
outsider

28.How firm-client relationships begin

• Client calls for help
• RFPs (request for proposal)
• Networking (Senior PR reps)
• Expansion of client base (Satisfaction = Rehire)

29.Elements of PR proposal to potential client

• Cover Letter
• RPIE
 • GoalPOST
• TASC

30.Types of working relationships between firms and clients

• Advise only
• Advise and assist in execution i.e. hire intern
• Advise and undertake full execution i.e. internal department

31.Billing of firm services and what goes into the cost for the client
• Billing:
○ Monthly retainer: pay them x amount for unlimited service,
on-call
○ Minimum retainer: certain amount x for 20 hours, if over
your charge hourly
○ Straight hourly charges: entry $50-75, senior $100 and
above
○ Fixed fee for entire project: most common for clients
• Cost:
○ Overhead: the amount of money it costs to lease office,
janitor, desks
○ Cost for work: intern
○ Cost for supervision: manager
○ Reasonable profit

32.Eight steps in the scientific research process

• Select topic
• Review literature
• State H or RQ
• Design study
• Collect data
• Analyze data
• Presentation
• Replication

33. Primary vs. secondary research
• Primary: involves the collection of data that does not already exist. This can be 
through numerous forms, including questionnaires and telephone interviews 
amongst others
• Secondary: involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research 

34. RQ vs. H
• Research Question: a question that cannot be answered by a yes
 or no
○ Unsure of the answer
• Hypothesis: a clear statement
○ The answer is definitive

35.Survey vs. questionnaire

• Survey: the entire process of collecting data
• Questionnaire: the instrument used to collect the date i.e. online
survey

36.Sample vs. population

• Sample: one that is representative of a group or class
• Population: the entire and complete collection of individuals under consideration, 
from which a sample may be taken

37. Instrument validity vs. instrument reliability
• Instrument Validity: accuracy of the measurement
• Instrument Reliability: consistency of results

38.External vs. internal validity

• External validity: the extent which the findings from your sample
can be generalized of the population
• Internal validity: the extent to which your study really
investigates what you think your studying

39.) Formal Research vs. Informal Research:

Look at #45

40.) Qualitative Method: words

Quantitative Methods: numbers

41.) Strategic Method: research in the beginning that helps you

develop your strategies and tactics
Evaluative Method: research you do to see if you’ve made your goal

42.) what is researched in public relations

• The client / organization
• The public
• The issue

43.) Excuses for not conducting research in PR

• Lack of knowledge / skill
 ○ People don’t know the knowledge or skill to do things
properly
• Lack of time / money
○ People either don’t have the money or they don’t want to
spend the money or time to do research
 If the research isn’t done, you can target the wrong
publics/wrong goals
• View that research is not necessary
○ Sometimes practitioners work for companies/firms that
don’t require search when it’s needed

44.) Methods of data collection

Primary Research: do it yourself, collect and analyze information
yourself
Informal:
Formal: research that is more rigorous, where you collect info
from samples that are representative of their population
Second Research: you use someone else’s research. When someone
already collected info and analyzed it and you’re reading their findings

45.) Advantages of each type of data collection:

Disadvantages of each type of data collection:
Informal = a bad sample and not representative, not
generalizable to the population. Not everyone gets a chance to
have an equal say in things.
– personal contacts = people you know
– key informants = similar to person contacts, have
important decision making positions
– focus groups / community forums = whoever you invite
/ whoever wants to go
– advisory boards / committees = same as focus groups
– ombuds officer = a neutral person that mediates
conflict, mediates conflict outside the media channels
an informal neutral mediator of conflict
○ they deal wit ha lot of issues and might be able to
see a lot of patterns in issues
○ to find out what’s been going on
– call-in phone lines
– mail analysis / email analysis = looking at volume of
stuff that’s been coming in, it’s the only people that
really care. They’re usually the upset people
– online sources
– field reports
Formal = research is more rigorous, where you collect info from
samples that are representative of their population. (a
 representative sample, a statistically random sample – like how
everyone in the SDSU population has an equal or calculable
chance of being selected for our sample)
– secondary analysis of data = considered to a form of
primary research, but where someone else has collected
data and you analyze the information
– content analysis = counting the occurrences of
something, if some properly – it’s formal research
○ IE: students on the minority portrayls in PR, found
minorities were hardly ever mentioned.
○ Like studying violence of TV, you have to know
what to study (specify) what constitutes violence
– Surveys = can be formal or informal, depending on how
the sample is drawn
○ mailed / self-administered
○ face-to-face / interviewer administered
○ telephone interviews (CATI and IVR)
○ on-line

