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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT The system most commonly used for the denition of units of measurement, for example of distance

and angle, is the Systme Internationale, abbreviated to SI. The basic units of prime interest are: Length in metres(m) From which we have: 1m = 103 millimetres(mm) 1m = 103 kilometres(km) Thus a distance measured to the nearest millimeter would be written as, say, 142.356m. Similarly for areas we have: 1m2 = 106 mm2 104 m2 = 1 hectare(ha) 106 m2 = 1 squarekilometre(km2) And for volumes- m3 and mm3. There are three systems used for plane angles, namely the sexagesimal, the centesimal and radians (arcunits). The sexagesimal units are used in many parts of the world, including the UK, and measure angles in degrees(), minutes()and seconds()of arc, i.e. 1 = 60 1= 60 And an angle is written as, say, 125 4635. The centesimal system is quite common in Europe and measures angles in gons(g),i.e. 1gon = 100 cgon(centigon) 1cgon = 10 mgon(milligon) A radian is that angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc on the circumference equal in length to the radius of the circle, i.e. 2 rad = 360= 400gon Significant Figures The record of any measurement is done by using a number that includes all the digits those are known reliably plus one digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus the one uncertain digit are known as significant figures or significant digits of the measurement. Significant figures indicate the precision of any measurement and thus it depends on the least count of the measuring device. For example, if a distance is measured with scale having least count in millimeter (mm), a length of 20.6 centimeter (cm) has three significant figures 2, 0 and 6. The digit 2, 0 are certain while the digit 6 is uncertain. Thus, 20.6 cm means the length is 20.60 cm 0.5 mm (0.05 cm) i.e., it lies between 20.55 cm and 20.65 cm.

Determination of Significant Figures Rules and conventions: All non-zero digits in a number are significant. Example: Numbers 0.0000216, 0.0216, 21.6 and 216 have the same number of significant figures namely three (2, 1, 6). All zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the decimal point is, if at all. Example: In the numbers 0.0000206, 0.0206, 20.6 and 206, the zero lying between the digits 2 and 6 is only significant. If the number is less than 1, the zeroes on the right of decimal point but to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant. Example: In 0.0000206, the four zeros after decimal and before the digit 2 has no significance. Similarly, in 0.0206, the zero after decimal and before the digit 2 has no significance. So the number of significant figures of these numbers are three (2, 0 and 6). The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are significant depending on accuracy of measurement. Example : In 2360 m, the terminal zero has no significance, if the accuracy of measurement is 10 m then the number of significant figures of this number is three (2, 3 and 6). If the accuracy of measurement is 1 m, the terminal zero is significant figures of this same number will be four (i.e. 2, 3, 6 & 0). The digit 0 conventionally put on the left of a decimal for a number less than 1 is never significant. However, the zeros at the end of such number are significant in a measurement. Example: The number 0.120 has three significant numbers. The zero before the decimal point is not significant. The terminal or trailing zeros in a number with a decimal point are significant. Example: In 23.60 m, the terminal zero has significance, so the number of significant figures in this number is four (2, 3, 6 and 0). NOTE There can be some confusion regarding the trailing zeros. Suppose, a length is recorded as 4.700 m. It is evident that the zeros here are meant to convey the precision of measurement and are, therefore, significant. Now, suppose the unit of the number is changed, i.e., 4.700 m = 470.0 cm = 4700 mm Since the last number has trailing zeros in a number with no decimal, it can be concluded erroneously that the number has two significant figures, while in fact it has four significant figures. To overcome such ambiguities in determining the number of significant figures, measurements are to be reported in

scientific notation. In this notation, Every number is expressed as a x 10b where a is a number between 1 and 10, and b is any positive or negative exponent of 10. It is often customary to write the decimal after the first digit. The significant number of the base represents the significant number of the measurement. Thus, 4.700 m = 4.700 x 102cm = 4.700 x 103 mm = 4.700 x 10-3 km Each number in this case has four significant figures. Thus, a choice of change of different units does not change the number of significant digits or figures in a measurement. Rounding off Numbers The dropping of the excess digits in any number is being carried out by rounding off numbers to the appropriate significant figures. The rules for rounding off numbers are as follows: The preceding digit is raised by 1 if the last insignificant digit to be dropped is more than 5 and left unchanged if the latter is less than 5. For example (i) 4.796 becomes 4.80 (ii) 8.512 becomes 8.51. If the digit to be dropped is 5, the preceding digit should be nearest even number. For example (i) 4.745 (after rounding off to three significant digits) becomes 4.74 (ii) 4.735 (after rounding off to three significant digits) becomes 4.74. Rounding off and Significant Figures in Arithmetic Operations The arithmetic calculation involving observed/measured quantities should be such that the resulted quantity cannot be more precise than the original observed/measured values. Thus, the final result should not have more significant figures than the original data from which it has been derived. In order to achieve such result, following rules for arithmetic operations are required to be followed: In addition or subtraction, the final result should be rounded off in such a way as to retain as many decimal places as are there in the original number with the least decimal places. In multiplication or division, the final result should be rounded off in such a way as to retain as many significant figures as there are in the original number with the least significant figures. For example (i) 6.7153 x 4.67 = 31.360451 = 31.4 (Rounded off to three significant figures) (ii) (86.85 x 104)2 = 7542.9225 x 108 = 754.3 x 109 (Rounded off to four significant figures) (iii)
. .