46.) Types of Focus Group Questions

• Detailed questions
• Answers “why” or “how”
• Focus group “protocol”
○ Gives framework to the discussion
○ Keeps moderator on the topic
○ Allows for flexibility / discovery of new ideas
 You don’t have to stick to the list of questions
• Protocol question types
○ Main questions = general questions
○ Probes = probing for deeper, broader more nuance
complicated information – an elaboration or explaining
questions
○ Follow-ups = you have to come up with on the spot
 In protocols, a list of main questions and probe
questions with each main one

47.) Types of Focus Group Participants

 Active = the ones we want, people are engaged
 Shy = shy and you want to have the moderator call on them and
ask them to participate
 Know-it-all = think they know everything and want to show it off
 Over-talker =
 Obnoxious = don’t care about the group / project
 ○ For the last 3 types of people, you may need a secret
bouncer and then get information from them through one-
on-one interviews

48.) 4-Step process of public relations management (RPIE)

• Research
○ Client/Org
○ Publics(all)
○ Issue/opportunities/problem
○ Conduct SWOT analysis
 Strengths (internal to org.)
 Weaknesses (internal to org.)
 Opportunities (external to org.)
 Threats (external to org.)
○ Write problem statement
 Statement of issue the org. faces
• Present tense
• Don’t guess
• Problem cannot be “communication”
• Planning
○ Goal statement
 connected to problem statement
 positive reiteration of problem statement
○ GoalPOST
 Goal (broadly defined)
 Publics
 Objectives (narrowly defined)
• Must target specific public
• Must have specific outcome
○ changes in:
 knowledge
 attitude-cannot be changed unless
supported by knowledge
 behavior-cannot be changed unless
supported by the right attitude
• Must be measurable
• Must have deadline

 Strategy
• How you accomplish objective (broadly
worded)
○ 3 types of communication strategies
 Action
• action vs. comm. Strategy
 ○ Action-internal change
(i.e. Hire more alumni
officers)
○ Strategy-external
change(targeted at
changing public)
 Message Delivery
• How are we going to get the
message to them?(how will
we do it)
 Message contents
• What are we going to tell
them? (key message)
 Tactics
• Concrete executions of your strategy
• Implementation
○ TASC
 Tasks
• Diff between tactics and task: tasks are step-
by-step to execute tactic
 Amount of money
 Schedule (related to deadline)
 Coordinator
• Evaluation
○ Takes place at 3 levels
 Preparation (evaluating research)
 Implementation (evaluating strategies and tactics)
• Issue-people evaluate implementation and
think they have impact
 Impact (evaluating objectives, outcomes and goals)
• Most important Level of evaluation

49.) Planning and Programming (GoalPOST)

- Look at previous answer.

50.) Goals: goals are broadly defined

Objectives: objectives are narrowly defined

51.) Four Components of Proper Objectives

• Must target specific public
• Must have specific outcome
○ changes in:
 knowledge
 attitude-cannot be changed unless supported by
 knowledge
 behavior-cannot be changed unless supported by the
right attitude
• Must be measurable (raise something by X %, a specific number)
• Must have deadline

52.) Strategy: how you accomplish your objective; like one-on-on

contact
Tactics: concrete execution of your strategy

53.) Implementation (TASC)