= 186.499 = 186 (Rounded off to three significant figures)

Error in Measurement In case of repeated observation of any parameter, usually it has been found to have variations, however small, in the resulting measurement. Moreover, there is nothing definite in the amount of variation i.e., variations are random in nature. Thus, a measurement usually differs from its true value . The difference between a measured and its true value is called the measurement error. Thus, if x is a given measurement and x t is the true value, then the error e is given by e=x-xt error = measured value true value. If an estimated value of xt is usually known and is denoted by x1. Then, an estimate of error for a measurement value x of the parameter is obtained as e1 = x - x1 However, correction is the term more popularly being used to define the magnitude of error but opposite in sign. Thus, rearranging the error relation, correction = (-e1) = x1 - x or, correction = (estimated / designated) true value - measured value. Sources of Errors in Measurement Depending on sources of origin, errors in measurements fall into three classes. They are Natural Errors: These are caused due to variations in nature i.e., variations in wind, temperature, humidity, refraction, gravity and magnetic field of the earth. Instrumental Errors: These result from imperfection in the construction or maladjustment of surveying instruments. Personal Errors: These arise from limitations of the human senses of sight, touch and hearing

Types of errors Errors has been classified into three types. I. Gross Error Gross errors, also known as blunders or mistakes, are results from carelessness, inattention, or poor judgement of the surveyor.The blunders or mistakes result into large errors and thus can easily be detected by comparing with other types of errors (generally small in value). If any error deviates from the mean by more than the maximum permissible error, it is considered as a gross error and the measurement is rejected. After mistakes have been detected and eliminated from the measurements, the remaining errors are usually classified either as systematic or random error depending on the characteristics of errors.

II.

III.

Systematic Error Systematic errors follow some well defined mathematical or physical law or system. These errors follow a definite pattern. Thus, if an experiment is repeated, under the same conditions, same pattern of systematic errors reoccur. These errors are dependent on the observer, the instrument used, and on the physical environment of the experiment. Systematic errors are dealt with mathematically using functional relationships or models. The magnitude and sign of systematic errors can be determined and a suitable correction can be applied to the measured quantity. Random Error After mistakes are eliminated and systematic errors are corrected, a survey measurement is associated with random error only. Random errors are unpredictable and they cannot be evaluated or quantified exactly. The random errors are characterized by following points Small errors occur more frequently than large ones. Positive and negative errors are equally likely to occur Very large errors seldom occurs

Accuracy and Precision A discrepancy is the difference between to observed values of the same quantity. A small discrepancy indicates there are probably no mistakes and random errors are small. Precision refers to the degree of refinement or consistency of a group of observations, and is evaluated on the basis of discrepancy size. If multiple observations are made of the same quantity and small discrepancies result, this indicates high precision. The degree of precision attainable is dependent on equipment sensitivity and observer skill. Accuracy denotes the absolute nearness of observed quantities to their true values Methods of Linear Measurement The following methods are generally employed for linear measurements i. ii. iii. iv. By Pacing: For rough and speedy work, distances are measured by pacing ie by counting the number of walking steps of man. By Passometer: This is a small instrument which is used for counting the number of steps automatically by some mechanical device. By Perambulator: It is a wheel fitted with a fork and a handle. The wheel is graduated and shows a distance per revolution. There is a dial which records the number of revolutions. By Chaining: This is an accurate and common method of measuring distance. In this method, the distances are directly measured in the field by chain or tape.

Ranging When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a straight line is required to be laid between the points/ stations along which measurements are to be carried out. The process of laying out a straight line between points is known as ranging. Direct Ranging When the end stations are inter visible, ranging is being carried out directly. The intermediate points are placed at distances having interval less than one tape length. The intermediate points are found by moving a ranging pole in transverse direction and thus, points

are selected in such a way that the end points and the intermediate points lie in a straight line. In this method, two flags, one ranging pole and a bunch of pegs are required in a team of at least one surveyor and one assistant. Indirect Ranging or Reciprocal Ranging When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not inter visible, indirect method of ranging is being adopted. Error in linear distance measurements The length of a tape is standardized at certain temperature and pull to amend distance be measured in horizontal along a plane surface. But ideal condition is hardly obtained during field observation. Thus, it is usual that the observations taken in the field are fraught with errors. These are of various types depending on the origin and nature. These are required to be determined and necessary corrections are to be applied before making use of the measurements for further works. i. Correction for Standard Length

The designated (nominal) length of a tape, as stated by the manufacturer, rarely equals to the true distance. The difference between the true distance and the designated length is known as error due to standard length (of tape). Thus, the correction for absolute length of tape, Cd = true length nominal length ii. Correction for Slope

Let s represents the slope distance between two points A and B, h be the difference in elevation and H the horizontal distance between the points, all in the same units. Let q be the slope of the terrain. Then, the horizontal distance is H = s cos q or H = ( s2 - h2 )1/2 iii. Correction for Temperature

If the temperature of standardization is T0 degree and measurements are taken at a temperature of T degree, there is an error in length of the tape, due to difference in standarised temperature and temperature during observation. The corresponding correction Ct is given by C t = a L (T- T0) where a is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of the tape and L is the measured distance. If a tape is standardized at a tension of Po and measurements are taken at a tension of P, the correction Cp for change in length per distance L due to difference in standardized pull and actual pull during observation is given by where a is the cross sectional area of the tape and E is modulus of elasticity of the material of the tape.

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