• Tasks: what you need to do in order to execute the tactics. Step
by step things you do to execute your tasks
○ Diff between tactics and task: tasks are step-by-step to
execute tactic
• Amount of money, need real world quotes that your client would
need to spend. Amount has to be real.
• Schedule (related to deadline and objective). Each time lined up
in what would be done and who would be doing it
• Coordinator

54.) Communication:
Action Strategies:
• Action-internal change (i.e. Hire more alumni officers)
• Strategy-external change(targeted at changing public)

55.) Main themes of supplementary readings:

56.) Law: something you have to do (rules that bind society together)
Is it illegal to lie? It depends on the situation.
Ethics: what you should do (a personal action), if it’s not necessary
legal. More personal action.

57.) Sources of US Law:

Legislative: congress – house & senate
Makes the laws
Executive = President, VP, and all Cabinet members
Sometimes they have issue executive orders which has the same
effect as laws
Judicial – the Supreme Court

58.) Legal foundation for PR:

• 1st amendment (b/c PR speaks on behalf of orgs.)
○ Freedom of speech, mostly political and freedom speech
 ○ Freedom of the press, the gov can’t control the press
○ Freedom of assembly, right to get together & some
countries don’t allow women to congregate in public
○ Freedom of petition
○ Freedom from the regress from grievances, if someone has
wronged you, you can have that righted. You have the
freedom to sue someone.

59.) Political speech: involves politics, any kind of government or

government official
• Example: an article in Time magazine that claimed that Obama is
Ruining Their Marriage
○ Deals with a political figure or government
Commercial speech: speech involves commerce (stuff you sell)
• Example: a commercial on TV – any type of advertisement
○ Legal term for advertising
○ Any type of speech in the act of commerce
• THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SPEECHES AND
THESE ARE PROTECTED FORMS OF SPEECH.

60.) Virginia State Board:

• Extended 1st amendment freedom of speech from individual to
organizations
○ 2 conditions
 Speech in question must be accurate and truthful
 Cannot be regarding an illegal activity (selling child
on craigslist)

61.) Federal agencies with regulatory power over advertising:

• Federal communications commission-regulates public airwaves
• US food and Drug administration
• Securities and exchange commission-regulates financial markets
• Us postal service

62.) Bank of Boston v. Bellotti

• Ruled 1st amendment protects political speech regardless of who
it is (did not say corporate rights where equal to individual but
did have rights)

63.) Taft-Hartley Act

• Regulates corporate political expression
○ Restricts amount of money corps can give to candidate for
federal office
 ○ To level playing field and create transparency
• Regulates labor-management relations
○ Mgrs cannot prevent people from joining or forming union.
Union leaders must negotiate in good faith and keep
what’s best for EE’s in mind

64.) Rules of lobbying

• Register with secretary of senate and clerk of the house within
45 days
• Report own and clients info
• File good faith estimates 2x yr of money paid and spent

65.) “Grassroot” Lobbying

• No registration required
• Done by citizens as individuals, rather than by organized
interests OR
• Done by org. interests using public opinion to sway legislators
rather than direct contact with lawmakers
○ These are the kinds of people who go around asking you to
sign a petition in the mall
○ People who sign a petition or writing a letter personally to a
congressperson

66.) FARA (Foreign Agents Registration Act):

• Register with US attorney General’s office within 10 days
• File twice yrly reports
FOIA (Freedom of Information Act):
• Americans have right to know what exec. Branch of gov. is
doing
E-FOIA (Electronic Freedom of Information Act):
• when possible should be released electronically

67.) Exemptions to FOIA

• Classified national defense and foreign relations info
• Internal agency rules and practices
• Info prohibited from disclosure by law
• Trade secrets and other confidential business info
• Interagency or intra-agency comm. Protected by legal privilege
• Info involving someone’s personal privacy
• Certain info compiled for law enforcement purposes
• Info relating to the supervision or financial institutions
• Geological info on wells
• Info related to national security and ultra-sensitive law
 enforcement matters

68.) New York Times v. Sullivan

• Balances people’s rights to not be liable with peoples freedom of
political speech (not being sued by public figures or gov. for
saying something slanderous)

69.) Getz v. Welch

• Defined 3 types of legal people (stated public figures are people
who invite attention and comments and thus voluntarily expose
themselves to an increased risk of public scrutiny)
○ Public officials
○ Public figures
○ Private figures

70.) Legal categories of persons

• Public officials
○ Elected to office
○ Appointed
○ Serve in public interest position (president, secretaries of
state etc)
• Public figures
○ People who live life in the public eye and benefit from it (
 Celebrities, how they conduct themselves matter
 Ex-presidents
 President’s family members
• Private figures – normal people (people just on the street)
• The standards for libel are much higher for public officials, public
officials have to work harder to successfully sue people for libel.
They have to work harder and prove more. Today, more people
are beginning to move up from private figures to public figures
(like Jon & Kate Plus Eight) and it makes it harder for them to sue
people for defamation.

71.) Conditions for defenses against defamation, libel, & slander

• Conditions (additive-must prove all)
○ Defamation-intentional, false communication that injures
another’s reputation or good name
○ Identification-identify person by name or inference
○ Publication/Dissemination-must be witnessed (in person or
through publication) – It is known to a third party.
○ Fault -actual malice for public officials: knowing to be true
or reckless disregard for truth; negligence for private
figures
  How 3 legal categories of persons come in
 A mistake was made
 Standard for fault is different for private figures than
for public figures
• Private: prove negligence
• Public: they need to prove actual malice
(saying something knowing it to be true or for
disregard for the truth, determined in courts.
○ Falsity (applies only to public officials and figures)-must
prove statement is false
○ Damage-monetary harm:
 Compensatory damages – compensating for
monetary loss
• no compensatory damage, can’t sue for
punitive damage
 Punitive damages-emotional distress
• Defense (outside courtroom)
○ Summary Judgment-judge throws case out for lack of
evidence
○ Statutes of Limitations-limited time a plaintiff can bring a
lawsuit (1-3 yrs depending on state libel statute)
• Defense (inside courtroom)
○ Truth
○ Privilege-(“don’t shoot the messenger” defense)-protects
magazines and newspapers when making fair/accurate
reports for public proceedings
○ Fair comment (applied only to public officials and figures)-
 For limited purpose public officials (i.e. Teachers)-fair
comment only applies to the realm of the office/work.

72.) Types of privacy violations

• Intrusion-how the information was gathered
• Public Disclosure-embarrassing private facts about the person
• False Light-showing people in a way that is not how they really
are (making a situation appear to be what it was not)
• Appropriation-using name or likeness for own benefit

73.) defenses against claims of privacy violations

• Newsworthiness
• Consent-written agreement between parties
• Model Release-permission slips to use someone’s image in the
media

74.) Various disclosure rules that affect financial

 • Securities Act of 1933
○ Restricts corporate communication before and during the
period that new securities offerings are being registered
• Securities Exchange Act of 1934
○ Corporate annual reports have to be accurate
• Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995 (“Safe-Harbor”)
○ Companies have to educate people that stock market
returns are not guaranteed

75.) Noncompete clauses

• Employment contract clause to restrict your opportunities away
from another employer to protect your current employer
• Must meet 3 tests
○ Must be reasonable, no broader than necessary to protect
legitimate business interests, without placing undue
restrictions on an EE’s ability to earn a living
○ Must be supported by some monetary consideration, such
as offer of employment, raise, or promotion or continuing
employment
○ Must protect only the employer’s legitimate business
interests, such as unique product or services, trade secrets,
and goodwill

76.) Model Releases

• Permission slips to use someone’s image in the media

77.) Copyright
• Legal principle: if you create something you have the right to
benefit from it
• Can only copy right expression of an idea (not just having the
idea)
○ Literary works
○ Musical works
○ Dramatic works
○ Pantomimes & choreographic works
○ Pictorial graphic & sculptural works
○ Motion pictures & other audiovisual works
○ Sound recordings
○ Architectural works created after 1990